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Advancing science with collaborative
innovation
Proceedings of the II International Scientific and Practical Conference
22-23 May 2025
Seoul. South Korea
2025
UDC 001.1
BBC 1
II international scientific conference. “Advancing science with collaborative innova-
tion”. Seoul. South Korea. May 22-23. 2025. 160 p.
ISBN 978-92-44514-55-9
DOI https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.15538278
Publisher: «World of Conferences»
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Editor: Tarmo Vesik
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Gunel THE STUDY OF ENERGY AND GEOMETRIC PARAMETERS OF THE DIPEPTIDE MOL-
ECULE // Advancing science with collaborative innovation. Proceedings of the II Inter-
national Scientific and Practical Conference. Seoul. South Korea. 2025. Pp. 12-16.
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Content
Agricultural sciences
M.R. Musayeva, S.N. Novruzova, S.R. Musayeva, T.N. Hajiyeva
STUDY OF AVERAGE BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OVER 3 YEARS OF THE BREEDS STORED IN THE GENEPOOL
OF THE SILKWORM
5
Economic sciences
Akhmedov Latayibkhon Mamitkhonovich
STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF EQUITY ACCOUNTING IN JOINT STOCK COMPANIES IN
ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING STANDARDS
10
Căldăraru (ILIESCU) Alina Cristina
STRATEGIC CAPITAL MANAGEMENT AND SURPLUS ALLOCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS: BRIDGING FINANCIAL
DISCIPLINE AND EDUCATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY
12
Fail R. Imanov, Fevzi O. Sarkhan
SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING AND RISK MANAGEMENT IN BANKS: AN OVERLOOKED CONNECTION
17
Alibiyeva Dana Altaykyzy
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE OF UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF INCOME AND PROPERTY
21
Arzu Ismayilova, Shabnam Huseynzade, Kanan Adilzade, Zeynab Farhadli, Shafika Khalilova,
Aynur Rasim Nematli
THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS IN HEALTHCARE
25
Korabayev Beibit Sybanbayevich
ASSESSMENT OF THE RELIABILITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN COAL COMPANIES OF KA-
ZAKHSTAN: THE AUDIT ASPECT
27
Geological and mineralogical sciences
Maia Apkhazava
MINERAGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF GHARTA PORPHYRY ORE DEPOSIT (Achara-Trialeti, Georgia)
32
Nijat Yarov
MAIN CAUSES AND GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL SALINIZATION IN THE MUGHAN PLAIN
39
Nijat Yarov
THE ROLE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN PREVENTING SOIL SALINIZATION IN THE MUGHAN PLAIN
43
Historical sciences
Mammadova Shalala Arif
HEYDAR ALİYEV - THE LEADER WHO LİVES İN THE HEARTS OF THE PEOPLE
46
Jurisprudence
Kurenbayev Nazar Maratovich
LEGAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF USING OPERATIVE-SEARCH ACTIVITY IN KAZAKHSTAN
48
Tahmina Najafova
THE PLACE AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM
52
Olena Osipova
IS IT CONSTITUTIONAL TO LIMIT PROSECUTORS’ PENSIONS?
55
Medical sciences
Arman Khozhayev, Arailym Tulendi, Aruzhan Kenges, Zhansaya Bodaubekova, Lazzat Begaidarova,
Nazerke Zhanusbay, Aidana Temirtas, Gulbanu Kabulova, Zukhra Khassanova, Akmaral Kalmet,
Nurila Mahambaeva
OVARIAN CANCER: CONTEMPORARY STATE OF THE PROBLEM
57
Pedagogical sciences
Eleni Anastasopoulou
TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY: THE EVOLUTION OF ICT USE IN GREECE’S PRIMARY EDUCATION
68
M.J. Kaimollina
THE PECULIARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE «I» CONCEPT OF RURAL SCHOOL GRADUATES
STUDYING AT A TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGE
74
Turebayev Bakytzhan Orazbayevich, Tagiltseva Alexandra Vladimirovna
APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO MASTER FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IN ESL LEARNING
78
Dinasilova Altynai Olzhaskyzy, Golovchun A.A.
TASK-BASED FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING SPEAKING AT THE BASIC STAGE OF SECONDARY SCHOOL
87
Konstantynova Tetiana
AS TO THE PROBLEM OF VOCABULARY ACCUMULATION WHILE TEACHING PROFESSIONAL FOREIGN LAN-
GUAGE TO MARITIME HIGHER EDUCATION APPLICANTS OF NAVIGATIONAL DEPARTMENT
91
Samedov Kamran Enver oglu
THE PECULIARITIES OF WORK OF GENERAL SCHOOL WITH DIFFICULT TEENAGERS
94
Philological sciences
Mammadli Mehpara Mahir
LEARNING LANGUAGES IN DIFFERENT WAYS
99
Hamidova Tovus Arshad
THE EVOLUTION AND GLOBAL IMPACT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
101
Physical sciences
Zholaman Ayan Sagyntaiuly
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A COMPOSITE WIND TURBINE MAST
103
Political sciences
Haitbayeva Shaira Kadyrovna, Garlyev Bayram Muradovich, Kadyrov Ilyas
THE ROLE OF TURKMENISTAN'S NEUTRALITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC DIPLOMACY
109
Technical sciences
Huseynov I.A., Abbasov T.M.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOMATİC CONTROL SYSTEM FOR THE STABİLİZATİON UNİT OF A CATALYTİC
REFORMİNG PLANT
112
Mahammad Orujov
INFORMATION-ANALYTICAL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE FOR EXPERT EVALUATION OF STUDENT BEHAVIOR IN
DISTANCE LEARNING
118
Nail I. Mammadov, Kifayat A. Mammadova
IMPACT OF DATA AUGMENTATION ON OBJECT RECOGNITION IN NEURAL NETWORKS
123
Samandarov Erkaboy
APPLYING THE DEEP KNOWLEDGE TRACKING MODEL IN THE EDUCATION PROCESS
128
Uskenbayeva Gulzhan, Shukirova Aliya, Kulniyazova Korlan, Tasanbaev Salimzhan, Mukhamedrahimova Ardak
CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CATALYTIC REFORMING OF OIL REFINING PROCESSES
131
Gachechiladze Lia, Samkharadze Roman, Giorgi Giorgadze, Anri Abdushelishvili
MODELING THE SCHEDULING OF MAGNETIC DISK OPERATIONS USING A VN NETWORK
137
Sevinj R. Mustafayeva, Konul A. Nabiyeva, Bahar H. Asgarova, Bahar H. Asgarova, Lale I. Sadigli,
Vugar H. Abdullayev, Arzu S. Mammadova
APPLICATION OF SQL AND DATA ANALYSIS IN INFORMATION SECURITY
144
Lipskyi Sergii
ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC TOE ANGLE ADJUSTMENT METHODS AND ASSESSMENT OF THEIR IMPACT ON
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF M1 CATEGORY VEHICLES
151
Ganiyeva Sachli Abdulkhag, Jabiyeva Telli Elshad
CONCEPT OF VISIBILITY ANALYSIS, COMPUTER METHODS AND CONTROL METHOD
154
N.N. Fazylov, D.M. Yeskendirova
DEVELOPMENT AND ENHANCEMENT OF CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR INDUSTRIAL AUTONOMOUS ROBOTIC
PLATFORMS
159
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
5
Agricultural sciences
UOT: 638.22
STUDY OF AVERAGE BIOLOGICAL INDICATORS OVER 3 YEARS OF THE BREEDS
STORED IN THE GENEPOOL OF THE SILKWORM
M.R. Musayeva
Doctor of philosophy in veterinary medicine
S.N. Novruzova
Senior Teacher,
Azerbaijan State Agrarian University
S.R. Musayeva
Senior Researcher
T.N. Hajiyeva
Senior Researcher,
Scientific Research Institute of Animal Husbandry
Abstract
The live collection of the silkworm gene pool plays a significant practical role in the creation of new
breeds. In addition to preserving the silkworm gene pool, it must also be enriched so that breeders can fully
benefit from it.
In the reporting year, spring feeding was conducted for 62 breeds, both local and foreign, biological
indicators were determined, and seed material was prepared for the following year.
Keywords: silkworm, breed, collection, gene pool, enrichment, cocoon, biological indicators
İntroduction. The preservation of the gene pool is a significant global issue, whether it concerns hu-
mans, animals, or plants. How to protect, maintain, and pass on genetic resources to future generations remains
a constant challenge. Various countries have adopted decisions and decrees to protect and preserve genetic
resources. A decree in this regard was signed by our national leader, H.A.Aliyev. The primary goal of this
decree was to ensure the protection of the animal and plant gene pool in the Republic of Azerbaijan and to
carry out scientific and purposeful work in the creation of new breeds and varieties.
The preservation of the country’s gene pool (in both animal husbandry and agriculture) is a significant
and responsible task. The relevant ministries, organizations, and institutions of the Republic are entrusted with
critical and essential duties regarding the maintenance of the gene pool.
The preservation of the silkworm gene pool and the use of selection work in creating new silkworm
breeds, along with the improvement of the existing breeds, remains a primary focus [1].
The study of biotechnological indicators of silkworm breeds from different origins stored in the gene
pool, as well as the improvement of these indicators, is considered a scientific innovation. Its practical signif-
icance lies in the preservation of the gene pool and its use in breeding [2, 3].
Materials and methods of the research: In the spring season of the current year, after the disinfection
of the breeding house [4,5], the larvae of the local breeds from the gene pool were incubated and revived. They
were fed according to the agro-technical standards accepted in our country.
To determine the revival of the larvae of the breeds, 3 samples, each containing 200 larvae, were placed
in incubation. On the third day of the mass revival, the non-revived larvae were counted.
1 repetition – 200 silkworms.
43 local breeds – 43 × 200 = 8,600 silkworms.
Total: 8600 (silkworms were fed).
For the purpose of studying biological indicators, from each of the 43 strains, 25 female and 25 male
silkworms were selected in a single replicate. Initially, the silkworms were weighed, followed by the weighing
of the silk cocoon shells using an electronic scale. Subsequently, the average weight of the live silkworms and
the silk cocoon shells was calculated, and the silk yield was determined based on these measurements. The
objective of the scientific research is to preserve local silkworm strains in their pure form within the gene pool
and to enhance their biotechnological indicators. To achieve these goals, the following tasks are undertaken:
1. Preparation for feeding: This involves selecting appropriate mulberry leaves, preparing them
for feeding, and ensuring they meet the nutritional requirements of the silkworms.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
6
2. Cleaning and disinfection of rearing houses: Prior to each rearing cycle, all surfaces and
equipment are thoroughly cleaned and disinfected to prevent the spread of diseases. Common disinfectants
include bleaching powder and chlorine dioxide, applied according to standard procedures.
3. Spring feeding: Silkworms are fed during the spring season, following established protocols
to ensure optimal growth and development. This includes maintaining appropriate temperature and humidity
levels in the rearing environment.
4. Preparation of seed material for the following year: Eggs are collected from the reared
silkworms, processed, and stored under controlled conditions to ensure high-quality seed material for the sub-
sequent rearing cycle
Research object - The research subject comprises 43 local silkworm strains maintained in the live col-
lection of the Scientific Research Institute of Animal Husbandry.
The research was conducted in the silkworm rearing facilities located at the Scientific Research Insti-
tute of Animal Husbandry (SRIAH), under the standard agrozootechnical conditions accepted in the national
silkworm breeding program.
Discussion of results. As noted in the methodology section, the Scientific Research Institute of Animal
Husbandry (SRIAH) Silkworm Breeding Laboratory currently maintains a genofond of 62 strains, comprising
43 local and 19 foreign strains. These strains are incubated under uniform conditions in the same room, adher-
ing to the agrozootechnical guidelines recommended for silkworm breeding in Azerbaijan (1975). Each strain
was tested in three replicates, with 200 larvae per replicate, to determine survival rates and biological indica-
tors. Survival rate
Survival rates were monitored from the third instar by recording the number of diseased and dead larvae
and pupae. The feeding period was determined by noting the dates of feeding initiation, the start of spinning,
and the completion of spinning.
Biological indicators
For the biological analysis, 25 female and 25 male silkworms were selected from each of 32 strains in a
single replicate. The total weight of the silkworms and their cocoons was measured using an electronic balance.
Based on these measurements, the average weight of the live silkworms and their cocoons, as well as the silk
yield, were calculated.
Cocoon weight
Cocoon weight is a critical characteristic when evaluating raw materials. The weight of a single cocoon
is influenced by silkworm species, rearing season, and harvest conditions. Pure breeds range from 2.2 to 1.5
g, while hybrid breeds weigh from 2.5 to 1.8 g. In nature, the weight of a fresh cocoon does not remain constant
but continues diminishing until the pupa transforms into a moth and emerges from the cocoon. This weight
loss occurs gradually as moisture evaporates from the body of the pupa and as fat is consumed during the
metamorphosis process.
Silk yield
The most significant commercial feature of cocoons is weight, as this index signals the approximate
quantity of raw silk that can be reeled. The weight of the silk shell is the most consequential factor, as this
measure forecasts raw silk yield. Uni and bivoltine species produce heavier shell weights than multivoltine
species.
Conclusion
These findings contribute to the ongoing efforts to preserve and improve the local silkworm strains,
enhancing their productivity and adaptability in Azerbaijan's silkworm breeding programs.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
7
Table 1
Main indicators of local breeds (3-year average)
S/s
Breed name
Year 2021
Year 2022
Year 2023 il
3-year average
The av-
erage
mass of
a live
silk-
worm. g
Silkiness
of live
silkworms
, %
Average
mass of
live silk-
worm, g
Silk con-
tent of
live silk-
worm, %
Average
mass of
live silk-
worm, g
Silk yield
of live
silkworm,
%
Average
mass of
live silk-
worm, g
Silk con-
tent of
live silk-
worm, %
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
1
Agbaramalı-1
1,00
22,0
1,80
23.3
1,84
16,5
1,54
20,6
2
Sultan
1,23
19,4
1,55
21,9
1,80
18,7
1,52
20,0
3
Azerbaijan
1,20
19,2
1,88
20,6
1,84
19,0
1,64
19,6
4
Azad
1,20
19,1
1,55
20,6
1,90
19,7
1,55
19,8
5
Aran
1,19
18,9
1,93
25,3
1,85
17,8
1,65
20,6
6
Ganja- 2
1,21
19,2
1,67
17,9
1,78
19,7
1,55
18,9
7
Ganja-3
1,18
19,3
1,71
19,3
1,83
18,0
1,57
18,8
8
AzNİİŞ-1
1,20
19,2
1,90
23,9
1,84
20,1
1,64
21,0
9
Rahimli 1
1,19
18,9
1,90
20,8
1,84
19,5
1,64
19,7
10
Rahimli 2
1,20
18,7
1,92
20,9
1,80
19,8
1,64
19,8
11
Rahimli 4
1,23
19,4
1,67
24,5
2,2
19,5
1,70
21,1
12
Yashar
1,21
19,4
1,92
21,8
1,92
19,0
1,68
20,0
13
Ganja- 6
1,18
19,3
1,99
23,1
1,90
20,1
1,69
20,8
14
Ganja- 7
1,19
18,9
1,67
19,7
1,85
19,7
1,57
19,4
15
Ganja- 8
1,25
18,6
1,79
18,3
1,83
19,6
1,62
18,8
16
Zafar
1,35
20,0
1,88
21,8
1,80
19,8
1,67
20,5
17
Chinar
1,70
18,7
1,75
21,7
1,70
16,8
1,71
19,0
18
Murov
1,25
18,6
1.55
20,0
1,70
17,2
1,50
18,6
19
Koshkar
1,21
19,2
1,87
24,6
1,73
17,5
1,60
20,4
20
Mayak 1
1,22
19,4
1,52
22,4
1,67
18,0
1,47
19,9
21
Mayak 2
1,20
18,7
1.96
22,4
1,70
20,1
1,62
20,4
22
Mayak 3
2,24
19,2
1,83
21,8
1,67
18,6
1,91
19,8
23
Mayak 4
1,17
19,1
1,93
16,6
1,72
16,5
1,60
17,4
24
Bəxtiyar
1,35
20,0
1,07
18,7
2,03
18,7
1,48
19,1
25
Mayak 6
1,38
20,3
1,59
22,6
1,73
19,0
1,56
20,6
26
Karabağ
1,25
19,2
1,06
20,8
2,0
19,7
1,43
19,9
27
Vatan
1,20
18,7
1,81
18,9
1,83
17,8
1,61
18,4
28
Gabala
1,15
19,2
1,53
17,0
2,0
19,7
1,56
18,6
29
Sangar
1,19
18,9
1,67
24,5
1,88
18,0
1,58
20,4
30
Kafkazh
1,24
19,2
1,84
23,4
1,85
20,1
1,64
20,9
31
Namazlı-2
1,22
19,4
1,64
24,3
1,89
19,5
1,58
21,0
32
Namazlı-3
1,29
19,4
1,59
23,6
2,03
19,8
1,63
20,9
33
Ugur
1,17
19,1
1,73
24,8
1,93
19,5
1,61
21,1
34
Xayal
1,20
18,7
1,88
23,0
2,35
19,0
1,81
20,2
2-year average indicators
35
Ordubad -1
-
-
1,65
24,5
1,84
20,1
1,74
22,3
36
Ordubad- 2
-
-
1,74
25,0
2,35
19,7
2,04
22,3
37
ŞZEM-4
-
-
1,61
23,6
2,4
19,6
2,00
21,6
38
GE-143
-
-
1,71
24,5
1,94
19,8
1,82
22,1
39
GE-143x
ŞZEM-4
-
-
1,83
20,7
1,84
20,2
1,83
20,4
40
ŞZEM-4xGE-
143
-
-
1,89
21,6
1,89
17,2
1,89
19,4
41
Chingiz
-
-
1,78
18,5
1,78
19,2
1,78
18,8
42
Mugan -1
-
-
2,05
23,4
2,05
21,0
2,05
22,2
43
Mugan -2
-
-
2,00
23,7
2,0
18,0
2,00
20,8
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
8
Table 2
Main indicators of foreign breeds (3-year average)
S/s
Breed name
Year 2021
Year 2022
Year 2023
3-year average
The aver-
age mass
of a live
silkworm,
g
The silki-
ness of a
live silk-
worm, %
The aver-
age mass
of a live
silkworm,
g
The silk
yield of a
live silk-
worm, %
The aver-
age mass
of a live
silkworm,
g
The silki-
ness of a
live silk-
worm, %
The aver-
age mass
of a live
silkworm,
g
The silk
content of
a live silk-
worm, %
1
Oro
1,10
20,5
1,07
25,3
1,07
19,8
1,08
21,8
2
Sicuan
1,00
22,0
1,09
16,8
1,09
15,8
1,06
18,2
3
Polivoltin 09
1,22
19,4
1,04
16,9
1,04
13,6
1,10
16,6
4
Japan green
1,10
20,5
1,06
20,8
1,06
14,9
1,07
18,7
5
Asloli
1,17
19,1
1,09
16,8
1,09
11,5
1,10
15,8
6
Sferico
1,20
19,2
1,04
16,9
1,04
12,5
1,09
16,2
7
Gulustan2
1,21
19,2
1,71
21,8
1,71
16,3
1,54
19,1
8
Ukrainea 1
1,30
20,0
1,87
24,6
1,87
18,3
1,68
20,9
9
Plovdiv20
1,21
19,2
1,80
16,1
1,80
14,9
1,60
16,7
10
Vratsa 2003
1,38
20,3
1,89
20,7
1,89
12,9
1,72
17,9
11
Vratsa 2007
1,26
18,2
1,90
18,9
1,90
12,9
1,68
16,6
12
Vratsa 2012
1,29
19,4
1,63
25,1
1,63
13,2
1,51
19,2
13
Vratsa 35/2
1,25
20,0
1,77
23,2
1,77
19,4
1,59
20,8
14
Hesa2/1
1,29
19,4
1,69
18,3
1,69
21,2
1,55
19,6
15
Mizuri1
1,21
19,2
1,94
21,2
1,94
22,3
1,69
20,9
16
Mizuri2
1,17
19,1
1.67
22,7
1.67
17,6
1,50
19,8
17
Mizuri3
1,25
18,6
1,86
23,7
1,86
20,3
1,65
20,8
18
Mizuri4
1,21
19,2
1,73
21,3
1,73
21,0
1,55
20,5
19
Mizuri5
1,18
19,3
1,80
25,5
1,80
20,1
1,59
21,6
Among the 62 breeds, the best breeds are selected based on 3-year average indicators and it is recom-
mended for use in future selection and breeding work.
Since the four breeds listed in Table 3 (sequence numbers 40-43) were included in the gene pool in
2022, the indicators for these breeds are given as a 2-year average. As can be seen from the numbers, the
indicators of the Ordubad-1, Ordubad-2, Muğan-1, and Muğan-2 breeds were higher than the others. Taking
all of this into account, these breeds, along with others, are currently being used in selection work.
As a conclusion of the scientific research work, it can be stated that the 3-year results of 62 breeds were
studied for important indicators in sericulture. From those results, breeds with higher indicators from both local
and foreign breeds have been selected and are presented in the table below. Table 3.
Local and foreign breeds with the highest average indicators
S/s
Breed names
The average mass of a live silkworm, q
The average mass of a live silkworm, q
Local breeds for 2 years
1
Ordubad -1
1,74
22,3
2
Ordubad- 2
2,04
22,3
3
Muqan-1
2,05
22,2
4
Muqan-2
2,00
20,8
5
ŞZEM-4
2,00
21,6
Foreign breeds for 3 years
6
Ukraine-1
1,68
20,9
7
Vratsa 35/2
1,59
20,8
8
Mizuri-1
1,69
20,9
9
Mizuri-3
1,65
20,8
10
Mizuri-5
1,59
21,6
As seen from the table, the average weight of live cocoons in local breeds ranges between 1.61 and 2.05
grams. The silk content of live cocoons varies between 19.8% and 22.3%.
In foreign breeds, these indicators ranged from 1.59 to 1.69 grams and from 20.8% to 21.6%, respec-
tively. Given their consistently superior performance compared to other breeds over the years, the use of these
breeds in selection and breeding programs is deemed appropriate. Based on the analysis of our scientific re-
search, it can be concluded that preserving both local and foreign breeds—those suitable for use as initial
genetic material in the development of new breeds—in the gene pool of the Sericulture Research Institute of
the National Academy of Sciences (SRISS) is advisable.
Obtained results
1. The biological and productivity indicators of the cocoons were calculated;
2. Seed material for each breed was prepared for the following year;
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
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3. Diseased lines were eliminated;
4. Until the end of the estivation period, the seeds were stored in accordance with the instructions,
following the proper temperature and humidity regime, and then placed in refrigeration for the hibernation
period.
References
1. Mammadov Q.M., Hasanova E.M., Tagiyeva Sh.T., Nabiyeva N.M. The Effect of Different Temper-
ature and Relative Humidity on the Biological and Productivity Indicators of Mulberry Silkworm Breeds and
Hybrids. // Scientific Bulletin of the Azerbaijan Scientific Research Institute of Sericulture, Ganja, 2010, pp.
55–65.
2. Q.M. Mammadov, A.Y. Mammadova, S.R. Musayeva, R.I. Mammadov, K.A. Savadova. Main Bio-
logical Indicators of Local Mulberry Silkworm Breeds in the Institute's Gene Pool. // Scientific Bulletin of the
Azerbaijan Sericulture Research Institute (manuscript).
3. N.M. Hasanov, S.K. Gojayeva, V.R. Aliyeva. Main Biological Indicators of Mulberry Silkworm
Breeds Preserved in the Gene Pool of the Sericulture Institute. // Scientific Works of AzSRISI, 2012, Vol.
XIX, pp. 50–55.
4. Hajiyeva T.N. – Disinfection in Sericulture // Proceedings of the Conference "Fundamentals of Nat-
ural Sciences of the Republic", AEM, International Scientific Journal "Nature and Science", High Impact Fac-
tor: 1.524, November 20, Baku-2021, pp. 46–49.
5. R.R. Huseynova, S.R. Musayeva – The Influence of Medicinal Preparations on Pebrine in Mulberry
Silkworms. Article. “Russian Science in the Modern World.”
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
10
Economic sciences
STRATEGIC DIRECTIONS FOR THE ENHANCEMENT OF EQUITY ACCOUNTING IN JOINT
STOCK COMPANIES IN ACCORDANCE WITH INTERNATIONAL FINANCIAL REPORTING
STANDARDS
Akhmedov Latayibkhon Mamitkhonovich
Acting Associate Professor, Department of Digital Economy and Financial Technologies at UMFT
Abstract
This article examines the methodological and regulatory aspects of accounting for equity in joint stock
companies, with a focus on aligning national practices with International Financial Reporting Standards
(IFRS). Emphasis is placed on the classification, measurement, and disclosure of equity components such as
share capital, retained earnings, and other comprehensive income.
Keywords: Equity accounting; joint stock companies; IFRS; IAS 1; IAS 32; shareholders' equity; fi-
nancial reporting.
In the context of growing global economic integration and the expansion of international capital markets,
the reliability and transparency of financial reporting have become essential prerequisites for sustainable cor-
porate development and investor confidence. Among the critical elements of financial statements, equity or
shareholders' equity serves as a core indicator of a company's financial stability, risk-bearing capacity, and
long-term solvency. In joint stock companies (JSCs), where capital is raised through the issuance of shares and
widely held by institutional and individual investors, the accurate and standardized accounting of equity is not
only a matter of compliance but also a strategic imperative for maintaining corporate governance and market
integrity.
The increasing convergence of national accounting frameworks with International Financial Reporting
Standards (IFRS) reflects the global shift towards harmonization, comparability, and consistency in financial
reporting. However, in many transitioning economies, including Uzbekistan, the adaptation and implementa-
tion of IFRS in the accounting of equity within joint stock companies remain fragmented and underdeveloped.
Legacy accounting practices, inconsistent application of equity classification rules, and limited institutional
capacity continue to hinder full alignment with international best practices.
The accounting for equity under IFRS encompasses a wide range of components including share capital,
additional paid-in capital, retained earnings, revaluation reserves, treasury shares, and other comprehensive
income which must be measured, classified, and disclosed in a manner that reflects the substance over form
principle. Moreover, IFRS places a strong emphasis on the distinction between equity and financial liabilities,
particularly in cases involving hybrid instruments, puttable shares, and share-based payment transactions. The
misclassification or inadequate recognition of these elements may distort financial statements and mislead
stakeholders.
In the context of joint stock companies in Uzbekistan, the challenges are further exacerbated by outdated
regulatory norms, insufficient professional training in IFRS application, and a lack of integrated digital infra-
structure to support automated and standardized accounting processes. Although recent reforms in corporate
legislation and financial reporting regulations aim to promote better transparency and investor protection, there
remains a pressing need for a systemic approach to improving equity accounting in line with global standards.
The conceptual underpinnings of equity accounting are rooted in the accounting equation Assets = Lia-
bilities + Equity. According to the IFRS Conceptual Framework (IASB, 2018), equity is defined as the residual
interest in the assets of the entity after deducting all liabilities. This conceptualization emphasizes equity as a
claim on the net assets of an entity, which directly impacts the classification and measurement of financial
instruments.
Schroeder et al. (2022) argue that equity is not merely a balancing figure but represents a complex
aggregation of various capital components that reflect the financial structure and strategic decisions of the
firm. They highlight that modern accounting must distinguish between contributed equity and earned equity,
as this distinction provides insights into corporate profitability and shareholder returns.
IFRS provides detailed guidance on the treatment of equity through several standards, including IAS 1
Presentation of Financial Statements, IAS 32 Financial Instruments: Presentation, and IFRS 2 Share-based
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
11
Payment. IAS 32, in particular, is critical for distinguishing between equity and financial liabilities, especially
in the context of puttable instruments and compound financial instruments.
A study by Deloitte (2020) reveals that many entities face challenges in applying IAS 32 due to the
complexity of hybrid instruments and inconsistencies in national accounting interpretations. Moreover, equity
classification under IFRS demands strict adherence to substance-over-form principles, which often conflicts
with legal-form-based treatments in national legislation.
Several studies have compared national equity accounting practices with IFRS requirements. Nobes and
Parker (2020) conducted a cross-country analysis demonstrating significant divergence in equity classification,
particularly in transition economies. They noted that in many post-Soviet countries, including Uzbekistan,
historical reliance on tax-driven and legalistic accounting standards impedes the full implementation of IFRS.
Similarly, Alfaraih and Alanezi (2011) explored IFRS adoption in Gulf countries and highlighted a lag
in equity-related disclosures due to weak regulatory enforcement and lack of IFRS expertise. In contrast, Eu-
ropean countries under the EU IFRS mandate showed better compliance, albeit with variations in interpreta-
tion. The research has highlighted that the effective accounting of equity in joint stock companies (JSCs) is
essential for ensuring transparency, comparability, and alignment with international investment standards.
Based on the analysis of IFRS requirements, global practices, and the current challenges faced by JSCs in
Uzbekistan, several strategic recommendations can be proposed to improve the existing system. First, national
regulatory authorities should accelerate the harmonization of equity-related accounting regulations with IFRS,
particularly IAS 32 and IAS 1, ensuring that definitions and classification criteria are clearly aligned to avoid
misstatements. Second, targeted capacity-building programs should be introduced for chief accountants, inter-
nal auditors, and financial analysts within JSCs, with a special focus on the treatment of share-based payments,
hybrid equity instruments, and disclosure obligations. Third, the implementation of a centralized digital re-
porting platform integrated with IFRS-compliant chart of accounts should be prioritized to reduce manual
errors and enable real-time regulatory oversight. Fourth, a phased approach should be adopted for shifting from
legal-form accounting to substance-over-form principles, supported by regulatory guidance notes, industry-
specific templates, and transition toolkits. Lastly, audit oversight bodies must be empowered to monitor com-
pliance and issue binding interpretations in case of disputes on equity classification and measurement.
In conclusion, improving the accounting of equity in joint stock companies on the basis of international
standards is not merely a technical upgrade, but a foundational requirement for strengthening corporate gov-
ernance, fostering investor confidence, and integrating Uzbekistan’s capital market into the global financial
system. The study confirms that a strategic combination of regulatory reform, professional training, techno-
logical modernization, and institutional accountability is needed to ensure high-quality financial reporting. If
implemented systematically, these recommendations will facilitate the creation of a robust and transparent
financial ecosystem that supports long-term economic development and the sustainable growth of joint stock
enterprises in the country.
References
1. IASB (International Accounting Standards Board). (2018). Conceptual Framework for Financial
Reporting. London: IFRS Foundation.
2. Schroeder, R. G., Clark, M. W., & Cathey, J. M. (2022). Financial Accounting Theory and Analysis:
Text and Cases (14th ed.). Wiley.
3. IAS 1 – Presentation of Financial Statements. International Accounting Standards Board.
4. IAS 32 – Financial Instruments: Presentation. International Accounting Standards Board.
5. IFRS 2 – Share-based Payment. International Accounting Standards Board.
6. Deloitte. (2020). IAS 32 – Financial Instruments: Presentation: Key challenges and interpretation
issues. Deloitte IFRS in Focus.
7. Nobes, C., & Parker, R. (2020). Comparative International Accounting (14th ed.). Pearson
Education.
8. Alfaraih, M., & Alanezi, F. (2011). Does voluntary adoption of IFRS improve the value relevance of
accounting information? The case of Kuwait. International Journal of Accounting and Financial Reporting,
1(1), 1–20.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
12
STRATEGIC CAPITAL MANAGEMENT AND SURPLUS ALLOCATION IN PUBLIC SCHOOLS:
BRIDGING FINANCIAL DISCIPLINE AND EDUCATIONAL SUSTAINABILITY
Căldăraru (ILIESCU) Alina Cristina
Ph.D.
Bucharest University of Economic Studies, Bucharest, Romania
Abstract
Strategic capital management in the pre-university public education sector plays a vital role in sustaining
long-term institutional development and aligning financial operations with pedagogical priorities. While reg-
ulatory reforms in various countries have promoted accrual-based accounting and transparent financial report-
ing, the actual capacity of schools to manage capital assets, reinvest surpluses, and build reserves remains
uneven. This study investigates how public schools conceptualize and operationalize financial sustainability
through capital management practices.
Based on a combination of institutional case analysis and thematic literature review, the findings high-
light both structural limitations and potential avenues for improving surplus management, such as staff train-
ing, digital tools integration, and alignment between financial outcomes and school-level strategic planning.
The paper contributes to the debate on how public education systems can enhance accountability and
resilience through more proactive use of their financial results, emphasizing the need for financial autonomy
mechanisms that go beyond formal compliance. It also identifies cross-country evidence on the role of capital
reinvestment in fostering equitable resource distribution and institutional performance in education.
Keywords: capital management, public education, surplus allocation, financial sustainability, institu-
tional performance, accounting reform, reinvestment strategies, financial autonomy
1. Introduction
The governance of financial resources in public education has increasingly drawn attention in the con-
text of performance-based accountability and strategic sustainability. While global trends promote autonomy
and efficiency in the management of educational institutions, many school systems struggle to effectively
translate financial inputs into measurable long-term outcomes. Within this framework, capital management—
especially the treatment of surpluses and reinvestment capacity—emerges as a critical but underexplored di-
mension of financial governance in schools.
According to Bird et al. (1977), the sustainable management of public funds requires institutions to
balance operational demands with long-term capital accumulation. This balance is especially delicate in edu-
cation, where expenditures are often dominated by recurrent costs and little flexibility remains for strategic
reinvestment. Yet, as pointed out by Gonio et al. (2024), financial sustainability in education should not be
measured solely by adherence to budgets, but also by the ability to generate, manage, and allocate surpluses in
a way that supports institutional development.
In many countries, accounting reforms based on the International Public Sector Accounting Standards
(IPSAS) or similar accrual-based frameworks have aimed to provide more comprehensive views of public
financial health (Christiaens et al., 2014; Becker, 2024). These frameworks encourage institutions to recognize
capital assets, depreciation, and long-term liabilities, thereby facilitating better-informed reinvestment deci-
sions (Silva et al., 2014). However, empirical evidence shows that the translation of accounting reforms into
practical tools for capital planning remains uneven, particularly in education (Olaru, 2023; Kartiko et al.,
2018).
Surplus management in the public sector is often constrained by regulatory limitations and the lack of
institutional autonomy. Estermann et al. (2011) have emphasized that even when formal autonomy exists, real
operational freedom to allocate resources—especially surplus funds—is limited by centralized approval mech-
anisms. This phenomenon is observed across both Western and Eastern European education systems and is
exacerbated in under-resourced schools, where lack of training and digital integration further inhibit effective
financial planning (Miricescu & Țâțu, 2014; Gușe & Mangiuc, 2022).
Another significant issue is the limited institutional capacity for strategic financial forecasting. Studies
such as Cropper & Cowton (2023) argue that scenario modelling and multi-annual budget frameworks are
largely absent from primary and secondary education planning, despite being essential tools in higher educa-
tion and other public sectors. Without these tools, surplus reinvestment tends to be ad hoc and underutilized,
which restricts the development of educational infrastructure, digital tools, and professional development pro-
grams (Don, 2010; Cassano, 2017).
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
13
Furthermore, scholars highlight the relevance of linking capital management to performance-based ac-
countability frameworks. For instance, Tilea & Bleotu (2012) advocate for the integration of financial and
pedagogical indicators in school-level dashboards to guide decisions about reinvestment. Similarly, Rouse &
Putterill (2003) propose a balanced scorecard approach to align institutional strategies with financial capabili-
ties, suggesting that surplus management should be embedded in broader organizational planning.
Finally, the literature underlines the importance of equity considerations in capital allocation. Marginson
(2016) and Becker (2024) stress that without mechanisms to redistribute surplus resources or support disad-
vantaged institutions, reforms may reinforce existing disparities. Therefore, policy frameworks should con-
sider not only technical standards but also governance principles that ensure inclusive and developmental use
of public education finances.
In sum, while substantial academic attention has been given to transparency and reporting in educational
finance, capital management and surplus allocation remain insufficiently addressed in empirical research. This
paper responds to that gap by examining the practical and systemic constraints affecting financial sustainability
in public schools, with a focus on how institutions manage their surplus resources to support long-term devel-
opment.
2. Research Objectives and Methodology
This study aims to investigate how surplus resources are managed within the financial frameworks of
Romanian pre-university educational institutions, with a particular focus on the strategic and developmental
use of these funds. While existing literature has emphasized the importance of accrual-based reporting and
financial transparency, there remains limited empirical exploration into the operational mechanisms through
which schools retain, allocate, and reinvest budgetary surpluses (Brusca & Martinez, 2016; Becker, 2024).
The research has three interrelated objectives:
• To evaluate the capacity of pre-university institutions to retain and reinvest surplus funds in the con-
text of public financial accountability principles.
• To analyze the operational constraints—technological, administrative, and institutional—that affect
surplus management practices at the school level.
• To identify best practices and propose a model for integrating surplus resource planning into strategic
educational development.
The methodological approach integrates both quantitative and qualitative components to ensure a com-
prehensive perspective. Quantitatively, descriptive analysis was conducted using public financial data from
2013 to 2023, covering school-level budget execution reports sourced from national platforms such as
FOREXEBUG and the National Institute of Statistics. These datasets enabled the assessment of surplus fre-
quency, magnitude, and year-to-year volatility across different categories of schools (urban vs. rural, general
vs. vocational).
Qualitatively, the study employed semi-structured interviews with 25 school finance officers and prin-
cipals from diverse Romanian counties. The interviews explored perceptions of surplus utility, decision-mak-
ing autonomy, procedural bottlenecks, and the role of local authorities in financial management. The interviews
also assessed the presence of strategic planning instruments (e.g., multiannual investment plans, digital ac-
counting systems) and how these support or hinder capital reinvestment.
An institutional mapping technique was additionally used to categorize schools by their governance
capacity and digital infrastructure status. This allowed for a comparative interpretation of how different ad-
ministrative environments shape surplus usage.
The research design is anchored in a public value framework, emphasizing transparency, accountability,
and equity. The triangulation of statistical data, managerial insights, and governance typologies enhances the
reliability and contextual relevance of the findings.
3. Results and Analysis.
The empirical investigation conducted in Romanian pre-university institutions reveals several critical
patterns in the management of financial resources and the impact of digital platforms such as FOREXEBUG
on budgetary transparency and performance monitoring.
First, data analysis indicates a progressive increase in digital reporting compliance across most counties,
particularly in urban schools. This trend aligns with prior findings by Gușe and Mangiuc (2022), who noted
that digital transformation in accounting practices has improved the accuracy and timeliness of financial re-
porting. However, rural schools remain significantly behind, facing limited access to digital infrastructure and
technical support, an issue similarly raised by Estermann et al. (2011) in discussions about unequal implemen-
tation capacities across educational systems.
Second, discrepancies between planned budgets and executed expenditures remain a recurring issue.
While the FOREXEBUG system provides a centralized mechanism for monitoring budget implementation,
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
14
many institutions report rigid procedures and delayed approvals that limit their capacity for adaptive financial
management. This echoes the structural challenges described by Alexandru and Matei (2019), who emphasized
that the autonomy granted by policy frameworks is often undermined by bureaucratic constraints and incon-
sistent resource flows.
Furthermore, the survey responses suggest that school directors perceive an improvement in accounta-
bility and transparency following the adoption of digital tools, particularly in terms of audit readiness and inter-
institutional comparability. This observation supports findings by Cassano (2017), who argued that digital
reporting systems can enhance social accountability in school management when properly integrated into de-
cision-making processes.
Notably, the analysis reveals a low level of correlation between financial data monitoring and academic
performance indicators. Despite the availability of real-time budget execution data, schools rarely utilize fi-
nancial information strategically to inform pedagogical planning. This disconnect reflects concerns raised by
Biesta (2009) and Rouse and Putterill (2003), who both highlighted the limitations of performance manage-
ment systems that fail to integrate educational value dimensions.
Finally, institutional capacity remains a key constraint. A large proportion of school financial staff report
insufficient training in digital accounting systems, and only a minority of schools have fully integrated ERP
tools with national platforms. This finding is consistent with broader European experiences, as highlighted by
Grossi and Steccolini (2015), where the lack of capacity-building initiatives often hampers the success of pub-
lic financial management reforms.
Overall, the results affirm that while digital platforms such as FOREXEBUG can enhance transparency
and procedural compliance, their effectiveness in transforming financial governance depends on complemen-
tary investments in staff competencies, system interoperability, and policy coherence.
4. Discussion
The implementation of the FOREXEBUG platform in Romania’s pre-university education system ex-
emplifies a broader trend in public sector modernization, where digital tools are introduced to enhance trans-
parency, efficiency, and accountability. However, the study's findings confirm that the platform's current usage
reflects a technocratic compliance logic rather than a transformative shift in financial governance culture. This
distinction is important in the context of New Public Management (NPM), which emphasizes results-oriented
and data-informed decision-making (Pollitt & Bouckaert, 2017; Ferlie et al., 2009).
Although digital systems like FOREXEBUG have the potential to democratize financial information
and increase institutional accountability, their impact is conditioned by users' capacity to interpret and act on
the data they produce. As noted by Rouse and Putterill (2003), performance measurement frameworks are only
effective when embedded in organizational routines that connect financial metrics with educational goals. In
the Romanian case, this integration remains superficial. Many school directors continue to view financial man-
agement as an administrative obligation rather than a strategic function of institutional leadership (Becker,
2024; Cassano, 2017).
The persistent rural-urban divide also reflects structural inequalities that digitalization alone cannot
bridge. As highlighted by Estermann et al. (2011) and Alexandru and Matei (2019), decentralized financial
autonomy without adequate infrastructural and human resource support can exacerbate rather than alleviate
institutional fragmentation. While urban schools may have the technical resources and qualified personnel to
exploit FOREXEBUG’s functionalities, schools in disadvantaged regions often lack basic digital infrastructure
or access to training opportunities (OECD, 2023; Gonio et al., 2024).
Moreover, the lack of integration between financial reporting systems and pedagogical performance
indicators prevents a holistic understanding of institutional effectiveness. As suggested by Biesta (2009), ex-
cessive focus on quantifiable indicators—especially when disconnected from the broader educational mis-
sion—risks reducing school management to financial compliance, undermining the formative and develop-
mental roles of educational institutions.
The Romanian experience thus reflects a broader pattern identified in comparative studies on IPSAS
and public sector digitalization: without coherent policy frameworks and strategic alignment, digital tools can
entrench existing bureaucratic routines rather than disrupt them (Grossi & Steccolini, 2015; Christiaens et al.,
2014). Therefore, any technological enhancement must be accompanied by governance reforms, professional
development, and a shift in organizational culture.
In sum, while the adoption of digital financial management platforms such as FOREXEBUG is a nec-
essary step toward modernizing education finance, its transformative impact depends on how deeply it is em-
bedded into strategic planning, leadership development, and performance-based resource allocation. Aligning
technology with pedagogy and governance remains an essential challenge in building resilient and equitable
education systems.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
15
5. Conclusions and Recomandation
This study explored the role of digital financial management tools in enhancing budgetary transparency
and accountability in Romanian pre-university education, with a particular focus on the FOREXEBUG plat-
form. The findings reveal both progress and persistent structural barriers that condition the effectiveness of
such reforms.
Despite formal adoption across many institutions, the utility of FOREXEBUG varies significantly be-
tween urban and rural contexts. Urban schools benefit from better digital infrastructure and trained personnel,
while rural schools struggle with underdeveloped support systems—an imbalance also emphasized in prior
research on decentralization and resource disparities (Estermann et al., 2011; Alexandru & Matei, 2019). These
discrepancies underline the need for targeted support strategies that can mitigate inequalities in implementation
capacity.
Although improvements in reporting timeliness and audit compliance were noted—echoing the conclu-
sions of Gușe and Mangiuc (2022) and Cassano (2017)—there is limited evidence that these digital systems
are being leveraged for strategic financial decision-making at the school level. As previously observed by
Biesta (2009) and Rouse and Putterill (2003), technological tools can only support educational goals if their
outputs are meaningfully integrated into pedagogical planning and institutional evaluation frameworks.
Moreover, the continued disconnect between financial indicators and educational outcomes suggests
that the current financial governance architecture lacks a holistic performance-based orientation. Without this
integration, efforts to enhance transparency may remain superficial, addressing symptoms rather than under-
lying inefficiencies (Grossi & Steccolini, 2015; Imai, 2022).
Based on these insights, several policy and operational recommendations can be advanced:
1. Capacity-Building initiatives
The Ministry of Education should prioritize continuous training for school financial personnel in digital
reporting and data interpretation. Such programs must be tailored to different institutional profiles, especially
addressing the needs of under-resourced rural areas (Gușe & Mangiuc, 2022; Becker, 2024).
2. Interoperability and ERP integration
FOREXEBUG should be further developed to enable full interoperability with ERP and pedagogical
data systems. Doing so would allow schools to link financial flows with academic objectives and outcomes,
fostering evidence-based planning (Tilea & Bleotu, 2012; Caldararu, 2024).
3. Standardized performance benchmarks
Establishing national benchmarks that combine financial efficiency and educational quality would im-
prove policy coherence and accountability. These benchmarks should be publicly available and tailored to
school typologies (Imai, 2022; Rouse & Putterill, 2003).
4. Equity-Oriented financial monitoring
A dedicated mechanism for monitoring regional disparities in digital financial management should be
institutionalized, guiding targeted investments and corrective measures in vulnerable areas (Estermann et al.,
2011; OECD, 2023).
5. Strategic use of financial data
School leadership teams should be encouraged and trained to use financial data not merely for compli-
ance but for strategic decision-making linked to school improvement planning (Cassano, 2017; Carroll, 1998).
In conclusion, the FOREXEBUG platform represents a step toward enhanced transparency in Romanian
school finance. However, its transformative potential will remain unrealized unless accompanied by strategic
reforms that embed digital tools into a broader culture of performance management, educational equity, and
evidence-informed governance.
References
1. Alexandru, I.M. and Matei, G., 2019. Financial management of the Romanian preuniversitary edu-
cation institutions. Finante - provocarile viitorului (Finance - Challenges of the Future), 1(21), pp.63–78.
2. Becker, J., 2024. How financial education contributes to the autonomy and fulfillment of young Bra-
zilians. Saber Humano: Revista Científica da Faculdade Antonio Meneghetti, 2, pp.91–111.
3. Biesta, G., 2009. Good education in an age of measurement: On the need to reconnect with the
question of purpose in education. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability, 21(1), pp.33–46.
4. Bird, R.M., Musgrave, R.A. and Musgrave, P.B., 1977. Public Finance in Theory and Practice. The
Canadian Journal of Economics, 10(3), p.524.
5. Cassano, R., 2017. Transparency and Social Accountability in School Management. Universita degli
Studi di Milano-Bicocca, Symphonya: Emerging Issues in Management.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
16
6. Carroll, R.F., 1998. The Integrity Factor—Critical to Accounting Education. Kluwer Academic Pub-
lishers.
7. Christiaens, J., et al., 2014. The Effect of IPSAS on Reforming Governmental Financial Reporting:
An International Comparison. s.l.: s.n.
8. Cropper, P. and Cowton, C.J., 2023. Financial scenario modelling: a guide for universities. Journal
of Higher Education Policy and Management, 46(1), pp.78–91.
9. Don, H., 2010. Notes and Communications: Financial Policy for Schools and Universities. Springer
Science and Business Media LLC.
10. Estermann, T., Nokkala, T. and Steinel, M., 2011. University Autonomy in Europe II: The Score-
card. European University Association, pp.1–81.
11. Ferlie, E., Musselin, C. and Andresani, G., 2009. The Governance of Higher Education Systems: A
Public Management Perspective. Higher Education Dynamics, 25, pp.1–19.
12. Gonio, Y.G., et al., 2024. A Systematic Review on Financial Resource Management in Education.
Asian Journal of Education and Social Studies, 50(7), pp.254–271.
13. Grossi, G. and Steccolini, I., 2015. Pursuing Private or Public Accountability in the Public Sector?
Applying IPSASs to Define the Reporting Entity in Municipal Consolidation. International Journal of Public
Administration, 38(4), pp.325–334.
14. Gușe, G.R. and Mangiuc, M.D., 2022. Digital Transformation in Romanian Accounting Practice
and Education: Impact and Perspectives. Editura ASE București.
15. Imai, S., 2022. Performance-Based Funding—The Romanian Experience of the Last Five Years
(2016–2020). Springer eBooks.
16. Kartiko, S.W., Rossieta, H., Martani, D. and Wahyuni, T., 2018. Measuring accrual-based IPSAS
implementation and its relationship to central government fiscal transparency. BAR - Brazilian Administra-
tion Review, 15(4).
17. Marginson, S., 2016. The Dream Is Over: The Crisis of Clark Kerr's California Idea of Higher
Education. University of California Press.
18. Miricescu, E.-C. and Țâțu, L., 2014. A SWOT analysis of the financial decentralization strategies
for the Romanian pre-university education. Romanian Journal of Fiscal Policy, 5(1), pp.20–28.
19. Olaru, E.A., 2023. Effects of IPSAS Adoption in Public Institutions in Romania on the Quality of
Financial Reporting. Contabilitatea, expertiza și auditul afacerilor, 4(3), pp.62–72.
20. OECD, 2023. Education at a Glance 2023. OECD Publishing.
21. Pollitt, C. and Bouckaert, G., 2017. Public Management Reform: A Comparative Analysis—Into
the Age of Austerity. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
22. Rouse, P. and Putterill, M., 2003. An integral framework for performance measurement. Manage-
ment Decision, 41(8), pp.791–805.
23. Silva, J.C., Silva, A., Pletsch, C.S. and Rosa, F.S., 2014. Impacto da Depreciação nos Índices
Econômicos e Financeiros de uma Organização Pública pela Aplicação da IPSAS 17. Conselho Regional de
Contabilidade do RJ, 16(60), pp.32–40.
24. Tilea, D.M. and Bleotu, V., 2012. Implementation of a Scoreboard in Schools Based on Perfor-
mance Indicators. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 46, pp.2472–2476.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
17
SUSTAINABILITY REPORTING AND RISK MANAGEMENT IN BANKS: AN OVERLOOKED
CONNECTION
Fail R. Imanov
Master's Student
Scientific Supervisor: Fevzi O. Sarkhan
Abstract
The integration of sustainability reporting and risk management frameworks in banking institutions has
evolved from a regulatory compliance exercise to a strategic imperative. This paper examines the intercon-
nected relationship between Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) reporting and traditional risk man-
agement practices in banks, highlighting the often-overlooked synergies that can enhance both financial per-
formance and sustainability outcomes. Through analysis of current regulatory frameworks, industry practices,
and emerging methodologies, we demonstrate that the convergence of sustainability reporting and risk man-
agement represents a critical evolution in banking operations. Our findings suggest that banks that effectively
integrate these domains achieve superior risk-adjusted returns, enhanced stakeholder confidence, and im-
proved regulatory compliance. The paper concludes with recommendations for practitioners and policymakers
to strengthen this integration and addresses future research directions in sustainable banking.
Keywords: sustainability reporting, risk management, ESG integration, banking regulation, climate
risk, financial stability
1. Introduction
The global banking sector stands at the intersection of two transformative forces: the increasing
emphasis on sustainability reporting and the evolving landscape of risk management. Traditional banking risk
frameworks, historically focused on credit, market, and operational risks, are experiencing fundamental
changes as environmental and social factors emerge as material drivers of financial performance and
institutional stability.
The relationship between sustainability reporting and risk management in banks has been characterized
by parallel evolution rather than integrated development. Sustainability reporting emerged primarily as a
response to stakeholder demands for transparency regarding environmental and social impacts, while risk
management frameworks developed to protect financial institutions from various forms of financial loss.
However, the materiality of environmental, social, and governance (ESG) factors to financial performance has
created an imperative for banks to recognize and operationalize the connections between these domains.
Recent regulatory developments, including the European Union's Sustainable Finance Disclosure
Regulation (SFDR), the Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures (TCFD) recommendations, and
the Basel Committee's principles for climate-related financial risks, have begun to formalize the integration of
sustainability considerations into risk management frameworks. These regulatory shifts reflect a growing
recognition that sustainability risks are financial risks, and that effective risk management requires
comprehensive consideration of ESG factors.
This paper examines the current state of integration between sustainability reporting and risk
management in banks, identifies key barriers to effective convergence, and proposes pathways for enhanced
integration that can deliver both financial and sustainability benefits. We argue that the connection between
these domains is not merely complementary but fundamentally interdependent, and that banks that fail to
recognize this interdependence face significant strategic and operational risks.
2. Literature Review and Theoretical Framework
2.1 Evolution of Sustainability Reporting in Banking
Sustainability reporting in banking has evolved from voluntary corporate social responsibility
disclosures to mandatory regulatory requirements encompassing material ESG risks and opportunities. Early
sustainability reporting focused primarily on environmental impacts and community investments, reflecting
banks' role as corporate citizens rather than their function as financial intermediaries exposed to sustainability-
related risks.
The theoretical foundation for sustainability reporting in banking draws from stakeholder theory, which
posits that banks must consider the interests of all stakeholders, not merely shareholders, in their operational
and strategic decisions. This perspective has expanded to encompass the concept of shared value creation,
where banks generate financial returns while simultaneously addressing environmental and social challenges.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
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Recent academic literature has increasingly focused on the materiality of ESG factors to financial
performance. Studies by Khan et al. (2016) and Friede et al. (2015) demonstrate positive correlations between
ESG performance and financial metrics, providing empirical support for the business case for sustainability
integration. In the banking sector specifically, research by Scholtens (2009) and Cornett et al. (2016) has shown
that banks with superior ESG performance exhibit lower risk profiles and more stable financial performance.
2.2 Risk Management Framework Evolution
Traditional banking risk management frameworks have been constructed around three pillars: credit
risk, market risk, and operational risk. This framework, codified in the Basel Accords, has provided a robust
foundation for banking supervision and internal risk management. However, the emergence of systemic risks
related to climate change, social instability, and governance failures has exposed limitations in traditional risk
categorizations.
The theoretical evolution of risk management in banking reflects broader changes in risk
conceptualization. The shift from static risk measurement to dynamic risk management, incorporating forward-
looking assessments and scenario analysis, has created opportunities for better integration of sustainability
considerations. Climate risk, in particular, has been recognized as a source of both physical and transition risks
that can manifest across traditional risk categories.
The Bank for International Settlements (2021) has formally recognized climate-related financial risks
as a subset of existing risk categories rather than a new risk type, emphasizing the need for integration rather
than separation of sustainability and traditional risk considerations. This perspective has important
implications for how banks structure their risk management frameworks and governance processes.
2.3 Integration Paradigms and Theoretical Models
The integration of sustainability reporting and risk management can be conceptualized through several
theoretical lenses. The integrated reporting framework, developed by the International Integrated Reporting
Council, provides a foundation for understanding how financial and non-financial information can be
combined to provide a comprehensive view of organizational performance and risk exposure.
Resource-based theory offers another perspective on integration, suggesting that banks can develop
competitive advantages through the integration of sustainability and risk management capabilities. This
perspective emphasizes the role of organizational learning and capability development in creating sustainable
competitive advantages.
The concept of materiality serves as a crucial bridge between sustainability reporting and risk
management. Materiality assessments help banks identify which ESG factors are most likely to impact
financial performance, providing a basis for prioritizing integration efforts and resource allocation.
3. Current State of Integration in Banking
3.1 Regulatory Landscape and Requirements
The regulatory environment for sustainability reporting and risk management in banking is rapidly
evolving, with significant variations across jurisdictions. The European Union has taken the most
comprehensive approach, with the SFDR requiring financial institutions to disclose how they integrate
sustainability risks into their risk management processes and investment decisions.
The TCFD recommendations have gained widespread adoption, with over 3,000 organizations,
including major banks, committing to implement TCFD-aligned disclosure. The TCFD framework explicitly
links climate-related risks to financial risks, requiring banks to assess and disclose how climate risks might
affect their business, strategy, and financial planning.
Central banks and prudential regulators are increasingly incorporating climate and environmental risks
into their supervisory frameworks. The European Central Bank's climate stress tests, the Bank of England's
climate scenario exercises, and similar initiatives by other central banks represent a shift toward mandatory
integration of climate risks into prudential regulation.
However, regulatory fragmentation remains a significant challenge. Different jurisdictions have adopted
varying approaches to sustainability regulation, creating compliance complexity for internationally active
banks. The lack of standardized metrics and methodologies for measuring and reporting sustainability risks
further complicates integration efforts.
3.2 Industry Practices and Implementation Approaches
Leading banks have adopted various approaches to integrating sustainability reporting and risk
management, ranging from parallel processes with limited integration to fully integrated frameworks that
embed ESG considerations throughout risk management processes.
Many banks have established dedicated sustainability risk functions, either as standalone units or as
specialized teams within existing risk management departments. These functions typically focus on
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
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identifying, assessing, and monitoring ESG risks that could impact the bank's financial performance or
reputation.
The integration of ESG factors into credit risk assessment has emerged as a key area of focus. Banks are
developing methodologies to incorporate environmental and social risks into their lending decisions, with some
institutions creating ESG scoring systems that complement traditional credit risk metrics.
Risk appetite frameworks are being expanded to include sustainability-related risk tolerances. Some
banks have established specific risk appetite statements for climate risks, reputational risks related to ESG
issues, and transition risks associated with the shift to a low-carbon economy.
Data management and measurement remain significant challenges for integration efforts. Many banks
struggle with the quality, consistency, and availability of ESG data needed for effective risk assessment and
reporting. The development of internal ESG data capabilities and partnerships with external data providers has
become a strategic priority for many institutions.
3.3 Technology and Infrastructure Considerations
The integration of sustainability reporting and risk management requires significant investments in
technology infrastructure and analytical capabilities. Banks are implementing new data management systems
capable of handling diverse ESG data sources and integrating this information with traditional financial and
risk data.
Advanced analytics and machine learning techniques are being employed to identify relationships
between ESG factors and financial performance. These technologies enable banks to develop more
sophisticated risk models that incorporate sustainability considerations and to identify emerging risks that
might not be apparent through traditional analysis methods.
Scenario analysis and stress testing capabilities are being enhanced to incorporate climate and other
sustainability-related scenarios. These tools enable banks to assess the potential impact of various
sustainability-related developments on their financial position and risk profile.
The development of integrated reporting platforms that combine financial and ESG information
represents another area of technological advancement. These platforms enable banks to provide stakeholders
with comprehensive views of their performance and risk exposure while reducing the burden of separate
reporting processes.
4. Strategic Recommendations and Future Directions
4.1 Framework for Integrated Sustainability and Risk Management
Banks should develop comprehensive integration frameworks that embed ESG considerations
throughout their risk management processes rather than treating sustainability as a separate risk category. This
integration should encompass risk identification, assessment, monitoring, and reporting processes across all
traditional risk categories.
The establishment of clear governance structures that provide oversight for integrated sustainability and
risk management is essential. This should include board-level oversight, executive management accountability,
and clear reporting lines that ensure effective coordination between sustainability and risk management
functions.
Risk appetite frameworks should be expanded to explicitly incorporate sustainability-related risk
tolerances and limits. These frameworks should address both financial risks arising from ESG factors and
reputational and regulatory risks associated with sustainability performance.
Banks should implement materiality assessments that identify which ESG factors are most likely to
impact their financial performance and risk profile. These assessments should be updated regularly and should
inform both risk management processes and sustainability reporting priorities.
4.2 Capability Development and Infrastructure Investment
Investment in data infrastructure and analytical capabilities is crucial for effective integration. Banks
should prioritize the development of systems that can capture, validate, and integrate ESG data with traditional
financial and risk information.
Training and capability development programs should be implemented to ensure that risk management
professionals understand sustainability risks and that sustainability professionals understand risk management
frameworks. Cross-functional teams and rotation programs can help develop the hybrid expertise needed for
effective integration.
Partnerships with external data providers, research institutions, and technology vendors can help banks
accelerate capability development and access specialized expertise that may not be available internally.
The development of integrated risk models that incorporate ESG factors alongside traditional risk
variables represents a key area for investment. These models should be regularly validated and updated as
understanding of ESG risk relationships evolves.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
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4.3 Stakeholder Engagement and Communication
Banks should develop communication strategies that clearly articulate how sustainability considerations
are integrated into risk management processes. This communication should address different stakeholder needs
and expectations while maintaining consistency with regulatory requirements.
Engagement with regulators and industry associations can help banks stay ahead of regulatory
developments and contribute to the development of industry standards and best practices for integration.
Collaboration with clients and business partners on sustainability risk management can create shared
value and reduce systemic risks. Banks should consider how their own sustainability and risk management
practices can support broader sustainability transitions in the economy.
Transparency about the limitations and uncertainties associated with ESG risk assessment is important
for maintaining stakeholder confidence and managing expectations about the precision of sustainability-related
risk disclosures.
5. Conclusion
The integration of sustainability reporting and risk management in banking represents both a strategic
opportunity and an operational necessity. Our analysis demonstrates that the connection between these
domains is neither optional nor superficial but rather fundamental to effective banking operations in an era of
increasing environmental and social volatility.
The evidence suggests that banks that successfully integrate sustainability considerations into their risk
management frameworks achieve superior risk-adjusted performance, enhanced stakeholder confidence, and
improved regulatory positioning. However, realizing these benefits requires significant organizational,
technological, and methodological investments that many banks have yet to make comprehensively.
The barriers to integration are substantial but not insurmountable. Organizational silos, data limitations,
and regulatory uncertainties create challenges that require coordinated responses from banks, regulators, and
other stakeholders. The development of industry standards, regulatory clarity, and shared infrastructure can
help address some of these challenges while creating opportunities for competitive differentiation.
Future research should focus on the development of more sophisticated methodologies for integrating
ESG factors into quantitative risk models, the assessment of the effectiveness of different integration
approaches, and the evaluation of the systemic implications of sustainability risk management in banking.
Longitudinal studies examining the financial performance of banks with different levels of integration could
provide valuable insights for practitioners and policymakers.
The transformation of banking risk management to incorporate sustainability considerations represents
a fundamental evolution in the industry rather than a temporary regulatory response. Banks that recognize and
act on the interconnected nature of sustainability reporting and risk management will be better positioned to
navigate the challenges and opportunities of the sustainable finance transition.
The path forward requires sustained commitment from banking leadership, continued investment in
capabilities and infrastructure, and ongoing collaboration with stakeholders across the financial system. The
stakes are high, both for individual institutions and for the stability and sustainability of the broader financial
system. The overlooked connection between sustainability reporting and risk management is rapidly becoming
a central determinant of banking success in the twenty-first century.
References
1. Bank for International Settlements. (2021). Climate-related financial risks - measurement
methodologies. Basel Committee on Banking Supervision.
2. Cornett, M. M., Erhemjamts, O., & Tehranian, H. (2016). Greed or good deeds: An examination of
the relation between corporate social responsibility and the financial performance of US commercial banks.
Journal of Banking & Finance, 70, 137-148.
3. Friede, G., Busch, T., & Bassen, A. (2015). ESG and financial performance: aggregated evidence
from more than 2000 empirical studies. Journal of Sustainable Finance & Investment, 5(4), 210-233.
4. Khan, M., Serafeim, G., & Yoon, A. (2016). Corporate sustainability: First evidence on materiality.
The Accounting Review, 91(6), 1697-1724.
5. Scholtens, B. (2009). Corporate social responsibility in the international banking industry. Journal
of Business Ethics, 86(2), 159-175.
6. Task Force on Climate-related Financial Disclosures. (2017). Recommendations of the Task Force
on Climate-related Financial Disclosures. Financial Stability Board.
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21
INTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE OF UNIVERSAL DECLARATION OF INCOME AND
PROPERTY
Alibiyeva Dana Altaykyzy
Master’s degree student, Narxoz University, Almaty, Kazakhstan Republic
Abstract
The income and property declaration contains information about income, expenses, assets, and property.
For the state, this information is valuable because it can be used to identify the facts of illegal enrichment and
corruption. Also, in many developed countries, the declaration is used as a tool to help uncover the removal
and concealment of income. The declaration system has different purposes and approaches in different coun-
tries. This article will examine the approaches of countries and the impact of income and property declarations
on the economy.
Keywords: corruption, universal declaration, income declaration, anti-corruption, individual income
taxes.
The first in the history of the world to develop their ideas on Taxation was Quesnay [1] V. R. Mirabeau
[2], which was proposed by scientists. However, because A. Smith clearly and scientifically substantiated his
principles, he is considered the founder of the theoretical foundations of taxation principles. The principles of
justice, clarity, convenience, and economy based on A. Smith's work in 1776 have not lost relevance even
today[3].
The "tax culture" of citizens plays a significant role in the implementation of the Universal Declaration
(UD) process by the state. A significant contribution to the study of tax culture has been made by R. Dell'Anno
[4]. Birger Nerri argued that the definition of tax culture is a set of formal and informal institutions associated
with the tax system in a state. For example, countries such as Great Britain and Japan have highly developed
tax cultures for individual declaration.
The shadow economy and corruption are areas of high interest for researchers and government agencies
(Del'Anno 2016)[4]. Choi & Palil (2005)[5] argued that business activities are not recorded in government
statistics due to shadow economic activities, while Asiedu and Stengos (2014)[6] suggested that there is no
clear definition or way to calculate the shadow economy because this aspect of the economy cannot be fully
monitored.
According to Schneider & Bajada (2005)[7], the shadow economy is a consequence of tax authorities'
misappropriation of their authority. In such societies, economic entities hide their property in foreign countries
by multiplying expenses and showing less income.
At the same time, M.D. Nauryzbek argues that despite the existence of declaration institutions in Ka-
zakhstan, their functioning is not effective, and he compares the features of declarations between Kazakhstan
and the UK. To achieve the level of individual declaration in the UK, he proposes taking action based on the
VAP principle [8].
Most researchers believe that, if the state system functions correctly, it will be a key factor in preventing
corruption. The UD can serve as a reliable source of evidence for identifying and investigating cases of illicit
enrichment and corruption committed by officials (World Bank, 2012)[9]. The Transparency International
Global Corruption Report (2020) conducted a series of statistical analyses on the 16 countries with UD systems
and their levels of corruption. The study found a low level of corruption among countries where the UD system
has been in place for a long time[10].
Messik (2009)[11] and Jenkins (2015)[12] identified two types of UD: conflict of interest prevention
and mechanisms to prevent illegal enrichment by officials. Ngumbi & Owiny (2020)[13] note that the legal
regime plays an important role in increasing accountability and transparency in public servant declarations.
Golomanchuk and Astafurova [14] conclude that the declaration of income and property by civil serv-
ants is a tool to promote transparency and fight corruption. However, they believe it is necessary to improve
the declaration system and enhance the qualifications of those checking these reports.
Gillanders & Parviainen (2018)[15] note that data on the level of shadow economy and corruption,
which have been studied at a country level, may not always be accurate, as it depends on sample and
methodology. Analyzing all the literature on this topic, they conclude that corruption and shadow economy
are linked.
In the history of the world, the idea of individual income and property disclosure was first introduced in
the United Kingdom. The first proposal for income disclosure was made in 1969 and, later, in 1974, a positive
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
22
decision was taken on this matter. Since then, many countries around the world have followed the United
Kingdom example and adopted this approach. By today's standards, most economically developed countries
have introduced a universal income disclosure system among the first. It cannot be said at this point that income
disclosure has made these countries developed. There are many factors involved, but these countries were
economically prepared for change and were able to utilize the information effectively, which is an indicator of
their level of development.
Today, according to the World Bank, 150 countries have implemented a universal income and property
disclosure system. World practice shows that countries that have implemented a universal taxation system at
an early stage have a lower level of shadow economy and corruption than the average.
Pic.1 - Corruption Rankings of Countries That Introduced Income Declarations in the 20th and 21st
Centuries
Attention- [10] compiled by the author based on the source
In the table, we can see the country's position in terms of corruption. Based on the data, it can be said
that countries that introduced a universal declaration in the 20th century have a commendable position among
all countries in the world.
Many countries, such as Kazakhstan, introduced declarations in the 20th century, but only a small num-
ber of citizens participated. These were mainly civil servants who had just taken office, and neighboring CIS
countries also followed this practice.
Basically, all countries in the world support two trends. The first is the participation of all economically
active citizens in income declarations. The second is coverage of a certain segment of society. Table 1
The persons involved and the frequency of submitting the Declaration in countries.
Country
Covers
Repeatability
Countries that introduced a universal declaration of income and property in the 20th century.
Country
Involve
Frequency
Singapore
All citizens with an income of more than 200,000 Singaporean dollars
Each year
UK
All citizens
Each year
USA
All citizens
Each year
Switzerland
All citizens
Each year
Denmark
All citizens
Each year
German
All except for employees without additional income.
Each year
Countries that introduced a universal declaration of income and property in the 21th century.
Kyrgyzstan
legal entities, state and municipal employees, individual entrepreneurs, individuals who own
taxable property and land, peasant and farm enterprises, persons who acquired property worth
over 300 thousand som during the year
Each year
Uzbekistan
Individuals
Each year
Argentina
tax residents
Each year
Kazakhstan
state and municipal employees, legal entities
Each year
Turkey
tax residents of Turkey (persons who live in the country for more than 183 days in a calendar
year)
Each year
India
tax residents of India (persons who live in the country for more than 182 days in a calendar year)
Each year
Attention- [16],[17],[18],[19], [20]compiled by the author based on the source.
According to the data above, it can also be assumed that one of the factors influencing the level of
corruption and, in general, the level of shadow economy is the coverage and frequency of declaration. Each
country has its own requirements for declaration. In countries such as Singapore, UK, and Switzerland, a large
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
23
proportion of taxes are accounted for by individual income taxes. Since the state budget also depends on this,
much attention is paid to declaration of income and assets. In the US and UK, progressive scales of personal
income tax are used to encourage people to pay more on higher incomes.
In the USA, very large fines are imposed for non-payment, tax evasion, and fraud, which also contributes
significantly to the budget. For this reason, financial police check all information specified in declarations for
accuracy and completeness.
Pic.2 - The level of the shadow economy
Attention- [21] compiled by the author based on the source
We can also see the level of the shadow economy in the table. These data also show a difference in the
levels of the shadow economies in countries where income declarations were introduced earlier compared to
later. Nevertheless, it is too soon to speculate on this, as many countries are still implementing a declaration
system. While the UK, US, and Singapore already have universal declaration systems, other countries such as
Kazakhstan are only introducing them on a phased basis.
In conclusion, based on the analysis and statistical data, as well as a literary review, I can say that the
Declaration of Income and Property can be considered an effective tool in the fight against the shadow econ-
omy and corruption. The correct analysis of the information received from the income declaration plays an
important role here, but in many countries, this information is incorrectly processed. Therefore, it is necessary
to create special departments that will carefully check information and give conclusions, following the example
of American Financial Police. Building a declaration system should consider ethnic and local characteristics.
It is also recommended to increase coverage and frequency of submitting declarations.
References
1. Quesnay F. & Dupont De Nemours P. S. (1768), Physiocratie, Leyde et Paris, Chez Merlin, p 242-
278 2. Victor de Mirabeau, L’Ami des hommes, ou Traité de la Population, Hambourg: Chretien Hérold.-
1756—1762, 6 vol. in-12
3. Smith, A. (2002) The Wealth of Nations. Oxford, England: Bibliomania.com Ltd. [Web.] Retrieved
from the Library of Congress, https://lccn.loc.gov/2002564559.
4. Dell’Anno, R. (2016). Analyzing the Determinants of the Shadow Economy With a “Separate Ap-
proach”. An Application of the Relationship Between Inequality and the Shadow Economy. World Develop-
ment, 84, 342–356. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.worlddev.2015.08.026
5. Choi, J.-P., & Thum, M.P. (2005). Corruption and the shadow ecenomy. International Economic Re-
view, 46(3), 817–836. http://doi.org/DOI: 10.1111/j.1468-2354.2005.00347.x
6. Asiedu, E., Stengos, T. (2014). An Empirical Estimation of the Underground Economy in Ghana.
Economics Research International, 1–14. http://doi.org/10.1155/2014/891237
7. Schneider, F., & Bajada, C. (2005). The shadow economy: An international survey. Cambridge
University Press. Schneider, F., & Bajada, C. (2005). The shadow economy: An international survey. Cam-
bridge University Press.
8. M.D. NAURYZBEK (2020). Научны журнал «Вестник университета «Туран» No 3(87)
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
24
9. World Bank, & Stolen Asset Recovery (StAR). (2012). Public Office, Private Interests Accountabil-
ity through Income and Asset Disclosure. http://documents1.worldbank.org/cu-
rated/en/734201468152086402/pdf/Public -office-private-interests- accountability-through-income-and-as-
set-disclosure.pdf
10. Transparancy International. (2020). https://www.transparency.org/en/countries
11. Messick, R. (2009, June). Income and assets declarations: Issues to consider in developing a dis-
closure regime. Retrieved March 4, 2021, from https://www.cmi.no/publications/file/3396-income-and-assets-
declarations.pdf
12. Jenkins, M. (2015, April 20). Income and Asset Disclosure Topic Guide Compiled by the Anti-
Corruption Helpdesk.https://knowledgehub.transparency.org/assets/uploads/kproducts/Topic_Guide_In-
come_and_Asset_Disclosure.pdf
13. Ngumbi, E., & Owiny, P. (2020). From Paper to Practice: Enhancing Public Accountability in Af-
rica through Reform of National Wealth Declaration Systems. SSRN Electronic Journal, 1–20.
http://doi.org/DOI: 10.2139/ssrn.3579514
14. Golomanchuk A.V., Astafurova O.A. The content and features of the institute of declaration of in-
come and expenses as a measure to combat corruption // Law and state: theory and practice. 2023. No. 10(226).
pp. 158-161. http://doi.org/10.47643/1815-1337_2023_10_158.
15. Gillanders, R., & Parviainen, S. (2018). Corruption and the Shadow Economy at the Regional
Level. Review of Development Economics, 22(4), 1729–1743.
16. https://doi.org/10.55871/2072-9847-2023-61-4-61-71
17. https://www.investindia.gov.in/ru-ru/taxation
18. https://www.oecd.org/tax/automatic-exchange/crs-implementation-and-assistance/tax-resi-
dency/Argentina_Tax_Residency.pdf
19. https://immigrantinvest.com/ru/blog/turkey-taxes/
20. https://buxgalter.uz/publish/doc/text197884_vnimanie_deklariro-
vanie_dohodov_fizlic_za_2023_god
21. https://www.worldbank.org/en/research/brief/informal-economy-database
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25
THE ECONOMIC EFFICIENCY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE APPLICATIONS IN
HEALTHCARE
Arzu Ismayilova¹
Shabnam Huseynzade²
Kanan Adilzade³
Zeynab Farhadli⁴
Shafika Khalilova⁵
Graduate Students,
Azerbaijan Technical University
Aynur Rasim Nematli⁶
Lecturer,
Azerbaijan Technical University
ORCID: 0009-0008-4815-01781, 0009-0003-9252-40112, 0009-0007-4922-459X3,
0009-0000-2267-23244, 0009-0002-9860-98285, 0009-0009-9688-68576
Over the past decade, information and communication technologies (ICT) have become fundamental
tools in enhancing the operational efficiency, economic productivity, and competitive advantage of digitalized
organizations. The integration of artificial intelligence (AI) into healthcare has the potential to address several
demand and supply-side challenges in the sector. The purpose of this thesis is to evaluate the economic effi-
ciency of AI applications in healthcare systems across various countries and to generalize the key findings
based on international experience. Leading countries such as the United States, the United Kingdom, Japan,
India, and China have given significant attention to the implementation of AI technologies in the fields of
medicine and healthcare. According to (L. Y., 2019), the effective use of AI technologies has led to continuous
improvements in the quality, accessibility, and efficiency of global healthcare systems.
Methodology:
This research analyzes international scientific sources, global healthcare reports, and economic indica-
tors. The data mainly covers the period from 2019 to 2024.
Among countries such as Canada, Germany, the United Kingdom, Australia, Japan, Denmark, France,
the Netherlands, Switzerland, and Sweden, the United States has recorded the highest healthcare expenditures.
It is noteworthy that between 1960 and 2022, healthcare spending in the U.S. increased from 5.0% to 17.9%
of GDP, amounting to $3.5 trillion, and per capita expenditure rose by an average of $146 to reach $10,739
(Khanna, N. N., 2022). According to a recent report published by the National Bureau of Economic Research,
the adoption of AI has resulted in cost savings of 5% to 10% in the U.S. healthcare system. Furthermore,
projections suggest that AI integration in the U.S. could lead to annual healthcare savings ranging from $200
billion to $360 billion over the next five years, highlighting its long-term financial benefits (Sahni, N., 2023).
Studies conducted in the U.S., Singapore, Thailand, and India on automated AI algorithms for diabetic reti-
nopathy have demonstrated strong diagnostic performance and cost-effectiveness (Gulshan, V., 2016; Ting,
D., 2019; Xie, Y., 2020; Ruamviboonsuk, P., 2019). Ongoing research aims to determine the extent to which
AI can independently reduce costs and improve outcomes in healthcare systems, and whether it may place
additional pressure on existing resources. A statistical analysis conducted for the year 2024 presents the eco-
nomic efficiency of AI applications in various healthcare sectors across countries in (Table 1).
Table 1. Economic Efficiency Indicators of AI Applications in Healthcare by Country
Source: Topic: AI in Healthcare, 2025
Country
Application Areas
Reduction in
Healthcare Ex-
penditure (%)
Increase in Di-
agnostic Accu-
racy (%)
AI Investment
(Million USD)
Expected Annual
Savings (Million
USD)
United
States
Diagnostics, patient management
15–20%
20–30%
450
1,500
Germany
Medical imaging, electronic health rec-
ords
10–15%
18–25%
300
900
United
Kingdom
Public health analytics
15–22%
20–28%
250
700
Japan
Robotic surgery, patient monitoring
18–25%
30–40%
400
1,000
India
Remote consultation, data analysis
12–18%
25–35%
100
500
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26
Global Market Growth
The global market for artificial intelligence in healthcare has experienced substantial growth, reaching
a value of $32.3 billion by 2024. Between 2024 and 2030, the annual growth rate of AI in the global healthcare
market is projected to reach 38.5%. According to worldwide statistical analyses, the United States generated
the highest revenue from AI in healthcare by 2023, totaling $11.8 billion. Forecasts indicate that China will
experience the highest growth, with revenue expected to increase by more than 42.5%, rising from $1.585
billion to $18.883 billion by 2030. In Europe, France is predicted to have the most significant growth, with a
projected increase of 39.5% by the end of the decade.
Conclusion and Recommendations
The integration of artificial intelligence technologies into healthcare systems provides significant eco-
nomic efficiency by improving the quality of medical services, increasing diagnostic accuracy, and reducing
healthcare expenditures. International experience demonstrates that targeted investments and strategic ap-
proaches are essential for the effective implementation of these technologies.
Based on the findings, the following recommendations are proposed:
• Evaluation of early-stage implementation through pilot projects;
• Enhancement of the regulatory and legal framework;
• Improvement of digital competencies among healthcare professionals;
• Government support for startups and research initiatives;
• Development and coordination of a national-level strategy.
These approaches can ensure the sustainable and effective application of AI in healthcare.
In conclusion, the proper and phased integration of artificial intelligence into healthcare systems offers
substantial strategic advantages in terms of enhancing economic resilience, improving accessibility to
healthcare services, and increasing the overall performance of the system.
Keywords: Artificial intelligence, healthcare, economics, economic efficiency, global healthcare
market References
1. Wang, X., Li, Y. and Zhang, Z. (2019) Data Privacy and Security Risks in AI-Driven Organiza-
tions. Journal of Information Privacy and Security, 37, 187-200. https://doi.org/10.1145/3587265
2. Khanna, N. N, , Mahesh A Maindarkar, & Jasjit S Suri 2022. Economics of Artificial Intelligence
in Healthcare: Diagnosis vs. Treatment. Healthcare (Basel) 2022 Dec 9;10(12):2493.
doi: 10.3390/healthcare10122493
3. Sahni NR, Carrus B. Artificial Intelligence in U.S. Health Care Delivery. N Engl J Med. 2023 Jul
27;389(4):348-358. https://doi.org/10.1056/nejmra2204673
4. Gulshan, V., Peng, L., & Webster, D. R. (2016). Development and validation of a deep learning
algorithm for detection of diabetic retinopathy in retinal Fundus photographs. JAMA, 316(22), 2402.
https://doi.org/10.1001/jama.2016.17216
5. Ting, D. S. W., Pasquale, L. R., & Wong, T. Y. (2019). Artificial intelligence and deep learning in
ophthalmology. British Journal of Ophthalmology. https://doi.org/10.1136/bjophthalmol-2018-313173
6. Xie, Y., Nguyen, Q. D., Hamzah, H., Lim, G., & Ting, D. S. W. (2020). Artificial intelligence for
teleophthalmology-based diabetic retinopathy screening in a national programme: an economic analysis mod-
elling study. The Lancet Digital Health, 2(5), e240–e249. https://doi.org/10.1016/s2589-7500(20)30060-1
7. Ruamviboonsuk, P., Krause, J., Chotcomwongse, P., & Webster, D. R. (2019). Deep learning versus
human graders for classifying diabetic retinopathy severity in a nationwide screening program. Npj Digital
Medicine, 2(1). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41746-019-0099-8
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ASSESSMENT OF THE RELIABILITY OF ENVIRONMENTAL COST ACCOUNTING IN COAL
COMPANIES OF KAZAKHSTAN: THE AUDIT ASPECT
Korabayev Beibit Sybanbayevich
Kazakhstan, Astana
Abstract
This article examines approaches to auditing the reliability of environmental cost accounting in Kazakh-
stan's coal industry. Considering the growing requirements for corporate reporting and sustainable develop-
ment, an empirical assessment was carried out to identify deviations between estimated environmental taxes
and actual expenditures on environmental protection in leading companies in the sector. The level of audit risk
was determined based on deviations and analysis of reporting transparency. Recommendations are provided
to reduce the risks of unreliability and improve the system of environmental accounting.
Assessing the reliability of environmental cost accounting in Kazakhstan's coal companies is a relevant
issue, given the significant environmental impact of the coal industry. The audit aspect of this issue requires a
comprehensive approach, incorporating both national and international standards and practices.
Keywords: environmental audit, audit risk, environmental costs, reporting reliability, coal industry,
sustainable development.
Introduction
The coal industry is one of the most environmentally burdened sectors of the economy. Effective man-
agement of environmental costs and their accurate reflection in reporting is a necessary condition for sustain-
able development and compliance with environmental legislation. Audit procedures, in turn, provide assurance
to users regarding the accuracy of the submitted data, minimizing the risk of informational distortions [1].
Kazakhstani researchers emphasize the need to integrate environmental aspects into the accounting and
auditing systems. In particular, monographs dedicated to the formation and development of environmental
accounting and auditing highlight the importance of developing mechanisms that accurately reflect environ-
mental costs in the financial statements of enterprises.
In his research, Korabayev emphasizes the importance of integrating environmental aspects into ac-
counting and audit systems. He notes that managerial accounting of environmental costs is one of the directions
within environmental accounting, which should aim to generate information for decision-making, planning,
and controlling environmental expenses [2,3].
Furthermore, in the context of Kazakhstan’s environmental security policy, the importance of scientific
research and development aimed at improving methods for accounting and controlling environmental costs is
emphasized. This includes the analysis of statistical data, preparation of national reports, and participation in
international environmental protection initiatives [4,5].
International organizations, such as the OECD, propose various methodologies for accounting environ-
mental costs, including:
˗ The cost accounting method for determining pollution payment standards.
˗ The method of reducing pollutant mass to a conventional value using adjustment coefficients.
These approaches enable more accurate determination of environmental costs and incentivize companies
to reduce their negative environmental impact.
The SWITCH-Asia initiative also emphasizes the importance of analyzing all types of costs, including
environmental ones, when making decisions regarding public procurement and the selection of sustainable
solutions.
To improve the reliability of environmental cost accounting in coal companies in Kazakhstan, the fol-
lowing is recommended:
˗ Integration of environmental accounting: Implementing systems that reflect environmental costs in the
general financial statements of enterprises.
˗ Development of national standards: Creating and introducing environmental audit standards tailored
to the specifics of Kazakhstan's coal industry.
˗ Training and capacity building: Organizing training programs for accountants and auditors on envi-
ronmental accounting and auditing.
˗ International cooperation: Sharing experience with foreign experts and participating in international
initiatives related to environmental accounting.
These measures will help ensure more accurate reflection of environmental costs in financial statements
and promote the sustainable development of the industry.
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Development of national standards: The creation and implementation of environmental audit standards
tailored to the specifics of Kazakhstan’s coal industry.
Training and capacity building: Organizing educational programs for accountants and auditors on envi-
ronmental accounting and auditing.
International cooperation: Exchanging experiences with foreign experts and participating in interna-
tional initiatives related to environmental accounting.
These measures will help ensure more accurate reflection of environmental costs in the financial report-
ing of coal companies and contribute to the industry's sustainable development.
Research Methodology
Within the framework of this research, a comparative analysis was carried out on data from five Ka-
zakhstani coal companies. The primary focus was placed on the following parameters:
˗ Volumes of CO₂ emissions;
˗ Estimated environmental tax (conditionally calculated at a rate of 150 KZT per ton of emissions);
˗ Actual expenditures on environmental protection;
˗ Deviations between estimated and actual indicators;
˗ Assessment of audit risk (based on the scale: up to 10% – low, 11–15% – medium, above 15% – high).
Empirical Results
The analysis of the presented data revealed significant deviations in most enterprises.
Table 1 – Assessment of Environmental Costs and Audit Risk
Company
Environmental
Expenditures,
million KZT
«Share of environmental
costs in total operating
expenses, %
Deviation from the
normative level, %
Distortion risk (on a
scale from 0 to 1)
JSC «Bogatyr Komir»
450
5,2
0,2
0,15
LLP «Shubarkol Komir»
320
3,8
-0,7
0,45
JSC «Karazhyra Mine»
210
4,1
0,1
0,2
LLP «Maikuben-West»
180
2,9
-1,1
0,55
Key Observations:
˗ LLP «Maykuben-Vest» is characterized by the highest level of audit risk (18%) and the largest per-
centage deviation (23.08%), indicating substantial discrepancies between environmental commitments and
actual spending.
˗ In contrast, JSC «Bogatyr Komir» demonstrates the smallest deviation (8.05%) and the lowest risk
(8%), pointing to a mature system of internal environmental control.
˗ The average audit risk level across the industry is 13.4%, indicating a systemic issue in accounting
and controlling environmental expenditures.
Key findings from the statistical analysis:
1. Average Environmental Costs (million KZT):
˗ Highest average costs were recorded by LLP «Shubarkol Komir» (345.4 million KZT) and LLP
«Maykuben-Vest» (342.6 million KZT).
˗ Lowest average – JSC «Razrez Karazhyra» (305.8 million KZT).
2. Average Share of Environmental Costs in Expenditures (%):
˗ Highest share: LLP «Shubarkol Komir» (4.15%) and JSC «Bogatyr Komir» (4.13%).
˗ Lowest: JSC «Razrez Karazhyra» (3.45%).
3. Deviation from the Normative Share (5%):
˗ All companies show negative deviations, indicating underfunding of environmental initiatives.
˗ JSC «Razrez Karazhyra» has the highest deviation: –1.55%.
4. Average and Maximum Audit Risk (scale 0–1):
˗ Highest average risk: JSC «Razrez Karazhyra» (0.43) - requires increased audit attention.
˗ Maximum recorded risk: LLP «Shubarkol Komir» (0.60) - points to potential systemic problems
in environmental cost accounting.
The most balanced indicators of environmental expenditures and a moderate level of audit risk are ob-
served at JSC «Bogatyr Komir». At the same time, JSC «Razrez Karazhyra» demonstrates the lowest level of
environmental responsibility and requires targeted auditing by supervisory bodies. It is recommended to
strengthen internal controls and implement standardized methods of environmental accounting and auditing.
Empirical Results: As part of the study, a quantitative analysis of environmental expenditures and audit
risk was conducted for four major coal companies in Kazakhstan - JSC «Bogatyr Komir», LLP «Shubarkol
Komir», JSC «Razrez Karazhyra», and LLP «Maikuben-West» — for the period from 2015 to 2024. The data
included values of environmental expenditures (in million KZT), their share in total expenses, deviation from
the normative level (5%), and expert-assessed levels of risk of information misstatement in reporting.
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1. Level of Environmental Expenditures
˗ The average volume of environmental expenditures ranged from 305.8 million KZT (JSC «Razrez
Karazhyra») to 345.4 million KZT (LLP «Shubarkol Komir»).
˗ A consistent trend of underfunding environmental measures was observed - in all companies, the av-
erage share of expenditures remained below the normative 5%.
2. Deviation from the Normative Share. The average deviations were as follows:
˗ JSC «Razrez Karazhyra»: -1.55%
˗ LLP «Maikuben-West»: -1.00%
˗ JSC «Bogatyr Komir»: -0.87%
˗ LLP «Shubarkol Komir»: -0.85%. This indicates that none of the companies systematically meet the
recommended level of environmental funding.
3. Audit Risk
˗ The average risk of misstatement in environmental expenditure accounting was highest at JSC «Razrez
Karazhyra» - 0.43.
˗ The lowest average risk was observed at JSC «Bogatyr Komir» - 0.37. Maximum risk levels in indi-
vidual years included:
˗ LLP «Shubarkol Komir»: 0.60
˗ JSC «Razrez Karazhyra»: 0.59
4. Year-by-Year Dynamics
˗ The highest levels of audit risk were recorded during 2016–2018, which may be related to the lack of
stable procedures for environmental accounting and control.
˗ In recent years (2022–2024), there is a trend of decreasing risk, especially at LLP «Maikuben-West»
and JSC «Bogatyr Komir».
Key Empirical Conclusions:
˗ All companies systematically underreport the share of environmental expenses compared to the 5%
normative benchmark.
˗ Audit risk remains moderately high, particularly during periods of active production growth or weak
internal control.
˗ JSC «Razrez Karazhyra» and LLP «Shubarkol Komir» demonstrate elevated levels of misstatement
risk, requiring additional audit procedures.
˗ A regulated methodology for environmental cost accounting and the implementation of internal sus-
tainability audits are necessary.
Discussion of Results.
The conducted empirical analysis made it possible to identify key patterns and issues in the system of
environmental cost accounting and auditing in Kazakhstan’s coal industry. The findings point to structural and
methodological deficiencies in environmental reporting, which in turn create preconditions for both audit and
environmental risks.
1. Insufficient Level of Environmental Spending
Across all studied companies, the share of environmental costs consistently falls short of the normative
5%. This could indicate either:
˗ underfunding of environmental programs; or
˗ incomplete and inaccurate reflection of expenses in accounting reports.
Particular concern arises with JSC «Razrez Karazhyra», where the average share of environmental
costs was just 3.45%, with the highest recorded average deviation of –1.55%.
2. Audit Risk as an Indicator of Reporting Reliability
Audit risk reflects the probability that environmental costs are inaccurately reported in financial disclo-
sures. In this study, the highest risk level (up to 0.60) was observed in LLP «Shubarkol Komir» and JSC
«Razrez Karazhyra». Contributing factors may include:
˗ lack of clear internal regulations for environmental cost accounting;
˗ subjective evaluation of environmental measures;
˗ weak internal audit and control mechanisms.
3. Risk-Oriented Audit as a Solution
Given the fluctuations in audit risk, a risk-based audit approach to environmental costs is recom-
mended, as advocated by Korabayev B.S. in his studies. He proposes:
˗ using sector-based risk rating assessments;
˗ conducting audit tests for completeness of environmental cost accounting;
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˗ applying correlation analysis between emissions, production volumes, and environmental expendi-
tures. 4. The Need for Unified Standards
The absence of a standardized approach to environmental audit in Kazakhstan (in contrast to EU and
OECD practices) leads to inconsistencies in terminology, procedures, and evaluation. This reduces compara-
bility of reports both within the country and in the international context.
Comparison with International Research.
As noted in studies such as Erokhina E.A. (2021), environmental audit should assess not only the cor-
rectness of accounting but also the actual environmental impact of an enterprise, including:
˗ environmental efficiency;
˗ compliance with regulatory requirements;
˗ life-cycle analysis of products.
Kazakhstani companies, including those in the coal industry, often rely solely on cost-based ap-
proaches, which limits the effectiveness of risk management and does not align with international standards
for sustainable reporting (e.g., GRI, ISO 14001).
Summary
Thus, the empirical results confirm the high relevance of the research topic. The existing practice
requires:
˗ systematic reform of environmental cost accounting;
˗ development and implementation of a national environmental audit standard;
˗ enhancement of auditors’ qualifications in the field of sustainable development.
These measures would help reduce audit and environmental risks, improve the reliability of corporate
reporting, and ensure the sustainability of Kazakhstan's coal sector under increasingly stringent environmental
regulations.
Inaccuracies in environmental cost accounting may result from:
˗ understatement of actual emissions;
˗ insufficient automation of environmental accounting;
˗ low transparency in corporate reporting;
˗ lack of approved internal audit methodologies in the environmental field.
The problem is further complicated by the fact that Kazakhstan does not yet have a unified standard for
auditing environmental costs, similar to sustainability standards such as the ESRS in the EU [6,7,8].
Conclusion.
The conducted research revealed systemic problems related to environmental cost accounting and au-
diting in Kazakhstan’s coal sector. Based on statistical data analysis for 2015–2024 across four major coal
companies (JSC «Bogatyr Komir», LLP «Shubarkol Komir», JSC «Razrez Karazhyra», and LLP «Maikuben-
West»), the following generalized conclusions can be made:
1. Insufficient reliability in environmental cost accounting. In all studied companies, environmental
expenditures were consistently recorded below the recommended 5% of total expenses. This indicates either a
lack of managerial emphasis on environmental protection measures or incomplete coverage of related costs in
the accounting system. As a result, financial reporting lacks transparency, complicating well-grounded mana-
gerial decision-making.
2. Moderately high level of audit risk. The assessment of information misstatement risk regarding en-
vironmental expenditures revealed unstable - and in some cases critically high - values, particularly for JSC
«Razrez Karazhyra» and LLP «Shubarkol Komir». The highest risk (0.60) was recorded in 2016, coinciding
with a period of production instability. These findings indicate a high probability of inaccurate environmental
reporting and underscore the need for audit intervention.
3. Lack of a unified methodological approach. Currently, Kazakhstan does not have a national standard
for environmental audits, leading to inconsistent interpretation of principles related to the evaluation and ac-
counting of environmental costs. A comparison with foreign practices (EU, OECD, Russia) reveals significant
lagging in areas such as:
˗ regulatory systematization,
˗ transparency of control mechanisms,
˗ stakeholder and public engagement.
4. Contribution of Kazakhstani scholar Beibit Sybanbaevich Korabayev. Korabayev’s contribution to
the methodological foundations of environmental cost accounting is substantial. His proposals for implement-
ing risk-based auditing, developing internal environmental control, and integrating management and financial
accounting of environmental costs align with international trends and deserve practical implementation.
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Synthesis and Practical Relevance.
The results of this study make it possible to conclude that the current system of environmental cost
accounting and auditing in Kazakhstan’s coal industry requires:
˗ modernization of approaches to the formation and analysis of environmental expenditures;
˗ development of environmental audit standards adapted to the national economic context;
˗ enhancement of auditors’ competencies in sustainability and environmental reporting.
The implementation of the recommendations proposed in this research would ensure:
˗ increased reliability of financial and non-financial disclosures;
˗ reduced audit and reputational risks;
˗ strengthened trust from investors, the state, and the public in coal sector companies.
Thus, the findings of this article are not only of academic interest but also of significant practical value
for environmental regulatory authorities, auditors, corporate managers, and sustainability standard developers.
Recommendations.
To improve reporting reliability and reduce audit risk, it is proposed to:
1. Approve national standards for the accounting and auditing of environmental expenditures, aligned
with international practices (e.g., GRI, IFRS S2).
2. Ensure mandatory external verification of environmental protection expenses and their disclosure in
the notes to financial statements.
3. Develop an industry-specific Environmental Cost Transparency Index, integrated with ESG rating
systems.
4. Provide training for internal auditors in the area of environmental compliance.
Reliable environmental cost accounting in Kazakhstan’s coal industry is of strategic importance for
minimizing audit risk, building investor trust, and achieving sustainable development. The results obtained
point to the need for a transition to a more formalized and standardized system of environmental auditing,
which would enhance transparency and improve the management of environmental activities in the coal sector.
References
1. International Federation of Accountants (IFAC). (2023). Handbook of International Auditing and
Assurance Standards.
2. Korabayev B.S. (2020). Managerial Accounting of Environmental Costs: Issues and Development
Prospects. In: Economics and Management: Theory and Practice. Proceedings of the International Scientific-
Practical Conference. Almaty: Ekonomika.
3. European Financial Reporting Advisory Group (EFRAG). (2023). European Sustainability Report-
ing Standards (ESRS).
4. Erokhina E.A. (2021). Environmental Audit: Concept and Implementation Practice. Proceedings of
the International Scientific-Practical Conference «International Accounting and Auditing Standards: Applica-
tion in the Digital Economy». Moscow: RUDN.
5. GRI. (2021). GRI 302: Energy 2016; GRI 305: Emissions 2016.
6. Nazarova G.L. (2020). Environmental Accounting and Audit: Theory and Practice. Almaty:
Ekonomika.
7. Bulletin of the Faculty of Economics, Turkestan University, No. 2 (121), pp. 45–52.
8. Bekenov A.M., Zhumabayev K.S. (2022). Audit of Environmental Risks in Extractive Industry En-
terprises. Financial Journal of Kazakhstan, No. 4, pp. 34–41.
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Geological and mineralogical sciences
MINERAGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF GHARTA PORPHYRY ORE DEPOSIT
(Achara-Trialeti, Georgia)
Maia Apkhazava
Ivane Javakhishvili Tbilisi State University
Abstract
The paper examines the geological setting of the Gharta porphyritic deposit, discussing the classification
of magmatic-hydrothermal deposits and the types of hydrothermal alterations. The study analyzes 61 ore-
bearing polished sections from the cores of 18 boreholes at the Gharta site, presenting the results of
mineragraphic investigations.
Based on the analysis of ore minerals, the relationship between the rock and mineralization has been
established.
Keywords: Mineragraphic Analysis, Achara-Trialeti, Ore deposit, Ore occurence.
The Gharta porphyritic deposit is located in the central part of the Achara-Trialeti Fold-and-Thrust
Mountainous Belt (Fig. 1). The Achara–Trialeti tectonic unit, extending from the Black Sea coast towards
Tbilisi, while westward it is geophysically traced within the Eastern Black Sea Basin.
In the Late Cretaceous–Paleocene–Eocene, within the Transcaucasian Massive (island-arc), the Achara–
Trialeti trough (rift) was formed, which divided the Transcaucasian Massive into the Georgian and Artvin–
Bolnisi Blocks.
Figure 1. Gharta deposit on the tectonic map of Georgia (Adamia 2004)
The region is part of the global belt of Tethys-Eurasian Cu-Au ore occurrences (Adamia et al., 1981).
The study area - Gharta ore deposit, is located within the Achara-Trialeti fold and thrust belt. Gharta ore
deposit host rocks are represented by the Maastrichtian-Danian Tetritskaro formations (alternation of lime-
stones and marls) and the Borjomi flysch (terrigenous turbidites) (Fig. 2).
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Figure 2. Borjomi flisch-Terrigenous turbidites (Borjomi gorge)
The ore-bearing rocks form an anticlinal structure (Fig. 3), intruded by diorite bodies. Epidote-garnet
and pyroxene-garnet skarns have developed in the contact zone between carbonate rocks and diorites. This
complex is complicated by pre- and post-mineralization fracture systems, which play a key role in the evolution
of hydrothermal processes.
Figure 3. Geological map of the Gharta ore occurence (Kuparadze et al., 1959)
The Gharta ore deposit has been a subject of interest both during the Soviet and post-Soviet periods,
leading to periodic search and exploration efforts. This is reflected in the geological maps, reports, and explan-
atory notes produced over time. However, since the 1960s, exploration has primarily focused on copper, with
the deposit being considered a potential copper resource. Drilling investigations have identified high copper
concentrations at depths of approximately 200-250-300 meters.
Gold was initially regarded as an accompanying metal to copper and molybdenum. However,
subsequent studies and analysis of existing data indicated that gold should be prioritized as the primary metal
in the ore. With advancements in technology, precise chemical analyses and a significant decrease of cut of
grade for gold content, the Gharta ore occurence emerges as a highly probable ore deposit supported by existing
data. To determine the type of ore deposit to which the Gharta porphyritic deposit belongs, it is essential to
understand the geological classification of ore deposits.
Historically, various classification schemes have been proposed by different authors. In the late 19th
and early 20th centuries, deposit classification was primarily based on descriptive characteristics such as shape,
structure, mineral associations, and ore composition. However, after the 1950s, classifications began to
emphasize genetic factors, focusing on the conditions and environment of deposit formation.
With the development of the theory of lithospheric plate tectonics, the genetic classification of ore
deposits has been further refined, offering a more comprehensive framework for understanding their formation
(Fig. 4).
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Figure 4. Tectonic setting of orogenic and other gold deposit types (Goldfarb, R.J., Groves, D.I., 2015).
Within the mineralization zone, gold is associated with copper-rich ore bodies and hydrothermally
altered rocks.
Copper mineralization is represented by vein-disseminated, irregularly shaped, structurally complex
bodies that develop along the contact zone between intrusive bodies and terrigenous-carbonate rocks.
Spatially, the ore bodies are primarily linked to skarns and vuggy silica, though pyritic, and less
frequently chalcopyritic and molybdenite mineralization, is observed in the apical parts of dioritic bodies.
Additionally, pyrite-chalcopyrite lenses are observed.
Within the Gharta ore field, both endoskarns and exoskarns are observed.
Both Gharta's porphyry mineralization and all gold-sulfide mineralization are associated with dioritic
porphyrites intrusive bodies. These alterations are found in the exocontact of the porphyry intrusion. For
example, in contact with terrigenous turbidites, alternating zones with varying degrees of gold enrichment
occur, while in contact with limestones, skarn-type mineralization is observed. Among skarn minerals,
greenish-colored garnet—grossular—is the most widespread, forming at the expense of marls. High gold
concentrations are linked to skarns, with lower values in vuggy silica. The poorest gold content is found in
dioritic bodies, where molybdenite is more commonly encountered.
Within skarn-type mineralization, thin, gold-bearing pyrite-chalcopyrite veins and lenses occur. Both
massive-textured and vein-disseminated ores are present.
The vein-disseminated type is spatially associated with vuggy silica and altered diorites. According to
D. Arevadze (Arevadze, D., 1977), microscopic studies confirm that at the Gharta deposit, gold occurs as fine-
dispersed inclusions in skarn quartz and as impurities within sulfides.
Gold content does not always correlate with copper content. Two types of gold mineralization are
identified: the first is associated with sulfides, while the second is linked to vuggy silica.
Mineragraphic analysis indicates that the ore mineralization composed primary minerals—pyrite and
chalcopyrite, alongside secondary copper and iron minerals such as hematite, chalcocite, and magnetite. Pyrite
frequently exhibits brecciated textures, and chalcopyrite inclusions are often observed within its interstices,
suggesting a polyphasic nature of ore mineralization.
Several samples contain associations of stibnite (antimony) and chalcopyrite (fig.2-3 in BHG 37-2; fig.2
in BHG 45A-2), as well as massive mineralization of chalcopyrite, pyrite, and magnetite (BHG 78-5; fig. 2-3-
4 in BHG 73-1; BHG 12-03). In rare cases, paragenetic associations of pyrite, chalcopyrite, sphalerite, and
molybdenite are identified. Hydrothermal breccia is represented in sample BHG 08-03.
The described ore mineralization, along with its paragenetic associations, structural characteristics, and
polyphasic nature, is typical of both porphyry copper and skarn-type ore deposits.
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Polished section BHG 78-1
marked areas
Polished section BHG 16-6
marked areas
Polished section BHG 39-1
marked areas
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36
Polished section BHG 37-2
marked areas
Polished section BHG 45A-2
marked areas
Polished section BHG 78-5
marked areas
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Polished section BHG 73-1
marked areas
Polished section BHG 12-03
marked areas
Polished section BHG 08-03
marked areas
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Conclusion
The mineragraphic study of 61 polished sections from the Gharta ore deposit reveals a complex,
multiphase mineralization system involving porphyry, skarn, intermediate-sulfidation epithermal, and
transitional porphyry–epithermal deposit types.
The coexistence of disseminated and veinlet-hosted sulfides, interstitial textures, and supergene
alterations (e.g., hematite, chalcocite), alongside paragenetic assemblages including pyrite, chalcopyrite,
molybdenite, sphalerite, magnetite, and stibnite, indicates overlapping hydrothermal events under varying
pressure-temperature conditions.
These features reflect changing fluid compositions and structural controls, suggesting a hybrid ore
system. Gharta’s geological complexity highlights its potential for economically significant mineralization and
warrants further exploration.
References
1. ADAMIA, SH., CHKHOTUA, T., KEKELIA, M., LORDКIPANIDZE, M., SHAVISHVILI, I. &
ZAQARIADZE, G., 1981, Tectonics of the Caucasus and adjoining regions: implications for the evolution of
the Tethys Ocean. Journal of Structural Geology, vol. 3, #4, London, p. 437-447.
2. ADAMIA, SH. (ED)., 2004, Geological Map of Georgia 1:500.000 (on the basis of 1:200.000 and
1:50.000 scale State Geological Maps of Georgia): Tbilisi, Georgia, Department of Geology, Nodia Institute
of Geophysics, http://www.ig-geophysics.ge/Georgia_Geology_1.jpg
3. Arevadze D., Anchabadze E., 1977, Report on the results of exploration work in the central part of
the Achara-Trialeti fold and thrust zone for 1974-76. Geological Foundation. Tb.
4. Corbett, G., Terry, L., 1997, SOUTHWEST PACIFIC RIM GOLD-COPPER SYSTEMS: Structure,
Alteration, and Mineralization.
5. Goldfarb, R., Groves, D., 2015, Orogenic gold: Common or evolving fluid and metal sources through
time. 6. Guilbert, J., 1986, The Geology Of Ore Deposits. p.297-298.
7. Hedenquist, J., Antonio Arribas, R., and Eliseo Gonzalez-Urien, 2000, Exploration for Epithermal
Gold Deposits; Placer Dome Exploration, 240 South Rock Boulevard, Suite 117, Reno, Nevada 8950.
8. Kuparadze M., 1966, Geological structure, material composition and conditions of formation of the
Dzama skarn-iron ore deposit. Publ. "Metsniereba", p. 62.
9. Lindgren, W., 1933, Mineral Deposits, 4th ed. New York: McGraw-Hill, 300 pp.
10. Kuparadze M., 1959, Interim report of Geological-exploration group of Dzama for the works of 1958.
11. Niggli, P., 1929, Ore Deposits of Magmatic Origin. Transl. by H. C. Boydell Lon- don: Thomas
Murby.
12. Narozauli, I., Gagnidze, M., 2001, "Development of geological models and preparation of
promotional materials for the deposits of the Dzama-Gujarati ore node (Gujarati gold-sulfide deposit, Dzama
and Gharti iron and copper-gold-sulfide deposits, Khachkov sand-lime gold occurrence)” – report on
completed work.Poulsen, K.H., Robert, F., and Dubé, B., 2000, GEOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION OF
CANADIAN GOLD DEPOSITS.
13. Taylor, R., 2009, Ore Textures Recognition and Interpretation.
14. Schneiderhöhn, H., 1941, Lehrbuch der Erzlagerstättenkunde. Jena: Gustav Fischer.
15. WHITE, N., AND HEDENQUIST, J., 1990. Epithermal environments and styles of mineralisation
- variations and their causes, and guidelines for exploration: Journal of Geochemical Exploration, v. 36, p.
445-74Yilmaz, A., and Adamia Sh., eds, 2001. Geological map of the area along Turkish-Georgia border,
scales 1:500 000 and 1:250 000: MTA, Ankara.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
39
MAIN CAUSES AND GEOGRAPHICAL ANALYSIS OF SOIL SALINIZATION IN THE
MUGHAN PLAIN
Nijat Yarov
Western Caspian University
Faculty of environmental protection in the agricultural sector,
Baku, Azerbaijan
Abstract
This research study thoroughly investigates the main causes of soil salinization, its spatial distribution,
and the relationship between this process and the geographical conditions of the Mugan plain, which is located
in the southeastern part of Azerbaijan and is considered one of the country’s leading agricultural regions. The
Mugan plain is characterized by flat terrain, semi-arid and arid climate conditions, and a large area of irrigated
farmland. While these characteristics make the region favorable for agriculture, they also make it highly
susceptible to soil degradation, particularly salinization. The primary aim of the study is to identify the natural
and anthropogenic factors contributing to salinization, analyze the scale and intensity of the process through
geographical methods, and provide scientifically grounded recommendations for its mitigation.The analysis of
collected data shows that the main causes of salinization include prolonged ineffective and unplanned irrigation
practices, malfunctioning or absent drainage systems, the morphological and chemical features of the soil
cover, and the region’s climatic conditions. These findings indicate that salinization is not only driven by
natural factors but also closely linked to human activity. Therefore, a comprehensive approach is required for
the preservation and restoration of soil productivity.
The recommendations presented in the study include the application of modern irrigation technologies,
the reconstruction of drainage systems, the cultivation of salt-tolerant crops, and the enhancement of agro-
technical practices. Overall, this research not only scientifically explains the geographical distribution and
causes of soil salinization in the Mugan plain but also offers practical solutions to prevent it. It can serve as a
significant contribution to the sustainable management of land resources and the promotion of agroecological
stability in the future.
Keywords: Mugan plain, soil salinization, salinization process, soil degradation, geographical analysis,
agroecological conditions, groundwater, irrigation systems, inefficient land reclamation, drainage systems,
climatic factors, agro-physical soil properties
İntroduction
The Mugan plain, located in the southeastern part of Azerbaijan, is recognized as one of the country’s
leading agricultural regions.
The flat terrain, high annual sunlight duration, fertile soil cover, and ample irrigation opportunities have
made this area strategically important for agricultural production over many years. The Mugan plain plays a
significant role, particularly in cotton growing, grain cultivation, and vegetable-melon farming across the
country. However, in recent decades, increased human activity, intensive use of arable land, and irrational land
management have led to significant trends of soil degradation in the region. Among these processes, soil
salinization has expanded in scale and now poses a serious threat to the region’s agricultural potential and
ecological stability. [5]
Soil salinization is a complex process characterized by the excessive accumulation of soluble salts in
the soil layer, which leads to the disruption of the soil’s physical and chemical properties, a decline in
productivity, and the limitation of normal plant growth. Both natural factors (climatic conditions, groundwater
levels, and lithological structure of the soil) and anthropogenic factors (intensive irrigation, inefficient
reclamation, and drainage systems) play a significant role in this process. In particular, the presence of salts in
irrigation water and their insufficient leaching from the soil contribute to the acceleration of salinization. [1]
The primary aim of this research is to identify the factors causing soil salinization in the Mugan plain,
to analyze the interrelation of these factors with the region’s geographical conditions, to determine the spatial
distribution characteristics of salinization, and to assess its impact on the agricultural sector. At the same time,
identifying ways to address the current situation and developing scientifically grounded recommendations is
also one of the key objectives of the study. [3].
The relevance of this research lies in the fact that soil salinization is one of the major factors directly
affecting the sustainable development of agriculture, food security, and environmental protection. From this
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
40
perspective, thoroughly studying the causes of salinization, determining the ways to prevent it, and ensuring
the efficient management of soil resources are among today's pressing scientific and practical issues. [11]
Main part
A number of natural-geographical and anthropogenic factors are involved in the formation and spread
of soil salinization in the Mughan Plain in a complex manner. Each of these factors affects the ecogeographical
stability of the region and the efficiency of agricultural activity to a different extent. In this section of the study,
the main factors causing salinization are analyzed separately and their interaction mechanisms are explained
on scientific grounds. [7]
The relief of the Mughan Plain is mainly flat. This type of relief limits the movement of water in the soil
profile, which leads to groundwater approaching the surface and the accumulation of salts on the soil surface.
The climate of the region belongs to the semi-desert and arid subtropical types. As a result of the low annual
precipitation (250–300 mm) and very high evaporation (more than 1000 mm), salts in the soil are not washed
away, but rather rise to the surface by capillary action and accumulate. At the same time, the high level of
groundwater (in some areas it is located at a depth of 1.0–1.5 m) is considered one of the main causes of soil
salinization. The lithological composition and physicochemical properties of soils also affect salinization.
Heavy mechanical composition, clay and loamy soils, as they poorly release water, create favorable conditions
for the accumulation of salts in the soil. Such soils are quickly saturated during irrigation, but excess water is
difficult to seep, which complicates the leaching of salts [6].
Soil salinization is a set of biological and physical processes that occur as a result of excessive salt
accumulation in the soil and limit plant growth. The main mechanism of this process is the entry of salts
contained in irrigation water into the soil profile and their accumulation towards the surface as a result of
evaporation of soil water. [8]
Irrigation is carried out intensively in the Mughan Plain. However, the quality of irrigation water,
improper selection of irrigation regime, and the absence or malfunction of drainage systems lead to the
accumulation of salts in the soil. If the excess water remaining in the soil after irrigation is not drained, the
groundwater level rises and the dissolved salts in the soil rise to the surface. This increases salinization and
reduces soil fertility. [15]
In recent decades, due to the intensification of agricultural activity in the Mughan Plain, the use of
irrigation systems has expanded, but these systems have often been applied in an ineffective and unplanned
manner. The presence of salts in the water used for irrigation and improper management have led to the
accumulation of salts in the soil. The lack of proper drainage systems to remove excess water from the soil
after irrigation or the failure of existing systems has further aggravated the situation. Incomplete or ineffective
land reclamation measures, long-term and unproductive use of land, and failure to comply with agrotechnical
measures have also created conditions for the expansion of salinization. In particular, the continuous
cultivation of land with the same crops and the failure to restore fertility have led to the deterioration of the
soil structure and accelerated salt accumulation. [10]
Analysis based on satellite imagery and soil monitoring data shows that salinization in the Mughan Plain
is observed more intensively in low-lying areas, near irrigation areas and in places without drainage systems.
The highest salinization was recorded in some areas of Sabirabad, Salyan and Saatli districts. In these zones,
high salt concentrations were detected in the soil profile, vegetation cover was sparse and productivity was
significantly reduced. [2]
Soil salinization poses a serious threat to the sustainable development of agriculture. In saline areas,
productivity is significantly reduced, and in some cases completely lost. Since plants have different sensitivity
to salt, some cultivated plants cannot be grown. This can lead to both economic losses and food security. In
addition, the environmental balance is disrupted as a result of soil structure degradation, weakening of
microbiological activity, and narrowing of the habitat of organisms. [4]
Effective management of soil salinization in the Mughan Plain requires a multidisciplinary approach.
First of all, it is important to optimize irrigation regimes, proper water management and the application of
modern irrigation technologies. Efficient irrigation systems, such as drip or sprinkler, can play a significant
role in preventing salt loading. The reconstruction and improvement of drainage systems should ensure the
effective removal of excess water from the soil. This allows lowering the groundwater level and preventing
the release of salts to the soil surface. [7]
To prevent the problem, complex and long-term measures should be taken. First of all, existing
drainage systems should be restored and reconstructed based on modern technologies. Irrigation regime
should be optimized, the use of saline water should be minimized, irrigation methods (drip, spraying, etc.)
should be improved. Taking into account the salinity level of the soil, it is advisable to select and cultivate
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
41
salinity-resistant plant varieties. At the same time, organic matter, green fertilizers and other agrotechnical
means should be used to restore soil fertility. [14]
Results
The results of this study showed that the main causes of the problem of soil salinization in the Mughan
Plain are mainly due to human activities, which are further exacerbated by interaction with natural factors. In
particular, the ineffectiveness of irrigation systems and improper organization of land reclamation works, as
well as long-term unplanned and irregular water management have emerged as the main factors accelerating
soil salinization. These facts indicate that anthropogenic impacts, together with natural factors, are the main
catalysts for the continuous loss of soil resources and the decline in agricultural productivity. Geographical
analysis and analysis of satellite images have determined that soil salinization is unevenly distributed in the
Mughan Plain and is more intense in certain zones. This varies depending on the characteristics of the soils,
irrigation regime, groundwater level rise, and climatic conditions of the area. Thus, in some areas the soil
becomes salinized more quickly and productivity decreases sharply, while in others this process is relatively
slow. This inequality requires the application of different approaches to the management and prevention of
salinization in different zones.
The study also showed that soil salinization poses a serious threat not only to agriculture, but also to the
ecological situation of the region as a whole. Salt accumulation changes the structure of the soil, reduces
microbiological activity, and ultimately lowers the biological productivity of the soil. As this process
continues, soil fertility decreases, vegetation weakens, and soil erosion accelerates. These changes in the
ecosystem have a negative impact on the economic and social development of the region in the long term. To
effectively solve the problem, it is necessary to take complex and systematic measures. These include the
application of modern irrigation technologies — such as drip irrigation and sprinkler irrigation systems. These
methods optimize water use and prevent additional water and salt loading on the soil. At the same time, the
reconstruction of drainage systems and the improvement of existing systems are vital for regulating
groundwater levels and preventing the release of salts accumulated in the soil to the surface.
Agrotechnical measures, such as the cultivation of salt-tolerant plants, enrichment of the soil with
organic matter, crop rotation and the application of fertilizers that increase fertility, also serve to reduce soil
salinization. These approaches improve the structure of the soil, reduce the impact of salts and ensure long-
term stability. In addition, continuous monitoring of soil and water resources, the widespread use of geographic
information systems and satellite images, and the creation of early warning systems play an important role in
managing these processes. These tools create the opportunity to continuously monitor the condition of the soil,
detect risks in a timely manner and implement the necessary measures in a timely manner. In general, to prevent
soil salinization and preserve agricultural potential in the Mughan Plain, strategies should be developed and
implemented based on complex, scientifically based and practical recommendations, depending on natural and
anthropogenic factors. This is a necessary condition for both ensuring the agro-ecological sustainability of the
region and the sustainable development of the country's agricultural sector.
References
1. Abdullayev, Ş. (2005). Torpaqşünaslığın əsasları. Bakı: Elm nəşriyyatı.
2. Ceyhun, A. (2018). Muğan düzündə torpaq şoranlaşmasının yayılma səbəbləri və qarşısının alınması
yolları. Azərbaycan Aqrar Elmi Jurnalı, 4(2), 56–63.
3. Gədəbəyli, M. (2010). Meliorasiya və suvarma sistemlərinin təkmilləşdirilməsi. Azərbaycan Elmi-
Aqrar Jurnalı, 2(1), 25–31.
4. Həsənov, T. (2017). Azərbaycanın torpaq resurslarının idarə olunması. Bakı: Elm və Təhsil.
5. Əliyev, İ. (2012). Azərbaycan torpaqları və onların aqroiqlim xüsusiyyətləri. Gəncə: Kənd
Təsərrüfatı Nəşriyyatı.
6. Mammadov, R. (2020). Şoran torpaqların bərpası və istifadəsi. Bakı: Maarif Nəşriyyatı.
7. Qasımov, Ə., & Quliyev, V. (2015). Torpaqların kimyəvi və fiziki xüsusiyyətlərinin təhlil metodları.
Aqrar Elmlər Jurnalı, 3(1), 42–49.
8. Алексеев, В. В. (2009). Мелиорация почв. Москва: Колос.
9. Бондарев, А. И. (2014). Засоленные почвы и их восстановление. Санкт-Петербург: Наука.
10. Demir, A. (2016). Toprak Islahı ve Drenaj Sistemleri. Ankara: Tarım Yayınları.
11. Yıldız, M. (2020). Türkiye'de Tuzluluk Problemi Olan Alanlarda Tarımsal Uygulamalar. Ziraat
Fakültesi Dergisi, 7(3), 112–118.
12. Smith, J. A., & Johnson, R. (2015). Soil Salinity and Irrigation Management. New York: Springer.
13. FAO (2020). Salt-affected soils: Global assessment and mapping methodology. Rome: Food and
Agriculture Organization.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
42
14. Thomas, G. W. (2012). Principles of Soil Salinity and Drainage. London: Academic Press.
15. United Nations Environment Programme (2019). Land degradation and salinity: A global
overview. UNEP Publications.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
43
THE ROLE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS IN PREVENTING SOIL SALINIZATION IN THE
MUGHAN PLAIN
Nijat Yarov
Western Caspian University
Faculty of environmental protection in the agricultural sector,
Baku, Azerbaijan
Abstract
The Mugan plain is one of the leading agricultural regions of Azerbaijan and is currently experiencing
intensive soil salinization. Research findings indicate that a significant portion of arable land has lost
productivity due to high salinity levels. One of the main causes is the rise of groundwater and the accumulation
of salts on the soil surface due to evaporation. This study highlights the crucial role of properly designed and
maintained drainage systems in combating salinization. Drainage helps remove excess water and salts from
the soil, improving its physical and chemical properties and ensuring long-term agricultural sustainability.
Results show that many of the existing drainage systems in the Mugan plain are outdated or malfunctioning.
Therefore, modernization of infrastructure, application of advanced technologies, farmer education, and
increased state support are essential measures for preventing further soil degradation in the region.
Keywords: Mugan plain, salinization, soil degradation, drainage systems, agriculture, groundwater,
sustainability
İntroduction
The Mughan Plain, located in the southeast of Azerbaijan, is considered one of the most productive and
strategically important agricultural regions of the country. Although this area is distinguished by favorable
climatic conditions, fertile soil resources and irrigation opportunities, it has also faced a serious agro-ecological
problem such as soil salinization in recent years. Salinization - the accumulation of salt in the soil above the
norm, limiting the normal development of plants - has led to a decrease in productivity, land degradation and
economic losses in the region. One of the main reasons for the widespread spread of this process in the Mughan
Plain is that groundwater has approached the surface as a result of intensive irrigation activities and ineffective
land reclamation measures for many years, resulting in the accumulation of salts in the upper layers of the soil
through evaporation. This imbalance in the soil profile poses a direct threat to the sustainability of agriculture.
In the current situation, the application of drainage systems is of great importance for the prevention of soil
salinization and the restoration of soil resources. Drainage systems ensure the removal of excess moisture and
salts from the soil environment, normalizing the physical and chemical properties of the soil, and increasing
its agro-ecological stability. This research study analyzes the existing salinization problems in the Mughan
Plain, and examines the role and application prospects of drainage systems in eliminating this problem.
Main part
The Mughan Plain is one of the largest and most strategically important agricultural regions in the
country, located in the southeastern part of Azerbaijan. Located in the lowland climate zone, this area has high
productivity potential and is the area where agricultural farms are concentrated, mainly engaged in cotton
growing, grain growing, vegetable growing and fodder crop production. However, as a result of intensive
agricultural activities, especially poorly planned irrigation and ineffective land reclamation measures, serious
deterioration in the quality of soil resources has been observed in the Mughan Plain in recent years. One of the
main agro-ecological problems in the area is soil salinization. Soil salinization is a process accompanied by
excessive accumulation of salts in the soil layers, which prevents the normal development of plants,
significantly reduces productivity and leads to the loss of soil fertility in the long term. One of the main causes
of salinization in the Mughan Plain is the approach of groundwater to the surface. The high level of
groundwater in the area, especially in the spring and summer months, accelerates evaporation on the soil
surface with increasing temperatures. As a result, salts that come to the soil surface together with groundwater
accumulate in the upper layer of the soil. This process disrupts the soil structure from both a physical and
chemical point of view, complicates air and water circulation in the soil, and reduces the effectiveness of
agrotechnical measures. In addition, irrational irrigation — that is, irrigation carried out in excess or irregularly
— accelerates the salinization process. The water supplied to the cultivated areas is not absorbed by the soil in
the required amount, the excess water mixes with groundwater, raising its level, and as a result, salts move
upwards. All this results in a decrease in productivity, a decrease in the quality of agricultural products, and
limited land use opportunities. One of the most effective and scientifically based measures in the fight against
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
44
salinization is the construction of drainage systems. A drainage system is a system of engineering structures
placed under or on the surface of the soil to remove excess groundwater and surface water from the site. These
systems aim to regulate the water and salt balance in the soil and to maintain a stable structural and chemical
composition of the soil. Proper design and management of drainage systems optimizes the water regime of the
soil, lowers the groundwater level and limits the accumulation of salts in the soil by preventing evaporation.
In addition, drainage improves the aeration of the soil structure, allows plant roots to penetrate deeper layers,
and ultimately contributes to increased productivity. Nowadays, drainage systems are used not only as a
mechanical tool, but also in conjunction with digital monitoring and automation technologies. This approach
allows for real-time monitoring of the soil condition in the fields, early identification of areas at risk of
salinization, and preventive measures [5].
Drainage system – is an engineering and communication infrastructure that removes excess water and
salts contained in the soil. There are two main types:
• Open drainage (surface ditches)
• Closed drainage (pipe systems)
• These systems regulate the groundwater level, balance the air-water regime in the soil profile and
create optimal conditions for the healthy development of plants.
• According to the results of the research and field observations:
• • Up to 40-60% of the cultivated areas are exposed to varying degrees of salinization.
• • The groundwater level has approached 1.5 meters in some areas, which causes salt accumulation in
the upper layer of the soil.
• • The most affected regions include Salyan, Neftchala, Bilasuvar and Jalilabad[6 p 67].
• • The functionality of the drainage systems in these areas has decreased due to either their obsolescence
or lack of maintenance..
As a result of the implementation of drainage systems:
• Groundwater is drawn down, evaporation is reduced, and salt does not rise to the surface.
• Soil pH and electrical conductivity (EC) are normalized.
• Plant root system respiration improves, yield can increase by 25-40%
[6].
• Soil becomes more resilient in drought and water shortage conditions. To prevent salinization and
restore soil fertility, it is first and foremost important to renew and expand drainage systems. [2].
Especially in areas with high salinity, the construction of modern closed drainage systems will allow
improving soil structure and washing salts into deep layers. At the same time, a permanent monitoring and
maintenance mechanism should be created for the effective operation of these systems. Drainage lines should
be regularly cleaned, technical malfunctions should be eliminated in a timely manner, and the system should
be ensured to function. It is also important to inform farmers in this area, because increasing knowledge about
the benefits and proper use of drainage systems will allow them to use their lands more efficiently. For the
implementation of all these measures, it is necessary to apply financial support and subsidy mechanisms at the
state level. This support will allow farmers to renew drainage facilities, equip them with modern technologies,
and play an active role in soil protection [7].
Among the Azerbaijani scientists who have conducted research in the field of salinization, soil
degradation and drainage systems in the Mughan Plain, Professor Shamil Abdullayev stands out for his classic
research on soil science and salinization. Professor Alirza Gasimov is known for his research on chemical and
physical analysis methods of soils, and Dr. Mammad Mammadov is known for his research on the restoration
of saline soils and the construction of drainage systems. Professor Ismayil Aliyev has published important
scientific works in the field of land resources management and land reclamation, and Dr. Vugar Guliyev has
analyzed the agro-ecological situation in the Mughan Plain. Dr. Bakhtiyar Samadov focused on salinization
and ways to prevent it, and Teymur Hasanov conducted research on the problems of agricultural land use and
management[1].
Results
Preventing the problem of soil salinization in a strategically important agricultural region such as the
Mughan Plain is of vital importance not only for the agricultural sector, but also for the food security and
economic stability of the country as a whole. Complex and long-term approaches are required to solve this
problem. The creation of drainage systems, improvement of irrigation technologies, soil monitoring and
education of farmers are the main steps to be taken in this direction. By implementing such measures, the
sustainability of agricultural activities in the Mughan Plain can be ensured, and land resources can be protected
and restored. Drainage systems play a strategic role in solving the problem of soil salinization in the Mughan
Plain. Their effective operation is necessary for preserving soil quality, increasing agricultural productivity,
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
45
and ensuring long-term soil stability. Improving and sustainable management of drainage systems remains an
important scientific and practical issue as one of the main directions of the comprehensive fight against
salinization in the future.
References
1. Abdullayev, Ş. (2005). Torpaqşünaslığın əsasları. Bakı: Elm nəşriyyatı.
2. Ceyhun, A. (2018). Muğan düzündə torpaq şoranlaşmasının yayılma səbəbləri və qarşısının alınması
yolları. Azərbaycan Aqrar Elmi Jurnalı, 4(2), 56–63.
3. Əliyev, İ. (2012). Azərbaycan torpaqları və onların aqroiqlim xüsusiyyətləri. Gəncə: Kənd
Təsərrüfatı Nəşriyyatı.
4. Gədəbəyli, M. (2010). Meliorasiya və suvarma sistemlərinin təkmilləşdirilməsi. Azərbaycan Elmi-
Aqrar Jurnalı, 2(1), 25–31.
5. Həsənov, T. (2017). Azərbaycanın torpaq resurslarının idarə olunması. Bakı: Elm və Təhsil.
6. Mammadov, R. (2020). Şoran torpaqların bərpası və istifadəsi. Bakı: Maarif Nəşriyyatı.
7. Qasımov, Ə., & Quliyev, V. (2015). Torpaqların kimyəvi və fiziki xüsusiyyətlərinin təhlil metodları.
Aqrar Elmlər Jurnalı, 3(1), 42–49.
8. Алиев, Г. А. (1990). Мелиорация засоленных почв Азербайджана. Баку: Эльм.
9. Гусейнов, Т. Ш. (2002). Рациональное использование почвенных ресурсов Миль-Муганской
равнины. Баку: Наука.
10. Öztürk, A. (2013). Toprak verimliliği ve tuzluluk sorunu. Ankara: Tarım Yayınları.
11. Şahin, M., & Arıoğlu, E. (2016). Türkiye’de şoran toprakların ıslahı üzerine araştırmalar. Ziraat
Fakültesi Dergisi, 28(4), 78–85.
12. Ünver, İ. (2011). Tarımsal drenaj sistemleri ve uygulamaları. İstanbul: Ziraat Mühendisliği
Derneği Yayınları.
13. FAO (2011). The role of drainage in combating soil salinity. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper
No. 61. Rome: Food and Agriculture Organization.
14. Rhoades, J. D., Kandiah, A., & Mashali, A. M. (1992). The use of saline waters for crop
production. FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 48. Rome: FAO.
15. Szabolcs, I. (1989). Salt-Affected Soils. Boca Raton: CRC Press.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
46
Historical sciences
HEYDAR ALİYEV - THE LEADER WHO LİVES İN THE HEARTS OF THE PEOPLE
Mammadova Shalala Arif
Azerbaijan State Pedagogical University
HEYDƏR ƏLİYEV - XALQIN QƏLBİNDƏ YAŞAYAN LİDER
Mammadova Shalala Arif
Azerbaijan State Pedagogical University
Heydər Əliyev, XX əsrin ikinci yarısında və XXI əsrin əvvəllərində Azərbaycanın siyasi tarixində dərin
izlər qoymuş, dünya siyasətində mühüm rol oynamış bir liderdir. Onun adı yalnız Azərbaycanın
müstəqilliyinin bərpası ilə əlaqələndirilmir, həmçinin ölkənin iqtisadi və sosial inkişafının təşviq edilməsi,
beynəlxalq əlaqələrinin gücləndirilməsi ilə də tanınır. Ulu Öndər Heydər Əliyevin rəhbərliyi altında
Azərbaycan, müstəqil dövlət olaraq qlobal siyasətə daxil olmuş və dünya iqtisadiyyatında mövqeyini
möhkəmləndirmişdir. Bu məqalədə Heydər Əliyevin həyat yoluna, onun dövlətçiliyə verdiyi töhfələrə və
xalqla olan güclü əlaqəsinə nəzər salınacaq.
Heydər Əliyev 10 may 1923-cü ildə Naxçıvan şəhərində anadan olmuşdur. Uşaqlıqdan etibarən zəka və
çalışqanlığı ilə seçilən Heydər Əliyev, 1944-cü ildə Azərbaycan Dövlət Universitetinin Nəşriyyat fakültəsini
bitirmişdir. Sonralar, Sovet İttifaqının rəhbərliyində əhəmiyyətli vəzifələr tutmuş, 1969-cu ildən 1982-ci ilə
qədər Azərbaycan Respublikasının Kommunist Partiyasının birinci katibi olaraq fəaliyyət göstərmişdir. Onun
rəhbərliyi altında, Azərbaycan böyük inkişaf yolu keçmiş, iqtisadiyyatın bir sıra sahələri, xüsusən də neft
sənayesi inkişaf etmişdir. Sovet dövründəki yüksəlişi və mövqeyini, xalqı üçün müstəqil və güclü bir
Azərbaycan qurma yolunda daşıyan Heydər Əliyev, 1993-cü ildə Azərbaycana geri dönərək, ölkənin siyasi
vəziyyətini düzəltmək üçün səylərini davam etdirmişdir. O, böyük dövlət xadimi olmaqla yanaşı, əslində həm
də xalqının ürəyində yaşayan bir liderə çevrilmişdir.
1991-ci ildə Azərbaycan müstəqilliyini elan etsə də, ölkə ağır bir siyasi və iqtisadi böhran dövrü keçirdi.
Qarabağ müharibəsi, daxili siyasi çaxnaşmalar və iqtisadi çətinliklər ölkənin gələcəyini təhdid edirdi. Məhz
bu dönəmdə Heydər Əliyev xalqının çağırışına cavab verərək, 1993-cü ildə Azərbaycana qayıtdı. O, dövlətin
idarə edilməsindəki təcrübəsi və güclü liderlik bacarığı ilə, ölkənin müstəqilliyinin qorunmasında həlledici rol
oynamışdır.
Heydər Əliyevin siyasi ritorikası, birincil olaraq Azərbaycan xalqının maraqlarına xidmət edirdi. 0,
ölkədə sabitliyi təmin etmək üçün genişmiqyaslı islahatlar aparmış və beynəlxalq arenada Azərbaycanın
mövqeyini möhkəmləndirmişdir. Qarabağ müharibəsi zamanı diplomatik səyləri ilə münaqişənin qızğın
dövrlərində vəziyyəti sabitləşdirməyə çalışmışdır. Bu dövrdə Heydər Əliyevin rəhbərliyi altında Azərbaycanın
beynəlxalq əlaqələri inkişaf etmiş, xüsusilə də Türkiyə ilə olan münasibətlər möhkəmləndirilmişdir.
Heydər Əliyev yalnız siyasi və diplomatik sahələrdə deyil, həm də iqtisadiyyat və sosial sahələrdə də
əhəmiyyətli islahatlar həyata keçirmişdir. 1994-cü ildə "Əsrin müqaviləsi"nin imzalanması ilə Heydər Əliyev,
Azərbaycanın enerji ehtiyatlarını dünya bazarına çıxarmağa başladı. Bakı-Tbilisi-Ceyhan neft kəməri layihəsi,
bu sahədəki ən mühüm addımlardan biri idi və Azərbaycanı beynəlxalq enerji bazarlarında güclü bir oyunçuya
çevirdi. Həmçinin, iqtisadiyyatın şaxələndirilməsi və sənayenin inkişafı istiqamətində də bir çox addımlar
atılmışdır.
Sosial sahədə isə, Heydər Əliyev təhsil və səhiyyə sahələrində genişmiqyaslı islahatlar aparmış,
mədəniyyətin inkişafına xüsusi diqqət yetirmişdir. O, həmçinin Azərbaycanın milli kimliyinin qorunması və
dilinin gücləndirilməsi istiqamətində mühüm qərarlar qəbul etmişdir. Azərbaycanın inkişafı üçün təhsil, elm
və mədəniyyət sahəsindəki sərmayələr, gələcək nəsillər üçün çox böyük əhəmiyyət kəsb etmişdir.
Heydər Əliyevin Azərbaycanın gələcəyi üçün qoyduğu irs, sadəcə siyasi və iqtisadi sahələrlə
məhdudlaşmır. O, həm də xalqının ruhunu yüksəldən bir lider idi. Onun rəhbərliyi altında Azərbaycan dünyada
müstəqil bir dövlət kimi tanındı və beynəlxalq aləmdə hörmət qazandı. Bugün Azərbaycan dövlətinin uğurları,
Heydər Əliyevin irsinin davamı olaraq, onun siyasi və iqtisadi mirasını yaşadır. Azərbaycanın müasir inkişafı
Heydər Əliyevin başladığı yolda davam edir. O, öz liderliyi ilə Azərbaycan xalqına yalnız siyasət və
iqtisadiyyat sahəsində deyil, həm də milli və mədəni dəyərlərini qorumaqda və inkişaf etdirməkdə müstəsna
bir yol göstərdi. Heydər Əliyevin həyatı və fəaliyyəti, bu gün də Azərbaycan xalqının qəlbində yaşayır. Onun
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47
rəhbərliyi altında qurulan dövlətçilik prinsipləri, bu gün də ölkənin inkişafını təmin edən əsas amillərdən
biridir.
Heydər Əliyev yalnız Azərbaycanın deyil, bütövlükdə Qafqaz regionunun ən önəmli siyasi liderlərindən
biridir. Onun həyat və fəaliyyət yolu, zəngin dövlətçilik təcrübəsi və xalqına olan sevgisi, Azərbaycanın
inkişafına böyük töhfələr vermişdir. Ulu Öndər Heydər Əliyev, Azərbaycanın müstəqilliyinin qorunması və
inkişafında olduğu qədər, dünya siyasi arenasında da özünə hörmət qazanmışdır. Bugün Heydər Əliyevin irsi,
Azərbaycan xalqının gələcəyinə işıq tutmağa davam edir. Onun adı, tarixdə həm böyük bir lider, həm də
xalqının qəlbində əbədi bir yer tutan bir şəxsiyyət olaraq qalacaqdır.
Keywords: Heydar Aliyev, Azerbaijan independence, Statehood, Leadership, Nagorno-Karabakh con-
flict, Economic development, Social reforms
Açar sözlər: Heydər Əliyev, Azərbaycan müstəqilliyi, Dövlətçilik, Liderlik, Dağlıq Qarabağ
münaqişəsi, İqtisadi inkişaf, Sosial islahatlar
Ключевые слова: Гедар Алиев, Независимость Азербаджана, Государственность, Лидерство,
Конфликт в Нагорном Карабахе
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48
Jurisprudence
LEGAL AND PRACTICAL ASPECTS OF USING OPERATIVE-SEARCH ACTIVITY IN KA-
ZAKHSTAN
Kurenbayev Nazar Maratovich
Toraighyrov University, Pavlodar, 140008,
Republic of Kazakhstan
ПРАВОВЫЕ И ПРАКТИЧЕСКИЕ АСПЕКТЫ ПРИМЕНЕНИЯ ОПЕРАТИВНО-РОЗЫСКНОЙ
ДЕЯТЕЛЬНОСТИ В КАЗАХСТАНЕ
Куренбаев Назар Маратович
Торайгыров Университет, Павлодар, 140008,
Республика Казахстан
Abstract
In light of the practical need for utilising operative-search capabilities in the investigation of criminal
offences, it is essential to further develop the legal framework governing the use of operative-search activity
(OSA) results as admissible evidence in criminal proceedings, while preserving the safeguards for the rights
of all parties involved.
The aim of this study is to examine both theoretical and practical aspects of the application of OSA
results in criminal investigations in the Republic of Kazakhstan, to identify the challenges faced by law en-
forcement agencies, and to propose a set of measures to ensure the effective and lawful use of such results
during pre-trial proceedings.
The object of the research is the legal relationships arising during the conduct of operative-search ac-
tivities and the subsequent use of the information obtained as part of evidentiary procedures.
The methodology is grounded in the dialectical-materialist approach, which emphasises the unity of
theory and practice, and incorporates specific scientific methods of legal inquiry, including historical-legal
analysis, comparative legal analysis, system-structural analysis, and empirical sociological methods.
Conclusion: In recent years, the results of operative-search activities have been increasingly integrated
into the evidentiary process, offering access to factual information about criminal events that cannot be ob-
tained through conventional criminal procedural means.
Аннотация
В связи с практическо необходимостью использования возможносте оперативно-розыскно
деятельности при расследовании уголовных преступлени, необходимо дальнешее развитие
правовых основ использования результатов оперативно-розыскно деятельности (ОРД) в качестве
допустимых доказательств в уголовном судопроизводстве, с сохранением гаранти прав всех
участников процесса.
Целью настоящего исследования является рассмотрение теоретических и практических аспектов
применения результатов оперативно-розыскно деятельности при расследовании уголовных дел в
Республике Казахстан, выявление проблем, с которыми сталкиваются правоохранительные органы, а
также предложение комплекса мер, обеспечивающих эффективное и законное использование таких
результатов в ходе досудебного производства.
Объектом исследования являются правоотношения, возникающие при проведении оперативно-
розыскно деятельности, и последующее использование полученных сведени в процессе
доказывания.
Методология основана на диалектико-материалистическом подходе, подчеркивающем единство
теории и практики, и включает в себя методы правового познания, в том числе историко-правово
анализ, сравнительно-правово анализ, системно-структурны анализ, эмпирико-социологические
методы.
В последние годы результаты оперативно-розыскно деятельности все больше интегрируются в
процесс доказывания, предоставляя доступ к фактическо информации о преступных событиях,
которую невозможно получить обычными уголовно-процессуальными средствами.
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Keywords: operative-search activity, criminal investigation, evidentiary process, law enforcement in
Kazakhstan
Ключевые слова: оперативно-розыскная деятельность, расследование уголовных дел, процесс
доказывания, правоохранительная деятельность в Казахстане
Introduction
The fight against crime in contemporary Kazakhstan relies heavily on the effective use of intelligence
and operative-search capabilities. As the scope and complexity of criminal behaviour evolves, so too must the
methods used to uncover, document, and prosecute such offences. Among the most debated aspects of this
process is the role of operative-search activity (OSA) results in legal proceedings. While these methods can be
instrumental in uncovering crucial evidence, their use raises questions about legality, admissibility, and the
protection of human rights. This study explores these issues in detail, aiming to strike a balance between op-
erational effectiveness and legal safeguards.
The subject gains increasing relevance as Kazakhstan modernises its law enforcement and judiciary
systems in alignment with international standards. Transparency in criminal justice, along with accountability
in evidence-gathering methods, remains a priority in the nation's broader human rights agenda.
Literature review
Research into the legal and practical applications of OSA has a longstanding presence in post-Soviet
legal scholarship. According to Zhalmagambetov (2018), the institutional legacy of Soviet intelligence meth-
ods continues to influence Kazakhstan's modern legal framework, creating ambiguity in the evidentiary status
of OSA results. Utegenova and Sadykov (2020) discuss the need for harmonising domestic legal standards
with international human rights norms, particularly regarding privacy and due process.
Kazakh legal scholars also raise the issue of conflicting interpretations between investigative agencies
and prosecutors regarding the legal admissibility of OSA data. Kassenov (2019) points out the overlap between
criminal procedural and administrative frameworks, which creates legal uncertainty and undermines judicial
consistency.
In a comparative context, scholars such as Ashworth (2015) and Choo (2021) have explored the use of
intelligence in UK and European criminal proceedings, emphasising strict standards for admissibility and the
exclusion of unlawfully obtained evidence. These perspectives inform the present analysis by offering legal
benchmarks that Kazakhstan may consider in its ongoing legal reforms.
Methodology
This study employs a combination of general theoretical and specific legal research methods. The pri-
mary methodological approach is dialectical materialism, which views legal systems as dynamic and intercon-
nected with broader social practices. Complementary methods include:
Historical-legal analysis: To examine the evolution of OSA usage in Kazakhstani criminal law.
Comparative legal analysis: To contrast domestic practices with international standards.
System-structural analysis: To assess the integration of OSA results into the legal process.
Empirical methods: Including review of case law, reports by legal institutions, and interviews with law
enforcement practitioners.
Data were collected through document analysis and structured interviews conducted between September
and December 2024. Respondents included officers of the Ministry of Internal Affairs, judges, and legal schol-
ars, providing a holistic view of the practical and theoretical challenges.
Results
Legal Framework and Ambiguities. The Criminal Procedure Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan
permits the use of OSA results under certain conditions (CPC RK, 2014). However, legal practitioners report
inconsistencies in how these provisions are interpreted and applied across jurisdictions. Key issues include the
lack of a clear definition of "operative-search information" and limited judicial oversight over its collection
and use. Furthermore, there is ambiguity regarding the chain of custody and documentation required to au-
thenticate OSA materials in court.
Challenges Faced by Law Enforcement. Law enforcement officials note that OSA provides critical
leads, particularly in cases involving organised crime or corruption. Nevertheless, the reliance on such methods
often leads to procedural violations, such as conducting surveillance without court authorisation or failing to
properly record the source of intelligence (Interview, KNB Officer, 2024). Many investigative officers reported
uncertainty in balancing investigative urgency with legal constraints.
Case Law and Procedural Practice. Case studies reveal inconsistent judicial attitudes toward admit-
ting OSA results as evidence. Some courts require clear documentation and traceability, while others admit
OSA-derived evidence based on the investigator’s justification alone.
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Example 1: In the high-profile corruption case of Republic v. B.A. (Astana City Court, 2021), wiretap
evidence was admitted without prior judicial authorisation. The defence contested the legality of the surveil-
lance, and the appellate court ultimately excluded the evidence, resulting in the annulment of the conviction.
Example 2: In State v. Z.K. (Almaty Region Court, 2022), covert video recordings were used as central evi-
dence in a drug trafficking case. The court ruled them admissible because the OSA was conducted under proper
warrant and oversight, serving as a model for lawful evidence gathering. Example 3: The 2023 financial fraud
case involving the «QazFinance» company highlighted procedural lapses where OSA-derived banking records
were submitted without supporting documentation. The court criticised the investigative body for procedural
negligence, emphasizing the importance of verifying the integrity and legality of intelligence. These examples
illustrate the urgent need for consistent standards in the use of OSA in criminal proceedings.
Comparison with International Standards. European Court of Human Rights jurisprudence requires
that evidence obtained through surveillance be authorised, necessary, and proportionate (Choo, 2021). Ka-
zakhstan's framework lacks systematic enforcement of these standards, risking violations of Article 6 (fair
trial) and Article 8 (privacy) of the European Convention on Human Rights. The United Nations Office on
Drugs and Crime (UNODC) recommends that all covert intelligence be subject to rigorous legal controls and
post-action audits, which are presently lacking in Kazakhstan.
Recommendations for Reform. Clarification of Legal Definitions: Amend the CPC to clearly define
OSA results and their permissible use.
Judicial Oversight: Introduce mandatory court authorisation for sensitive OSA measures.
Training for Law Enforcement: Implement continuous legal training on procedural safeguards and evi-
dence admissibility.
Transparency Mechanisms: Establish independent review bodies to oversee OSA practices.
Inter-agency Coordination: Improve collaboration between investigators, prosecutors, and judiciary to
unify practices around OSA use.
Digital Case Management Systems: Develop systems for better archiving, traceability, and review of
OSA-related materials.
Conclusion
The results of operative-search activities hold significant value in modern criminal investigations, par-
ticularly in addressing complex and covert criminal conduct. However, their use must be carefully regulated
to ensure they contribute to a fair trial process. As Kazakhstan continues to modernise its legal institutions,
greater attention must be paid to aligning OSA practices with international human rights norms and ensuring
procedural integrity.
This article contributes to the ongoing discussion by offering both critical analysis and actionable rec-
ommendations for legal reform. It emphasises the need for stronger legal definitions, consistent judicial appli-
cation, and transparent oversight mechanisms. Without these reforms, the evidentiary potential of OSA results
will remain underutilised or improperly applied, potentially undermining public trust in the justice system.
Key points
1. The article clarifies the current legal status of OSA results within Kazakhstan's criminal procedure
framework.
2. It identifies systemic gaps and procedural inconsistencies that hinder the lawful use of OSA data as
evidence.
3. It provides a comparative perspective by examining international standards and their applicability to
the Kazakhstani context.
4. Practical recommendations are offered to enhance the transparency and admissibility of OSA-derived
evidence.
5. It contributes to legal scholarship by suggesting structural reforms to align domestic laws with global
best practices.
References
1. Ashworth, A. (2015). Human Rights, Serious Crime and Criminal Procedure. Sweet & Maxwell.
2. Choo, A. L.-T. (2021). Evidence. Oxford University Press.
3. Criminal Procedure Code of the Republic of Kazakhstan [CPC RK]. (2014).
4. Kassenov, M. (2019). Admissibility of Intelligence Evidence in Kazakhstani Courts: Practical Issues
and Legal Reform. Journal of Central Asian Legal Studies, 7(2), 60–72.
5. Utegenova, L., & Sadykov, M. (2020). Legal regulation of operative-search activities in Kazakhstan:
Problems and prospects. Kazakh Journal of Legal Studies, 12(3), 45–58.
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51
6. Zhalmagambetov, B. (2018). On the legal nature of operative-search activities in Kazakhstan. State
and Law, 9(1), 33–39.
7. UNODC. (2021). Guidelines on the Use of Intelligence in Criminal Proceedings. United Nations
Office on Drugs and Crime.
8. Astana City Court. (2021). Republic v. B.A. Official court ruling archive.
9. Almaty Region Court. (2022). State v. Z.K. Case file #AZK-2022/117.
10. Ministry of Justice of the Republic of Kazakhstan. (2023). Case review of QazFinance proceedings.
Internal audit report.
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52
THE PLACE AND IMPORTANCE OF CONSTITUTION OF THE REPUBLIC OF AZERBAIJAN
IN THE LEGAL SYSTEM
Tahmina Najafova
II year student of the specialty “Jurisprudence”
Nakhchivan State University, Azerbaijan
Abstract
The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan serves as the foundational legal document establishing
the structure, principles, and functions of the state. This article examines the Constitution's central role within
Azerbaijan’s legal system, emphasizing its supremacy over other legal norms and its function in safeguarding
fundamental rights and freedoms. It also explores how the Constitution guides legislative, executive, and ju-
dicial activities, ensuring the rule of law and democratic governance. The article highlights the Constitution's
influence on legal reforms and its evolving importance in the context of national development and international
legal integration.
Keywords: legal system, constitution, law, human rights, policy, Criminal Code
In many countries, constitutions are referred to as the "Fundamental Law" (Italy), the "Supreme Law"
(Japan), the "Supreme and Fundamental Law of Society" (Moldova), or the "Supreme Law of the Republic"
(South Africa). Although the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan is not officially titled in this way, it
is the only existing act that establishes and comprehensively regulates the mechanisms of its own creation.
Historically, Azerbaijan's constitutions reflect the country's efforts to pursue an independent policy and secure
its place in the international arena. While the constitutions of the Azerbaijan SSR (those of 1937 and 1978)
were influenced by the Soviet legal system, such influences began to wane after the restoration of independ-
ence. The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan was adopted through a nationwide referendum on No-
vember 12, 1995, and serves as the primary legal document of the country. This article explores the role of the
Constitution within the legal system, its relationship with other normative acts, and its supremacy.
In drafting the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan, the constitutional experiences of several
countries were also taken into account. For example, certain provisions and legal traditions from the Constitu-
tion of the Republic of Turkey—particularly those concerning the secular nature of the state and the concept
of national identity—had an influence on the Azerbaijani Constitution [4].
The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan plays a significant role in the development of the coun-
try's social, political, and legal life. Its core content and essence are aimed at regulating the relationships be-
tween the citizen, society, and the state, as well as the foundations of the social order and the principles and
forms of organization of state power [2].
The Constitution affirms the rule of law and serves as the foundation for the legitimate functioning of
the state, demonstrating that governance is based on the principles of legality. According to Article 7 of the
Constitution, the sole source of state power is the people of Azerbaijan. This provision resembles the idea
expressed in the preamble of the United States Constitution:
"We the People of the United States, in order to form a more perfect Union, establish Justice, ensure
domestic Tranquility, provide for the common defence, promote the general Welfare, and secure the Blessings
of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity, do ordain and establish this Constitution for the United States of
America."
The Constitution of Azerbaijan also shares common features with the European Convention on Human
Rights. For example, both documents include provisions related to the right to life, liberty and personal secu-
rity, freedom of thought, speech and expression, as well as freedom of conscience and religion. Many articles
in Chapter III of the Azerbaijani Constitution, which addresses fundamental human and civil rights and free-
doms, reflect norms of international law.
Gender equality is also reflected in the Constitution of Azerbaijan. According to Clause II of Article 25,
men and women possess equal rights and freedoms. This article is included in the chapter on fundamental
human rights and freedoms and forms the legal basis for gender equality. The state is obligated to ensure the
implementation of this equality.
This provision goes beyond legal equality—it also implies the need to guarantee actual, practical equal-
ity. That means not only being equal before the law, but also having equal opportunities in real life. Interna-
tional commitments regarding gender equality are directly linked to the rights enshrined in the Constitution.
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53
In cases where there is a conflict between national legislation and an international convention, international
norms shall prevail, which serves as an important safeguard for women's rights.
The Constitution is the fundamental act of the state's legal system, and all other laws and normative acts
must conform to its principles and must not contradict it. Legislative acts must also align with the principles
of the Constitution. The Constitution establishes the fundamental principles of the legislative system and forms
the main framework for the drafting, adoption, and implementation of laws. It defines the structure of the legal
system, the legislative process, and the organizational foundations of state power.
Direct Legal Force of the Constitution
Article 147 of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan establishes that this legal-political act holds
the highest and direct legal force and serves as the foundation of the legislative system:
Article 147. Legal Force of the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan
I. The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan has the highest legal force within the Republic of
Azerbaijan.
II. The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan possesses direct legal force.
III. The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan is the basis of the legislative system of the Republic
of Azerbaijan.
The supremacy of the Constitution is expressed in its central role within the legal system and in its
higher legal force compared to other legal acts. As the highest legal document of the state, the Constitution
holds a superior legal status over all other normative-legal acts. The Constitution establishes the legal founda-
tions for the adoption of other legal acts. Laws, decrees, and other normative documents must be drafted within
the framework of the principles and norms set out in the Constitution. If any normative act contradicts the
Constitution, it is annulled or amended. This process is typically carried out by the Constitutional Court. The
Constitutional Court is the primary body responsible for ensuring the supremacy of the Constitution over other
legal acts. Any act that conflicts with the Constitution is rendered null and void [4].
The provision stating that “the Constitution has direct legal force” refers to the possibility of applying
certain constitutional provisions directly to various practical matters, without the need for further specification
or elaboration by another legal act—even though the Constitution itself also includes norms that call for the
adoption of laws to further develop and clarify some of its provisions. The direct application of the Constitution
is, in general, a complex issue and remains a subject of ongoing interpretation. The direct application of certain
provisions is theoretically difficult. For example, it is nearly impossible to apply intellectual property rights or
electoral rights directly without specific legislation, as the procedures for exercising and protecting these rights
must be clearly defined by law. Therefore, the provisions set forth in the Constitution are often further devel-
oped through laws or other normative legal acts.
The provisions of the Constitution form the foundation of the country’s legislative process and play a
fundamental role in the adoption of all laws. Its provisions influence national legislation either directly or
indirectly, ensuring the formation of the legal system. During the legislative process, the principles of democ-
racy, transparency, and the rule of law must be upheld.
The drafting, discussion, adoption, and approval of laws are regulated by the Constitution. The Consti-
tution also defines the right of legislative initiative. Not everyone holds this right; it is granted only to specific
state bodies and officials. The authority to propose the drafting and consideration of a law belongs to the
following entities:
• The President of the Republic of Azerbaijan
• Members of the Milli Majlis (Parliament)
• The Supreme Court of the Republic of Azerbaijan
• 40,000 citizens of the Republic of Azerbaijan with the right to vote
• The Prosecutor’s Office of the Republic of Azerbaijan
• The Supreme Assembly of the Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic
A draft law is discussed in the committees and plenary sessions of the Milli Majlis (Parliament). During
these discussions, the draft’s compliance with the Constitution is examined, and amendments may be made.
Laws are adopted by a majority vote in the Milli Majlis. However, constitutional laws may require a special
majority. Once adopted by the Milli Majlis, the law is sent to the President. The President may either sign the
law or return it with a request for revisions (exercising the right of veto). After the President signs the law, it
is officially published and enters into force. New laws cannot contradict the fundamental rights and freedoms
enshrined in the Constitution. For example, laws that restrict human rights and freedoms or that contradict
democratic governance principles cannot be enacted. The principles of the rule of law and legality must not be
violated. If it is later discovered that a law in force does not comply with the Constitution, it may be amended
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54
by the legislative body, annulled entirely by a decision of the Constitutional Court, or replaced by new legis-
lative acts that revise previous normative documents. For instance, certain provisions of the Family Code re-
garding “restriction of parental rights” were reviewed by the Constitutional Court in 2014. The Court found
that one of the provisions contradicted the principle of the best interests of the child and therefore was deemed
unconstitutional.
Provisions of the Constitution related to various sectors are reflected in the relevant laws. For example:
• Human and civil rights and freedoms – The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan regulates
the protection, equality, and inviolability of human rights. In accordance with the Constitution and interna-
tional conventions, it ensures the protection of citizens' rights. These rights are further detailed in laws such as
the Civil Code, the Criminal Code, and other normative acts [3].
• Electoral system – The constitutional provisions concerning voting rights are regulated through the
Election Code.
• Judicial system and law enforcement agencies – The independence of the judiciary is enshrined in
the Constitution and is further specified in laws such as the Law on Courts and Judges, the Law on the Con-
stitutional Court, and other legal acts [1].
• Economy and property rights – The Constitution affirms the inviolability of both private and state
property. These provisions are regulated through laws such as the Civil Code, the Tax Code, and the Customs
Code. There are legal oversight mechanisms in place to ensure the proper reflection and application of consti-
tutional provisions in legislation:
• The Constitutional Court – Reviews whether laws and normative acts comply with the Constitution.
If any law or normative act contradicts the Constitution, the Constitutional Court has the authority to annul it.
• Parliamentary oversight – The Milli Majlis ensures constitutional compliance in the adoption and
implementation of laws.
• The President and the Government – The executive branch adopts normative acts to implement
constitutional provisions. The President may return adopted laws if they are deemed non-compliant with the
Constitution.
• Courts and law enforcement agencies – Oversee the constitutional enforcement of legal acts.
The Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan also establishes the core institutions of constitutional
law, which is the leading and foundational branch of law. These include human rights, electoral law, the judi-
cial system, territorial organization, local self-governance, emergency governance regimes, constitutional
oversight, the legal and legislative system, and others. Most of the legislative acts regulating these constitu-
tional law institutions have already been adopted by the state and have become an integral part of public life.
In conclusion, it should be noted that by incorporating international treaties and human rights standards,
the Constitution of the Republic of Azerbaijan strengthens the country's position on the global stage. Its foun-
dational role in the legal system places it above all other normative acts, which is of fundamental importance
for ensuring legal stability and the rule of law. In the future, the development of the Constitution and its adap-
tation to modern challenges will depend on the dynamics of society. With new initiatives and the active par-
ticipation of the younger generation, the application of constitutional principles will continue to expand, and
legislative processes that meet the needs of society will be implemented.
References
1. Abbasov, E., Garibli, I., & Ozturk, A. (2025). Conduct of Civil Proceedings in Higher Courts. Porta
Universorum, 1(3), 254-261.
2. Behbudov, G., Abbasov, E., Aliyev, H., Huseynov, T., & Aliyev, E. JURIDICAL SCIENCES. AG-
RICULTURAL SCIENCES, 18.
3. Huseynov, T., Khalilov, Y., Aliyev, H., & Abisov, S. (2025). Circumstances that Prevent an Act
from Being a Crime. Porta Universorum, 1(3), 29-36.
4. Yunis, K. (2024). CONCEPTS ABOUT THE SOURCE OF THE WORD “CONSTITUTION”
AND ITS MODERN MEANING. Scientific Research and Experimental Development, (6).
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
55
IS IT CONSTITUTIONAL TO LIMIT PROSECUTORS’ PENSIONS?
Olena Osipova
Judge
Sumy District Administrative Court,
(Sumy, Ukraine),
Doctor of Philosophy in Law
ЧИ КОНСТИТУЦІЙНО ОБМЕЖУВАТИ ПЕНСІЇ ПРОКУРОРАМ?
Олена Осіпова
суддя Сумського окружного адміністративного суду
(місто Суми, Україна),
докторка філософії у галузі права
15 квітня 2025 року Верховна Рада України приняла в повторному першому читанні за основу
законопроєкт про внесення змін до деяких законів України щодо пенсіного забезпечення працівників
прокуратури (№12278 доопрацьовани), в якому, серед іншого, запропоновано змінити умови виплати
та проведення перерахунків пенсі прокурорам, зокрема виплачувати пенсію за вислугу років
прокурорам лише після звільнення особи з органів прокуратури, призначати пенсії по інвалідності
прокурорам, яким встановлена інвалідність відповідно до законодавства, відповідно до Закону України
„Про загальнообов’язкове державне пенсіне страхування [1].
Проте ряд інших запропонованих змін викликає обґрунтовані зауваження.
Законодавчі вади. Так, у пояснювальні записці до законопроєкту №12278 (абзац 2 пункту 2)
причина збільшення позовів до суду, поданих пенсіонерами, насамперед прокурорами, пояснюється
«різним застосуванням норм пенсіного законодавства» [2], що, м’яко кажучи, не відповідає реаліям,
оскільки основною причиною насправді є приняття Верховною Радою та Кабінетом Міністрів
системно неузгоджених, місцями суперечливих, правових актів, які не відповідають нормам
Конституції України, практиці Конституціного і Верховного Суду та ЄСПЛ.
Це призводить до неправильного вибіркового застосування пенсіних норм органами
Пенсіного фонду України, масового звернення до адміністративних судів з позовами та їх
задоволення, а значить, і до зростання заборгованості з пенсіних виплат за рішеннями судів.
Крім того, варто зауважити, що назва законопроєкту не відповідає ого змісту, адже в ньому
деться не тільки про прокурорів, а про пенсії за іншими спеціальними законами, а також згадується
про довічне грошове утримання суддів із посиланням на Закон України «Про судоустрі та статус суд-
дів», тому це проєкт краще озаглавити як «Про внесення змін до деяких законів України щодо
пенсійного забезпечення».
Сумнівними видаються пропозиції обмежити пенсіні виплати/ довічне грошове утримання суд-
дів, оскільки це призведе до відтоку суддівських кадрів та ігнорування конституціного принципу
соціальних гаранті суддям, що підриває саму основу судочинства, а обмеження розміру пенсі про-
курорам 23610 грн. призведе до зрівняння розмірів пенсі незалежно від стажу та заманої посади, що
є виявом несправедливості і суперечить статті 22 Конституції України, відповідно до якої при при-
нятті нових законів або внесенні змін до чинних законів не допускається звуження змісту та обсягу
існуючих прав і свобод, а також статтям 46,58 Конституції України, які гарантують право на соціаль-
ни захист, та встановлюють, що Закони та інші нормативно-правові акти не мають зворотної дії в часі,
крім випадків, коли вони пом'якшують або скасовують відповідальність особи [3].
Висновки та пропозиції. На нашу думку, подібні обмеження можливі лише на період воєнного
стану шляхом внесення відповідної норми до Закону України «Про правови режим воєнного стану»
від 12.05.2015 №389-VIII та відповідни Указ Президента про введення/продовження такого стану.
Крім того, в ст.86 Закону України слід заповнити прогалину, а саме вказати, що тим пенсіонерам
прокуратури, які вишли на пенсію до приняття Закону України «Про прокуратуру» від 14.10.2014
№1697-VII, при перерахунку пенсії враховується доплата за класни чин, адже з неї сплачувався вне-
сок на пенсіне страхування.
Також необхідно доповнити ч.2 ст.81 цього Закону положенням про доплату за наукову ступінь,
як це зроблене п.3 ч.2 ст.135 Закону України «Про судочинство і статус суддів» від 02.06.2016 №1402-
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
56
VIIІ [4], оскільки відсутність такої норми ставить прокурорів у нерівне становище з іншими кате-
горіями пенсіонерів (наприклад, державних службовців, суддів тощо) при призначенні чи перерахунку
пенсі, оскільки така доплата враховується у місячни заробіток, з якого обчислюється розмір пенсії.
Не треба забувати, що органи прокуратури включені Конституцією України до Розділу «Право-
суддя» (стаття 131-1), оскільки прокурори сприяють здісненню правосуддя судовою гілкою влади в
межах повноважень.
В перехідних положеннях до законопроєкту слід зазначити, як бути з тими пенсіонерами, яким
спеціальні пенсії за рішенням судів призначені у розмірі більшому за максимальни (23610 грн.).
Сьогодні до них застосовуються понижувальні коефіцієнти, що спричинило численні звернення
до судів.
Оскільки рішення судів не можуть бути переглянуті у спосіб приняття нового закону, яким об-
межуються зміст та обсяг існуючих прав, тому на цих пенсіонерів дія законопроєкту не повинна поши-
рюватися.
Таке врегулювання безперечно сприятиме утвердженню принципу поваги до статусу суддів та
прокурорів, уникненню подвіних стандартів у пенсіному забезпеченні та зміцненню авторитету су-
дової системи та органів прокуратури.
References
1. Draft Law on Amendments to Certain Laws of Ukraine Regarding Pension Provision for Prosecutor's
Office Employees dated December 02, 2024 No. 12278. https://itd.rada.gov.ua/billinfo/Bills/Card/45362
(access date 19.05.2025) [Опубліковано українською мовою].
2. Explanatory note to draft law on Amendments to Certain Laws of Ukraine Regarding Pension Pro-
vision for Prosecutor's Office Employees No. 12278 https://itd.rada.gov.ua/billinfo/Bills/Card/45362 (access
date 19.05.2025) [Опубліковано українською мовою].
3. Constitution of Ukraine. https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/254%D0%BA/96-
%D0%B2%D1%80#Text (access date 19.05.2025) [Опубліковано українською мовою].
4. Law of Ukraine «On the Judicial System and the Status of Judges» dated June 02, 2016/ No. 1402-
VIII https://zakon.rada.gov.ua/laws/show/1402-19#Text (access date 19.05.2025) [Опубліковано
українською мовою].
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
57
Medical sciences
UDC: 618.11-006.6
OVARIAN CANCER: CONTEMPORARY STATE OF THE PROBLEM
Arman Khozhayev
Professor of the S.N. Nugmanov Department of Oncology,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Arailym Tulendi
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Aruzhan Kenges
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Zhansaya Bodaubekova
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Lazzat Begaidarova
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Nazerke Zhanusbay
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Aidana Temirtas
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Gulbanu Kabulova
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Zukhra Khassanova
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Akmaral Kalmet
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Nurila Mahambaeva
Resident Obstetrician-Gynecologist,
Asfendiyarov Kazakh National Medical University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Abstract
This scientific and analytical work presents modern world and local-regional data on incidence, mortal-
ity, lethality and five-year survival rate of such a common oncological pathology as ovarian cancer. The issues
of etiology and pathogenesis, modern approaches and principles of complex diagnostics, prospects for improv-
ing treatment results, as well as the prognosis are covered in detail. The epidemiological characteristics of this
pathology in our republic are given in the context of the regions of the country.
Key words: oncology, gynecology, ovarian cancer, biomarkers, cancer antigen 125, human epididymis
protein 4, BRCA1/2 mutation, DNA, RNA, epidemiology, incidence, mortality, lethality, five-year survival
rate, prognosis.
Ovarian cancer (OC) is a malignant tumor that most often develops from the ovarian epithelium. Re-
quirements for the pathomorphological conclusion in OC: 1) macroscopic description of the specimen sepa-
rately for each ovary [size and weight, color, capsule condition, cross-sectional view, approximate ratio of
cystic and solid components (in %), presence of papillary structures (if any, in % approximately), and other
involved organs]; 2) tumor [total size (3 dimensions: height, width, length), location, type, invasion depth (in
relation to the myometrium/endometrium border), myometrium thickness (mm), endometrium, involvement
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
58
of the serous membrane of the uterus, involvement of the cervix, appendages)]; 3) other findings (presence of
invasion into other organs); 4) lymph nodes (if present: size, location, size of the largest lymph node, number,
number of cassettes); 5) microscopic description [primary tumor: histologic type, degree of differentiation,
invasion, capsule/surface involvement, lymphovascular invasion, immunohistochemical (IHC) markers, me-
tastases (preferably described separately): location of metastases (lymph nodes involved/number of nodes, size
of largest metastasis, extension beyond lymph node)] [1].
The diagnostic criteria are as follows. Complaints and anamnesis: all patients are recommended to have
a thorough collection of complaints and anamnesis; in the early stages, OC may be asymptomatic or cause
minor discomfort; in the advanced stage, the disease manifests itself with non-specific symptoms: an increase
in abdominal volume, dyspeptic symptoms, weight loss, loss of appetite, pain in the abdomen or pelvis, short-
ness of breath, general weakness. The level of evidence for recommendations is A (the level of evidence is 1).
Comment: collecting information about complaints and anamnesis details, including family history, is carried
out in order to identify factors that may influence the choice of treatment tactics.
Physical examination: a thorough physical examination is recommended; it includes a recto-vaginal
examination, palpation of the abdominal organs and all groups of peripheral lymph nodes, auscultation and
percussion of the lungs, palpation of the mammary glands. The level of evidence for recommendations is A
(the level of reliability of evidence is 1). Comment: special attention should be paid to assessing the patient's
condition according to the WHO/ECOG and/or Karnofsky scale, assessing nutritional status, pain syndrome,
body temperature, hemodynamics, enlarged peripheral lymph nodes, and the presence of pleurisy and ascites.
Laboratory diagnostic tests: it is recommended to perform a complete general (clinical) blood test, a
general therapeutic biochemical blood test with assessment of liver and kidney function, a complete (clinical)
urine test, and a study of the blood coagulation system for all patients with OC in order to assess the patient's
condition, determine the patient's treatment tactics and algorithm, and assess the prognosis of the disease. The
level of evidence for recommendations is C (the level of reliability of evidence is 4). Comments: A complete
blood count is performed (repeated) at least 5 days before the start of the next course of chemotherapy; in a
complete general (clinical) blood test, it is advisable to assess the following parameters: hemoglobin, hemato-
crit, erythrocytes, mean corpuscular volume, erythrocyte distribution by size, mean corpuscular hemoglobin
content, mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration, leukocyte platelets, leukocyte formula, erythrocyte sed-
imentation rate; in a general therapeutic biochemical blood test with an assessment of liver and kidney function
indicators - total protein, glucose, bilirubin, creatinine, urea, iron, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate ami-
notransferase, total bilirubin, lactate aminotransferase, alkaline phosphatase, plasma electrolytes (potassium,
sodium, chlorine), in a general (clinical) urine test - determination of color, transparency of urine, its specific
gravity, protein in urine, pH, glucose, ketone bodies, urobilinogen, leukocyte esterase, by hardware microscopy
of epithelial cells, erythrocytes, cylinders, salt, mucus, bacteria and fungi; as part of the study of the blood
coagulation system, a coagulogram (an indicative study of the hemostasis system) is assessed (fibrinogen,
prothrombin (according to Quick), international normalized ratio, prothrombin time, prothrombin index, acti-
vated partial thromboplastin time, thrombin time, if indicated, additionally - antithrombin III, D-dimer, plas-
minogen, % activity); it is recommended that all patients undergo a study of the level of adenogenic cancer
antigen CA 125 in the blood in order to identify OC and its recurrence. The level of evidence for recommen-
dations is A (the level of reliability of evidence is 1) [1].
In the absence of morphological verification of the diagnosis, it is recommended that all patients with
suspected OC undergo determination of human epididymis protein 4 (HE4) in the blood and determination of
the Risk of Ovarian Malignancy Algorithm (ROMA) index in order to assess the probability of OC. The
strength of the recommendations is B (the level of evidence is 2). Comment: determination of HE4 in the blood
and the ROMA index does not replace the need for morphological verification of the diagnosis, but an elevated
HE4 level increases the specificity of OC diagnostics; if mucinous carcinoma is suspected, it is recommended,
in addition to testing the level of adenogenic cancer antigen CA 125 in the blood, to test the level of adenogenic
cancer antigen CA 19-9 in the blood and test the level of carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) in the blood serum
for the purpose of differential diagnosis. The strength of the recommendations is A (the level of evidence is
2). Comment: CEA and CA19-9 may increase in mucinous OC, which allows for subsequent monitoring of
the effectiveness of the treatment; for women under 40, who have a high probability of non-epithelial tumors,
it is recommended to perform a study of the alpha-fetoprotein level in the blood serum, a study of the level of
chorionic gonadotropin in the blood, and a study of the level of inhibin B in the blood at the diagnostic stage.
The level of evidence for recommendations is C (the level of reliability of evidence is 5). Comment: non-
epithelial ovarian tumors predominate at a young age (detailed information is provided in the section on non-
epithelial ovarian tumors). All patients with high-grade serous and endometrioid carcinomas are recommended
to undergo molecular genetic testing for mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes in the blood or by scraping
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
59
the oral mucosa and/or in biopsy (surgical) material as predictors of the disease outcome and the choice of the
patient's treatment algorithm. The level of evidence for recommendations is B (the level of reliability of evi-
dence is 2). Comment: the frequency of mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA 2 genes in the indicated histolog-
ical types of tumors is about 15%. Information about the presence of a BRCA mutation is useful for determin-
ing a higher sensitivity of the tumor to therapy with alkylating agents, platinum derivatives and poly (adenosine
diphosphate-ribose) polymerase (PARP) inhibitors [1].
1. All patients with OC or suspected OC are recommended to undergo computed tomography (CT) of
the chest, abdominal cavity, retroperitoneal space, and kidneys at the diagnostic stage, with or without intra-
venous contrast in order to determine the extent of the tumor process and plan the treatment algorithm. The
level of evidence for recommendations is A (the level of reliability of evidence is 1). Comment: CT allows (a)
to visualize the primary tumor, (b) to identify metastases of the disease, (c) to assess the possibility of per-
forming an optimal cytoreductive surgery. If CT is contraindicated or insufficiently informative, magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) with intravenous contrast may be performed. If distant metastasis is suspected, pos-
itron emission tomography (PET)/CT may be performed.
2. All patients with OC or suspected OC are recommended to undergo MRI of the pelvic organs with or
without intravenous contrast at the diagnostic stage in order to determine the extent of the tumor process and
plan the treatment algorithm. The strength of the recommendations is A (the level of evidence is 1). Comment:
MRI allows (a) to visualize the primary tumor, (b) to identify metastases of the disease, (c) to assess the pos-
sibility of performing an optimal cytoreductive surgery. In case of contraindications to MRI examination or its
insufficiently informativeness, as well as when it is not possible to perform MRI, CT with or without intrave-
nous contrast is indicated. If distant metastasis is suspected, PET/CT can be performed.
3. All patients with OC or suspected OC are recommended to undergo chest X-ray at the diagnostic
stage if CT of the chest is not possible. The strength of the recommendations is C (the level of evidence is 5).
Comment: CT of the chest organs is more sensitive and specific in detecting metastases in the lungs and me-
diastinal lymph nodes.
4. All patients with OC or suspected OC are recommended to undergo ultrasound examination of the
lymph nodes in the cervical-supraclavicular region, axillary, inguinal lymph nodes, ultrasound of the ab-
dominal cavity, retroperitoneal space and pelvis at the diagnostic stage if CT/MRI/PET-CT cannot be per-
formed in order to determine the prevalence of the tumor process and plan the treatment algorithm. The level
of evidence for recommendations is B (the level of reliability of evidence is 2). Comment: Ultrasound is the
simplest method for visualizing formations in the abdominal cavity, in the pelvic cavity, and secondary lymph
node damage. However, this method is significantly inferior to CT/MRI/PET-CT in terms of making a decision
on the first stage of treatment. Evaluation of the effect of chemotherapy according to RECIST 1.1 criteria is
also impossible based on the results of ultrasound.
5. All patients with OC or suspected OC at the diagnostic stage are recommended to undergo examina-
tion of the mammary glands in order to exclude secondary (metastatic) ovarian lesions or primary multiple
malignant neoplasms. The level of evidence for the recommendations is A (the level of reliability of the evi-
dence is 1). Comments: Women under 40 years of age undergo ultrasound examination of the mammary glands
in the first phase of the menstrual cycle, if available; women over 40 years of age are recommended to undergo
mammography in the first phase of the menstrual cycle, if available. Examination of the mammary glands is
carried out in accordance with the principles set out in the clinical guidelines for malignant neoplasms of the
mammary glands.
6. For patients with OC, diagnostic laparoscopy is recommended to clarify the extent of the process,
morphologically verify the diagnosis and assess resectability, as well as in cases where the performance of
optimal cytoreduction is questionable for staging or if it was not adequately performed during previous cytore-
duction, as well as for morphological verification of the diagnosis if less invasive methods are not effective
[1]. As noted by Zhu B. et al. [2] the incidence and mortality of gynaecological cancers (GCs) can signifi-
cantly impact women's quality of life and increase the health care burden for organisations globally. The ob-
jective of study was to evaluate global inequalities in the incidence and mortality of GCs in 2022, based on
The Global Cancer Observatory (GLOBOCAN) 2022 estimates. The future burden of GCs in 2050 was also
projected. Data regarding to the total cases and deaths related to GCs, as well as cases and deaths pertaining
to different subtypes of GCs, gathered from the GLOBOCAN database for the year 2022. Predictions for the
number of cases and deaths in the year 2050 were derived from global demographic projections, categorised
by world region and Human Development Index (HDI). In 2022, there were 1 473 427 new cases of GCs and
680 372 deaths. The incidence of gynecological cancer reached 30.3 per 100 000, and the mortality rate hit
13.2 per 100 000. The age-standardised incidence of GCs in Eastern Africa is higher than 50 per 100 000,
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
60
whereas the age-standardised incidence in Northern Africa is 17.1 per 100 000. The highest mortality rates
were found in East Africa (age-standardised mortality rates of 35.3 per 100 000) and the lowest in Australia
and New Zealand (age-standardised mortality rates of 8.1 per 100 000). These are related to the endemic areas
of HIV and HPV. Very high HDI countries had the highest incidence of GCs, with age-standardised incidence
rates of 34.8 per 100 000, and low HDI countries had the second highest incidence rate, with an age-standard-
ised incidence rates of 33.0 per 100 000. Eswatini had the highest incidence and mortality (105.4 per 100 000;
71.1 per 100 000) and Yemen the lowest (5.8 per 100 000; 4.4 per 100 000). If the current trends in incidence
and mortality are maintained, number of new cases and deaths from female reproductive tract tumours is pro-
jected to increase over the next two decades. In conclusion, the authors point out that in 2022, GCs accounted
for 1 473 427 new cases and 680 372 deaths globally, with significant regional disparities in incidence and
mortality rates. The highest rates were observed in Eastern Africa and countries with very high and low HDI,
with Eswatini recording the most severe statistics. If current trends continue, the number of new cases and
deaths from GCs is expected to rise over the next two decades, highlighting the urgent need for effective
interventions.
OC is a leading cause of death in women worldwide, with more than 300,000 new cases and nearly
200,000 deaths globally each year [3].
Medina J.E. et al. emphasize in their work that [4], OC is a leading cause of death for women worldwide,
in part due to ineffective screening methods. Unfortunately, OC is usually detected in advanced stages (stages
III and IV) due to nonspecific clinical symptoms at earlier stages and the lack of an effective screening ap-
proach. Consequently, there is a clear unmet clinical need for the development of highly specific and sensitive
assays to detect OC in its earliest stages. In their study, the authors used whole-genome cell-free DNA (cfDNA)
fragmentome and protein biomarker [cancer antigen 125 (CA-125) and HE4] analyses to evaluate 591 women
with OC, with benign adnexal masses, or without ovarian lesions. Using a machine learning model with the
combined features, researchers detected OC with specificity >99% and sensitivities of 72%, 69%, 87%, and
100% for stages I to IV, respectively. At the same specificity, CA-125 alone detected 34%, 62%, 63%, and
100%, and HE4 alone detected 28%, 27%, 67%, and 100% of OCs for stages I to IV, respectively. This ap-
proach differentiated benign masses from OCs with high accuracy (AUC = 0.88, 95% confidence interval,
0.83-0.92). These results were validated in an independent population. These findings show that integrated
cfDNA fragmentome and protein analyses detect OCs with high performance, enabling a new accessible ap-
proach for noninvasive OC screening and diagnostic evaluation.
Qian F. et al. [5] in their study note that OC is the fifth leading cause of cancer deaths in US women,
due to its typically advanced stage at presentation. Furthermore, unlike breast or colorectal cancer, there is no
proven screening method for OC to identify early disease and initiate treatment to improve survival. Family
history, oral contraceptive use, parity, body mass index (BMI), and genetic variants are potentially useful in
estimating lifetime risk. Along with this, because of differences in age at onset and tumour histology/grade,
risk factors for OC might be different for BRCA1/2 mutation carriers than women in the general population.
Penetrance of BRCA1/2 mutations is likely modified by other genetic variants and lifestyle or reproductive
factors. Investigation of these factors could aid in implementation of strategies to reduce OC risk among mu-
tation carriers. In their work, the authors point out that height and BMI are associated with higher OC risk in
the general population, but whether such associations exist among BRCA1/2 mutation carriers is unknown.
The researchers applied a Mendelian randomisation approach to examine height/BMI with OC risk using the
Consortium of Investigators for the Modifiers of BRCA1/2 data set, comprising 14,676 BRCA1 and 7912
BRCA2 mutation carriers, with 2923 OC cases. They created a height genetic score using 586 height-associ-
ated variants and a BMI genetic score using 93 BMI-associated variants. Associations were assessed using
weighted Cox models. Observed height was not associated with OC risk (hazard ratio [HR]: 1.07 per 10-cm
increase in height, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.94-1.23). Height genetic score showed similar results
(HR = 1.02, 95% CI: 0.85-1.23). Higher BMI was significantly associated with increased risk in premenopau-
sal women with HR = 1.25 (95% CI: 1.06-1.48) and HR = 1.59 (95% CI: 1.08-2.33) per 5-kg/m2 increase in
observed and genetically determined BMI, respectively. No association was found for postmenopausal women.
Interaction between menopausal status and BMI was significant (pinteraction < 0.05). Our colleagues empha-
size that the results of their observation of a positive association between BMI and OC risk in premenopausal
BRCA1/2 mutation carriers is consistent with findings in the general population.
Jara-Rosales S. et al. [6] in their work they say that in 2020, OC ranked fourth in incidence among
gynecological cancers worldwide, following breast cancer, cervical cancer, and uterine cancer. In terms of
mortality, it ranked third, establishing itself as one of the most lethal gynecological cancers. A 2021 study
revealed that the variability in the incidence depends on each country and region, but the mortality rate remains
similar among the 185 countries included. This behavior is attributed to nonspecific symptoms and the lack of
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
61
screening programs, leading to diagnoses at advanced stages with unfavorable prognoses for patients [7]. OC
constitutes a group of diverse diseases, each characterized by its own morphology and biological behavior.
This heterogeneity implies that different subtypes may respond differently to treatments and show variations
in their progression rates [8]. It is therefore essential to recognize this diversity to effectively address the dif-
ferent manifestations of OC. The risk factors for OC are divided into two categories: modifiable and non-
modifiable. Modifiable factors include smoking, hormone replacement therapy, and dietary elements, among
others. Non-modifiable factors include heredity, mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2 genes, family history,
Lynch syndrome, uninterrupted ovulation cycles, and the presence of endometriosis, among others [7].
Our colleagues conducted an exhaustive search was conducted to identify literature to describe the OC
biology and physiopathology for new readers, in particular focused on clinical researchers. In addition, a more
stringent search was performed to find studies related to the genetic components, social determinants, and
comorbidities associated with OC in South America. The search was performed through PubMed and Google
Scholar, using the MeSH descriptors and keywords such as “Hereditary Breast and Ovarian Cancer Syn-
drome”, “Latin America”, “BRCA1 Genes”, “BRCA2 Genes”, and “Ovarian Neoplasms”. Additionally, the
keywords “Obesity”, “chronic disease”, “Comorbidity”, “poverty”, “education”, “race”, “ethnicity”, “menar-
che”, “menopause”, “multiparity”, “urbanization”, “epidemiology”, and “risk factors” were utilized to capture
relevant studies. Due the reported disparities in clinical trials and other biomedical studies, the Latin American
population is greatly underrepresented in most of the cancer and genomic databases, including local investi-
gations. For this reason, the number of identified reports according to the specific topics was very small for
further analysis. The revision of the literature was conducted based on original articles, including cohort stud-
ies, case-control studies, cross-sectional studies, and experimental research investigating the risk factors for
OC in the South American population, and the selected articles were published within the last 10 years, with
full-text availability, and were written in English or Spanish. The authors considered studies involving women
from 12 South American countries, without age restrictions, focusing particularly on those analyzing genetic
components, socioeconomic determinants, and comorbidities. Considering the main goal of this work, they
excluded studies focused on OC treatment, research validating laboratory tests for detecting OC-related muta-
tions, and non-original content such as reviews, opinions, editorials, letters to the editor, and conference ab-
stracts. Articles that did not clearly specify the region or country of interest, or those centered on education
about OC risk factors, were also excluded. [6].
In the conclusions following from the study, the researchers note that based on the revised articles, it
can be concluded that although there are reports on the prevalence of mutations in the BRCA1 and BRCA2
genes in South American countries, such as Chile, Colombia, Argentina, Uruguay, and Brazil, including Mex-
ico as Hispanic, the general prevalence is close to 15-20% in women with hereditary risk factors or those
diagnosed with ovarian and/or breast cancer. However, it is important to highlight that the available studies
are limited. More research is needed to accurately determine the prevalence of the punctual mutation in each
country, as well as those mutational signatures that could be unique for the Latin American population. In
terms of the social, demographic, and economic factors that influence the incidence of OC, these vary by
country, but similarities are observed in age, being more prevalent in women over 50 years old, and in women
with poor education and difficulties in accessing healthcare. Similarly, the absence of studies regarding the
effect of contraception and hormone replacement therapy in the Latin American population is highlighted,
despite being widely studied factors in the international scientific literature. This gap in the research under-
scores the need to address these aspects in future research in the region. This article has several limitations,
starting with the very limited number of studies published and the number of participants in each study. The
revised literature covers several years of research conducted in each country; these years may represent dis-
parities in funding for biomedical research, the number and capabilities of each research group and the possi-
bility of enrolling patients, and the access to technological facilities. For now, it is not possible to conduct a
more comprehensive analysis; however, this work may promote the interest of other researchers to collaborate
in the systematic revision of current and future data. Regarding the need to improve lifestyles as a preventive
measure to reduce the possibility of morbidities and the concomitant development of OC, although the litera-
ture may not be sufficient to conclusively establish a direct link between obesity and/or diabetes and the de-
velopment of OC, the indirect association suggests the importance of conducting additional clinical studies.
These studies could confirm or dismiss the hypothesis that obesity and diabetes could be related to the risk of
developing OC, thereby providing a more solid basis for future interventions and prevention strategies [6].
Bryant A. et al. [9] provide data showing that OC is the seventh most common cancer among women
and a leading cause of death from gynaecological malignancies. Epithelial OC is the most common type, ac-
counting for around 90% of all OCs. This specific type of OC starts in the surface layer covering the ovary or
lining of the fallopian tube. Surgery is performed either before chemotherapy [upfront or primary debulking
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62
surgery (PDS)] or in the middle of a course of treatment with chemotherapy [neoadjuvant chemotherapy and
interval debulking surgery (IDS)], with the aim of removing all visible tumour and achieving no macroscopic
residual disease (NMRD). The aim of this study was to investigate the prognostic impact of size of residual
disease (RD) nodules in women who received upfront or interval cytoreductive surgery for advanced (stage III
and IV) epithelial OC (EOC). To assess the prognostic impact of RD after primary surgery on survival out-
comes for advanced (stage III and IV) EOC. In separate analyses, primary surgery included both upfront PDS
followed by adjuvant chemotherapy and neoadjuvant chemotherapy followed by IDS. Each RD threshold is
considered as a separate prognostic factor. The authors searched CENTRAL (2021, Issue 8), MEDLINE via
Ovid (to 30 August 2021) and Embase via Ovid (to 30 August 2021). Our colleagues included survival data
from studies of at least 100 women with advanced EOC after primary surgery. RD was assessed as a prognostic
factor in multivariate prognostic models. They excluded studies that reported fewer than 100 women, women
with concurrent malignancies or studies that only reported unadjusted results. Women were included into two
distinct groups: those who received PDS followed by platinum-based chemotherapy and those who received
IDS, analysed separately. The researchers included studies that reported all RD thresholds after surgery, but
the main thresholds of interest were microscopic RD (labelled NMRD), RD 0.1 cm to 1 cm [small-volume
residual disease (SVRD)] and RD > 1 cm [large-volume residual disease (LVRD)]. Two review authors inde-
pendently abstracted data and assessed risk of bias. Where possible, they synthesised the data in meta-analysis.
To assess the adequacy of adjustment factors used in multivariate Cox models, authors used the 'adjustment
for other prognostic factors' and 'statistical analysis and reporting' domains of the quality in prognosis studies
tool. Our colleagues also made judgements about the certainty of the evidence for each outcome in the main
comparisons, using GRADE. The researchers examined differences between FIGO stages III and IV for dif-
ferent thresholds of RD after primary surgery. They considered factors such as age, grade, length of follow-
up, type and experience of surgeon, and type of surgery in the interpretation of any heterogeneity. The authors
also performed sensitivity analyses that distinguished between studies that included NMRD in RD categories
of < 1 cm and those that did not. This was applicable to comparisons involving RD < 1 cm with the exception
of RD < 1 cm versus NMRD. They evaluated women undergoing PDS and IDS in separate analyses. The
researchers found 46 studies reporting multivariate prognostic analyses, including RD as a prognostic factor,
which met inclusion criteria: 22,376 women who underwent PDS and 3697 who underwent IDS, all with var-
ying levels of RD. While we identified a range of different RD thresholds, authors of the work mainly report
on comparisons that are the focus of a key area of clinical uncertainty (involving NMRD, SVRD and LVRD).
The comparison involving any visible disease (RD > 0 cm) and NMRD was also important. SVRD versus
NMRD in a PDS setting In PDS studies, most showed an increased risk of death in all RD groups when those
with macroscopic RD (MRD) were compared to NMRD. Women who had SVRD after PDS had more than
twice the risk of death compared to women with NMRD (HR 2.03, 95% CI 1.80 to 2.29; I2 = 50%; 17 studies;
9404 participants; moderate-certainty). The analysis of progression-free survival found that women who had
SVRD after PDS had nearly twice the risk of death compared to women with NMRD (HR 1.88, 95% CI 1.63
to 2.16; I2 = 63%; 10 studies; 6596 participants; moderate-certainty). LVRD versus SVRD in a PDS setting.
When authors compared LVRD versus SVRD following surgery, the estimates were attenuated compared to
NMRD comparisons. All analyses showed an overall survival benefit in women who had RD < 1 cm after
surgery (HR 1.22, 95% CI 1.13 to 1.32; I2 = 0%; 5 studies; 6000 participants; moderate-certainty). The results
were robust to analyses of progression-free survival. SVRD and LVRD versus NMRD in an IDS setting The
one study that defined the categories as NMRD, SVRD and LVRD showed that women who had SVRD and
LVRD after IDS had more than twice the risk of death compared to women who had NMRD (HR 2.09, 95%
CI 1.20 to 3.66; 310 participants; I2 = 56%, and HR 2.23, 95% CI 1.49 to 3.34; 343 participants; I2 = 35%;
very low-certainty, for SVRD versus NMRD and LVRD versus NMRD, respectively). LVRD versus SVRD
+ NMRD in an IDS setting meta-analysis found that women who had LVRD had a greater risk of death and
disease progression compared to women who had either SVRD or NMRD (HR 1.60, 95% CI 1.21 to 2.11; 6
studies; 1572 participants; I2 = 58% for overall survival and HR 1.76, 95% CI 1.23 to 2.52; 1145 participants;
I2 = 60% for progression-free survival; very low-certainty). However, this result is biased as in all but one
study it was not possible to distinguish NMRD within the < 1 cm thresholds. Only one study separated NMRD
from SVRD; all others included NMRD in the SVRD group, which may create bias when comparing with
LVRD, making interpretation challenging. MRD versus NMRD in an IDS setting. Women who had any
amount of MRD after IDS had more than twice the risk of death compared to women with NMRD (HR 2.11,
95% CI 1.35 to 3.29, I2 = 81%; 906 participants; very low-certainty). Summing up the results of the study, the
authors point out that in a PDS setting, there is moderate-certainty evidence that the amount of RD after pri-
mary surgery is a prognostic factor for overall and progression-free survival in women with advanced OC. Our
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63
colleagues separated our analysis into three distinct categories for the survival outcome including NMRD,
SVRD and LVRD. After IDS, there may be only two categories required, although this is based on very low-
certainty evidence, as all but one study included NMRD in the SVRD category. The one study that separated
NMRD from SVRD showed no improved survival outcome in the SVRD category, compared to LVRD. Fur-
ther low-certainty evidence also supported restricting to two categories, where women who had any amount
of MRD after IDS had a significantly greater risk of death compared to women with NMRD. Therefore, the
evidence presented in this review cannot conclude that using three categories applies in an IDS setting (very
low-certainty evidence), as was supported for PDS (which has convincing moderate-certainty evidence) [9].
What knowledge is available today about the specifics of OC treatment? Drug resistance is the bottle-
neck in OC treatment. The increasing use of novel drugs in clinical practice poses challenges for the treatment
of drug-resistant OC. Although maintenance therapy with PARP inhibitors (PARPis) has prolonged progres-
sion-free survival and 5-year overall survival, unfortunately, many patients do not respond to PARPis treatment
due to intrinsic or acquired resistance [10].
Wang L. et al. [11] indicate that despite receiving standard-of-care therapy (optimal cytoreductive sur-
gery followed by adjuvant chemotherapy), most patients develop recurrent disease, which is resistant to chem-
otherapy, resulting in a 5-year survival rate of approximately 30-40% worldwide. Drug resistance is a formi-
dable challenge in the treatment of OC and is the primary contributor to poor prognosis. According to the
National Comprehensive Cancer Network guidelines (version 1.2023), there are many therapeutic regimens
for resistant OC, including some novel agents. However, the objective remission rate is still low, and the me-
dian survival time is less than 12 months due to complicated resistance mechanisms. In resistant OC, the clas-
sical mechanisms of action of common drugs can be disrupted or altered, possibly resulting in impaired ther-
apeutic effects. Thus, treatment regimens should not rely only on empirical options. As the number of catego-
ries of agents increases, after the development of multidrug resistance, the decision of appropriate later-line
therapeutic regimens is very challenging. The authors reviewed the literature regarding various drug resistance
mechanisms in OC and found that the main resistance mechanisms are as follows: abnormalities in transmem-
brane transport, alterations in DNA damage repair, dysregulation of cancer-associated signaling pathways, and
epigenetic modifications. DNA methylation, histone modifications and noncoding RNA activity, three key
classes of epigenetic modifications, constitute pivotal mechanisms of drug resistance. One drug can have mul-
tiple resistance mechanisms. Moreover, common chemotherapies and targeted drugs may have cross (overlap-
ping) resistance mechanisms. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) can interfere with and thus regulate the abovementioned
pathways. A subclass of miRNAs, “epi-miRNAs”, can modulate epigenetic regulators to impact therapeutic
responses. Thus, they also reviewed the regulatory influence of miRNAs on resistance mechanisms. Moreover,
researchers summarized recent phase I/II clinical trials of novel drugs for OC based on the abovementioned
resistance mechanisms. A multitude of new therapies are under evaluation, and the preliminary results are
encouraging. Summarizing the results of the study, our colleagues emphasize that with the increasing use of
novel therapeutic drugs for OC, the development of later-line treatments has been under enormous pressure.
Recently, resistance to a variety of therapeutic drugs, such as PARPis, angiogenesis inhibitors, and immune
checkpoint inhibitors, has been found to occur. In the past, therapeutic agents for OC have been limited, and
researchers have usually described the underlying mechanism and explored therapeutic strategies for overcom-
ing resistance based on the drug classification. However, as increasing numbers of new agents are applied in
clinical practice, the resistance mechanisms of these various new drugs must be identified, and these mecha-
nisms may be similar or even identical to those of other drugs. Thus, the classification of drug resistance should
not be confined to the drug category, and all should attempt to obtain insight into classification of resistance
based on molecular mechanisms. The concept of drug resistance classification provides a sound basis for fur-
ther research to develop more precise reversal strategies.
Instead of simply distinguishing resistance by agent, researchers attempted to classify drug resistance
by mechanism. The authors summarized four major mechanisms from the published literature: 1) abnormalities
in transmembrane transport, 2) alterations in DNA damage repair, 3) dysregulation of cancer-associated sig-
naling pathways, and 4) epigenetic modifications. In the context of the increasing number of novel agents,
summary of the four resistance mechanisms of OC provides a new concept for resistance classification by
molecular mechanism, not by drug category. Given the intersections between drug resistance mechanisms, this
concept is likely to result in the realization of “two birds with one stone” effects on the reversal of drug re-
sistance in OC. Furthermore, these findings are anticipated to have broad implications for the development of
precise therapeutic approaches for reversing drug resistance in OC. On this basis, umbrella trials can be carried
out to explore the diagnostic and therapeutic targets of the four resistance mechanisms, and this may be a
direction of future researches on drug resistance in OC [11].
As Porter J.M. et al. [12] note in their study epithelial OC (ovarian carcinoma) is the most common form
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64
of the disease and comprises multiple histological types (histotypes): high-grade serous (70% of patients),
endometrioid (10%), clear cell (10%), low-grade serous (≤5%), and mucinous (≤5%). Ovarian carcinosarco-
mas - previously considered a separate disease entity - are now recognized to represent metaplastic carcinomas
and account for no more than 5% of diagnoses. A wealth of evidence now demonstrates that each histotype
represents a unique disease entity, each with distinct developmental origins, molecular landscapes, intrinsic
chemosensitivity, survival profile, and susceptibility to targeted molecular therapeutics.
The authors emphasize that complete macroscopic resection is a key factor associated with prolonged
survival in OC. That being said, patients with clear cell ovarian carcinoma and low-grade serous ovarian car-
cinoma represent some of the groups that benefit most from achieving complete macroscopic resection; given
that these cases are unlikely to respond well to neoadjuvant chemotherapy, complete primary cytoreduction is
a major priority for these patients. Endometrioid ovarian carcinoma also represents a histotype in which com-
plete macroscopic resection is associated with marked patient survival benefit. Engagement with multiple sur-
gical teams to improve the likelihood of resecting disease at hepatobiliary, gastrointestinal, and other anatom-
ical sites beyond the pelvis will be key for delivering optimal outcomes for such cases that present with exten-
sive advanced-stage disease. More work is also required to understand the impact of resecting disease outside
of the pelvis and abdomen. Achievement of complete macroscopic resection across the overall OC patient
population is associated with markedly prolonged survival time, though differences in the degree of survival
benefit are apparent across different histotypes. Patients with clear cell ovarian carcinoma derive one of the
greatest survival benefits associated with complete macroscopic resection. High-grade serous ovarian carci-
noma patients demonstrate highly clinically and statistically meaningful survival benefit, but the magnitude of
benefit is lower than in some of the other histotypes. The extent of benefit from complete macroscopic resec-
tion does not appear to relate solely to levels of intrinsic chemosensitivity of each histotype [12].
Now, as for this pathology in our country at the republican level. The incidence of OC in the Republic
of Kazakhstan in 2023 was 6.3 per 100 thousand population (6.2 in 2022) with a growth rate of 2.1% compared
to the previous year, amounting to 1,251 people in absolute numbers (1,201 women a year earlier). The pro-
portion of cases with a diagnosis established for the first time in life, recorded by oncological organizations,
was 3.4%, as in the previous year in the general population, and 6.0% among women (in 2022 also 6.0%) and
4th rank place after breast cancer, cervical cancer and endometrial cancer [13].
Above the national average, OC was established in 8 regions of the country: the city of Almaty - 10.4
(maximum indicator); Pavlodar - 9.7; Karaganda - 8.6; Abay - 8.4; Akmola - 7.7; Kostanay - 7.6; North Ka-
zakhstan - 7.5; West Kazakhstan - 7.2. Aktobe, Atyrau and Kyzylorda regions are on par with the national
average. This indicator is lower than the national average in the remaining 9 regions: Turkestan - 2.9 (the
lowest level); Mangistau - 3.5; Ulytau - 3.6; Almaty - 3.7; Zhambyl - 4.3; the city of Shymkent - 4.6; East
Kazakhstan - 5.8; Zhetysu - 5.9 regions and the city of Astana - 6.2 per 100 thousand people. The mortality
rate from this pathology in 2023 was 2.1, a year earlier - 2.4 per 100 thousand population. The regions where
the mortality rate from OC is higher than the average in the republic (2.1 per 100 thousand population) include:
Abay - 3.0 (maximum level); the city of Astana - 2.9; Karaganda and Pavlodar - 2.5; Kyzylorda - 2.4; Aktobe
and the city of Almaty - 2.2. This indicator is at the same level with the national average in the East Kazakhstan
region. The lowest rates were noted in Turkestan - 1.5 (minimum rate); Almaty and Atyrau - 1.6; Zhambyl -
1.7; Ulytau and Mangistau - 1.8; North Kazakhstan and Kostanay - 1.9; West Kazakhstan, Zhetysu, Akmola
regions and the city of Shymkent - 2.0 per 100 thousand population [13].
The one-year mortality rate was 7.2% (7.9% in 2022). At the same time, the ratio between one-year
mortality and neglect (stage IV) was quite high - 1.7 (a year earlier it was even higher - 2.1. At the same time,
it should be noted that the farthest from "1" is the worst ratio between one-year mortality and neglect.
Now, regarding preventive examinations. It should be noted that during large-scale preventive exami-
nations of the population in 2023, significantly more patients with malignant neoplasms were actively identi-
fied than in 2022. This is 25,193 patients against 23,623 patients identified in 2022, i.e. +6.6%. This is due to
the further abatement of the epidemiological troubles due to coronavirus and the increased availability of pre-
ventive care for the population. The proportion of patients identified during preventive examinations increased
from 62.0% to 62.4% of the total number of patients identified per year.
Of course, with in the analysis of the epidemiological situation, the indicators of early diagnostics are
very important issues. In general, in terms of the amount of detected cases of cancer of all localizations, in
2023 the proportion of forms detected at early stages (0, I-II stages) increased from 66.3% to 67.9%. As for
OC, the early detection of this pathology during preventive examinations increased from 40.5 to 44.8%. The
number of newly diagnosed patients with OC registered with oncology organizations amounted to 1,218 people
(1,173 - a year earlier). At the same time, the absolute number of cases detected during preventive examinations
in 2023 was 863, in 2022 - 875; the proportion of cases detected during preventive examinations was 70.9%
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
65
and 74.6%, respectively. Of these, patients with stages I-II - 387 in 2023 and 354 in 2022.
The regions where the proportion of patients with early stage I of the pathology in question is above the
national average (31.0% and 9th place among all nosological forms of malignant neoplasms) include the fol-
lowing regions: the city of Almaty - 45.3%; (the best indicator); Zhetysu - 43.9%; the city of Astana - 42.2%;
Zhambyl - 38.5%; Kyzylorda - 35.8%; East Kazakhstan and Akmola - 35.0%; Kostanay - 33.9%; Almaty -
33.3%.
The lowest rates of early diagnosis were recorded in 11 regions. Against this background, two regions
stand out - Aktobe and Turkestan, where stage I of the disease was established at only 5.2% and 6.5%, respec-
tively (the worst rates in the republic). Next come: Mangistau - 16.0%; the city of Shymkent - 18.5%; Pavlodar
- 23.3%; Abay - 23.4%; Ulytau and West Kazakhstan - 25.0%; Karaganda - 25.5%; Atyrau - 28.6% and North
Kazakhstan - 30.8% of the region [13]. It should be noted that only two patients out of every five were detected
in the early (I-II stages) of this pathology, making up 41.7% in the republic. The regions where the proportion
of patients with OC detected at stages I-II is higher than the national average include the following regions.
The best indicator is in the Zhetysu region - 51.2%. Then come two megacities - the cities of Almaty (51.6%)
and Astana (50.6%); then - East Kazakhstan and Atyrau (50.0%); Akmola (48.3%); Mangistau (48.0%); Kosta-
nay (45.2%); Zhambyl (44.2%); North Kazakhstan (43.6%); Karaganda (42.6%) regions. Low rates of early
diagnosis were recorded in the following regions. Against the general background, the Aktobe region stands
out negatively, where only every tenth patient was detected in the early stages of the disease - 10.3%. Then
come the following regions: Turkestan (16.1%); Shymkent city (31.5%); West Kazakhstan (33.3%); Abay
(34.0%); Almaty (37.0%); Ulytau (37.5%); Pavlodar (41.1%) and Kyzylorda (41.5%) regions [13].
As can be clearly seen from the above data, there is a very large spread in early diagnostic rates across
the country, from good to disappointing. Of course, it is necessary to take into account migration processes
and other factors that affect early diagnostic rates, but nevertheless, the results obtained give reason not to stop
there, both for oncologists and gynecological oncologists, as well as for obstetricians and gynecologists, visual
diagnostic doctors, and general practitioners, since improving the rates of early diagnostics of malignant tu-
mors has remained one of the main postulates and one of the main tasks of medicine in general, and continues
to be relevant today. The proportion of stage IV OC among all nosological forms of malignant neoplasms was
7.2%, and this is the 17th rank. In general, in 2023, the proportion of malignant neoplasms of stage IV in the
republic for the sum of all nosologies decreased from 12.58 to 11.7% (from 4790 to 4735 patients).
As for the average national indicator of the proportion of stage IV (7.2%), Zhetysu and Mangistau re-
gions stand out against this background - 0.0%. Then come: Kyzylorda and Zhambyl (1.9%); Atyrau (2.4%);
North Kazakhstan (2.6%); the city of Almaty (3.6%); East Kazakhstan (5.0%); Pavlodar (5.5%). The city of
Astana is on the same level with the average national indicator. The indicators are lower in the following
regions. Abay region stands apart from all others, where every fifth patient is diagnosed in the terminal stage
of the disease (21.3%). Next come: Turkestan (12.9%); Karaganda (12.8%); Ulytau (12.5%); Aktobe (12.1%);
the city of Shymkent (11.1%); Akmola (10.0%); Kostanay (9.7%); West Kazakhstan (8.3%); Almaty (7.4%)
regions.
The morphological verification rate of the disease in the country was 84.3%. In 5 regions out of 20, this
is a 100% figure (East Kazakhstan, Zhambyl, Ulytau regions, as well as the cities of Astana and Shymkent).
The lowest figure is in the Kyzylorda region (32.1%). Next on this list are the city of Almaty (55.2%); Zhetysu
(78.0%); Mangistau and Akmola (80.0%); Aktobe (91.4%); Atyrau (92.9%); West Kazakhstan (93.8%); North
Kazakhstan (94.9%); Turkestan and Kostanay (95.2%); Karaganda (95.7%); Pavlodar (95.9%); Almaty
(96.3%) and Abay (97.9%) regions [13].
The total number of patients with malignant neoplasms, consisting of registered in specialized oncolog-
ical organizations of the republic, continued to grow and by the end of 2023 amounted to 218,186 people, with
an increase of 6.0% compared to the level of the previous year (2022 - 205,822, +5.8%). The overall incidence
rate of malignant neoplasms increased by 3.9%, from 1055.3 to 1096.4 per 100 thousand population. The
growth of this indicator is due to both the increase in the incidence and detection of pathology, and the increase
in the survival rate of cancer patients. In addition, statistical data on patients diagnosed with malignant neo-
plasms, who have been under observation for 5 years or more, and continue to be observed in 2023, showed
that the number of patients under observation by oncological organizations in Kazakhstan for over five years
continued to grow and at the end of the reporting year amounted to 117,616 people, with an increase of 6.2%
(2022 - 110,790 people, +6.6%) (form. No. 7).
It is impossible to ignore such an important clinical aspect as the coverage of patients with a first-ever
diagnosis of OC in the Republic of Kazakhstan with specialized treatment.
In 2023, the number of hospitalizations for all nosological forms of malignant tumors in the country's
oncology organizations amounted to 108,252 cases (2022 - 101,095), with an increase of 7.1% compared to
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66
the previous year, which is associated with a constant increase in the number of cancer patients, improved
standardization of oncological care, and the development of palliative and restorative services.
At the end of 2023, the absolute number of patients with OC who completed specialized treatment
amounted to 697 people, continuing treatment - 387 patients. The following results were obtained in percentage
terms by methods and types of treatment. The overwhelming majority of patients received complex treatment
- 68.4%, only surgical treatment - 21.1%, only drug treatment - 8.3%; combined - 0.3%, chemo-radiation -
0.1%. Next, regarding the five-year survival rate of patients. As for OC, at the end of 2023, 8229 people or
41.4 per 100 thousand of the population were registered with the dispensary (at the end of 2022 - 7864 patients
or 40.3 per 100 thousand of the population, respectively); and this is the 9th rank place among all nosological
forms of malignant neoplasms.
At the same time, the mortality rate of the observed contingents in 2023 was 5.0% (6.0% - in 2022).
The five-year survival rate of patients with OC was 58.2% in 2023 (57.5% - a year earlier) [13].
Summarizing the above, we can conclude that OC occupies a significant place among all existing ma-
lignant tumors of other localizations. At the same time, despite the small percentage of patients detected at
stage IV, taking into account a number of factors, the indicators of early diagnostics do not allow oncologists
to "sleep peacefully", since the locally advanced stage III, which significantly prevails over all stages, in addi-
tion to the prevalence itself, gives a large number of complications and locoregional metastases, and these
patients are subject to aggressive complex treatment, constituting the overwhelming percentage (68.4%)
among all methods of treating this pathology. The variability and veiling of symptoms, its similarity with
various non-core processes (sometimes the only symptom is a gradual increase in the abdomen due to ascites),
leads to the neglect of the disease. All this requires both oncologists and gynecological oncologists, and, first
of all, primary health care workers, as well as obstetricians and gynecologists and visual diagnostics doctors,
to increase the level of cancer alertness, inform the population about early symptoms that may indicate this
pathology or the onset of proliferative changes and conduct high-tech diagnostic measures and, as a result,
timely treatment. Women at risk are advised to visit specialized specialists annually and, if necessary, undergo
an examination.
An epidemiological assessment of the situation with OC in our country suggests that there are sometimes
significant differences between regions not only in incidence rates, but also in the parameters of early diagnosis
and mortality from this pathology. In connection with the above, this pathology continues to be a serious
problem in modern clinical oncology.
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Pedagogical sciences
TEACHING WITH TECHNOLOGY: THE EVOLUTION OF ICT USE IN GREECE’S PRIMARY
EDUCATION
Eleni Anastasopoulou
Εlementary School of Agios Vasileios, Patras, Greece
Abstract
The integration of Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) into Greek primary education
has been a growing policy priority in recent years. This article surveys the current state of ICT in Greek primary
schools, examining four key areas: national policy developments, classroom practices and pedagogical strate-
gies, teacher training and professional development, and student learning outcomes. Major reforms (e.g. the
2020–2022 curriculum and legislative updates) have aimed to embed digital competencies across the curricu-
lum and to invest in school infrastructure and resources. In practice, classrooms are increasingly equipped with
computers, projectors, interactive whiteboards, and digital content platforms (e.g. the e-yliko portal and AE-
SOP repository), which teachers use for multimedia teaching, student projects, and collaborative learning
Teachers generally view ICT positively – citing improved student engagement and support for learners with
difficulties – but they also report significant barriers, including limited time, infrastructure gaps, and insuffi-
cient training Professional development programs and certification courses exist (e.g. the national “B-level”
ICT training), yet many teachers feel the support is inadequate . Evidence on learning outcomes is mixed: ICT
can enrich learning experiences and skill development, but large-scale studies (e.g. OECD analyses) find only
modest or context-dependent gains Looking ahead, Greek policies emphasize ongoing digital transformation
(e.g. “Greece 2.0” recovery plan) and updated curricula that make digital tools central to learning. Continued
efforts are needed to address the digital divide, to align pedagogy with technology, and to ensure all students
and teachers are prepared for a digitally rich learning environment.
Keywords: Information and Communication Technologies (ICT); Greek primary education; educa-
tional policy; digital pedagogy; teacher training
Introduction
The digital era has profound implications for education worldwide, and Greece is no exception. In recent
years, Greek authorities and educators have sought to incorporate ICT into primary schooling to modernize
teaching and prepare students for a technology-driven society[1]. By 2025, the Greek government identified
“digital transformation of education” as a key priority, with substantial funding allocated through the 2020–
25 Digital Strategy and the National Recovery and Resilience Plan (“Greece 2.0”) . Consonant with EU initi-
atives (such as the 2021–2027 Digital Education Action Plan), the national curriculum revision of 2022 ex-
plicitly aims for “full use of digital technologies as a tool for research and learning” [2]. At the same time,
Greek primary schools face persistent challenges: uneven infrastructure, a heavy curriculum, and varying
teacher readiness. [1] This article provides a comprehensive review of the current trends, ongoing challenges,
and future perspectives of ICT integration in Greek primary education, focusing on (1) educational policy
developments, (2) classroom practices and pedagogy, (3) teacher training and professional development, and
(4) student learning outcomes. The discussion draws on recent policy documents, empirical studies, and inter-
national analyses to present a balanced, up-to-date picture of ICT in Greek primary schools [3].
Educational Policy Developments
Greek national policies have increasingly supported ICT in education through legislation, curriculum
reform, and strategic funding. In the past few years, several key legal initiatives have been introduced. For
example, Law 4692/2020 established dedicated “Skills Labs” in compulsory education, aiming to strengthen
life skills, digital and science skills, and soft skills among students [4]. This was followed by related regulations
(e.g. ministerial decision Φ.31/2021) implementing skills labs in primary schools, and by Law 4823/2021,
which explicitly directed curriculum upgrades to “cultivate digital skills, and develop rich digital materials”.
In 2022, Law 4509/2022 created in-school ICT clubs and coordinators, promoting extracurricular activities
such as educational robotics, internet safety, and science experiments [5]. These reforms reflect a clear trend:
the Greek government is gradually building institutional support for integrating ICT beyond basic computer
literacy [6].
Classroom Practices and Pedagogical Strategies
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69
In practice, Greek primary teachers have begun to adopt a variety of ICT tools to support teaching and
learning. Classrooms often feature computer labs (or laptop carts), fixed computers, projectors, and increas-
ingly interactive whiteboards or large touchscreens [1]. Many teachers use multimedia presentations, educa-
tional videos, and online resources during lessons [7]. A case study of a Greek rural primary school found that
teachers preferred using “computers, projectors, the Internet, educational videos and software games” in
class.Such tools are typically employed to illustrate concepts, display digital content (maps, diagrams, multi-
media), or engage students in interactive exercises (e.g. quizzes, language games) [8]. Collaborative work is
also common: pupils might research topics online, create posters with digital images, or practice coding tasks
on basic platforms [9].
The pedagogical focus is often on active, exploratory learning. According to official guidelines, ICT
lessons in primary school emphasize “active participation of each student and continuous interaction and
cooperation with the teacher and classmates”.. In reality, many teachers report that ICT use does increase
student engagement [10]. For example, Katsikas (2023) notes that ICT “improves the quality of the educational
process, enhances student participation and interest”. Digital storytelling, simulation games, and project-
based tasks allow children to take more initiative and personalize their learning. Some teachers integrate ICT
across subjects: using an English-language learning app in English class, math games for arithmetic practice,
or the school's computer lab for science simulations [11].
Emerging pedagogical trends include collaborative learning (small groups using one computer or tablet),
student-led projects (where pupils gather information or create digital presentations), and creative uses like
digital art or basic video editing [12]. There is also interest in novel tools: for instance, a recent Informatics
(MDPI) study suggests using augmented reality (AR) to make abstract content tangible for young learners. In
addition, some experimental programs introduce simple robotics kits or coding blocks to teach computational
thinking. Non-formal settings (after-school clubs, summer camps) often have even more freedom to use ICT
in creative ways, such as digital storytelling or educational games [13].
Challenges
Classroom ICT integration is not without obstacles. A pervasive issue is limited resources. Although
schools may have a “computer lab,” it might contain few outdated machines. Teachers in remote or under-
funded schools sometimes have to share one projector for several classes. In the Katsikas case study, teachers
explicitly cited “lack of logistical infrastructure” (hardware shortage) as a main difficulty [14]. Time con-
straints also limit ICT use: the formal curriculum is already full, and teachers say they have little flexibility to
add extra ICT activities beyond the scheduled ICT hour. Furthermore, support materials are uneven[1]. While
portals like e-yliko and AESOP offer ready-made lessons, many teachers find that there is still a lack of high-
quality Greek-language content tailored to primary grades. Some pedagogical experts argue that more interac-
tive software and subject-specific apps are needed [15].
Pedagogical challenge also arises from teacher familiarity. Some teachers use ICT mostly for drills or
presentation, rather than designing fundamentally new learning experiences. Professional development gaps
(discussed below) mean that not all educators know how to integrate technology in student-centered ways.
One analysis of teacher perceptions in Greece found that while teachers see potential in ICT, many default to
basic uses (displaying slides, etc.) rather than leveraging ICT for “innovative learning experience”. The result
is that ICT often supplements traditional teaching rather than transforms it [16].
Future Perspectives
To advance pedagogy, experts recommend blending ICT more seamlessly into all subjects. For in-
stance, the new curriculum envisions that every lesson could include a digital component – whether it’s online
research in social studies or a math game reinforcing arithmetic facts. Teachers are being encouraged to adopt
pedagogical models like flipped classroom (students watch or interact with digital content at home, and do
problem-solving in class) and inquiry-based learning supported by online resources. In practice, future class-
rooms may see even more use of tablets and individual devices (e.g., 1:1 initiatives where feasible), which
allow personalized learning apps for reading and math. Schools are also exploring online collaboration (stu-
dents from different schools working on joint projects via video links or shared platforms) [17]. At the frontier,
artificial intelligence tutoring systems and adaptive learning software could tailor exercises to each child, alt-
hough such technologies are still nascent at the primary level. The COVID-19 period gave a glimpse of dis-
tance learning, but beyond emergencies the priority is ensuring in-person schooling leverages digital tools
effectively. In sum, the trend in classrooms is toward richer ICT resources and more student-centered use,
provided logistical challenges can be addressed [18].
Teacher Training and Professional Development
Teachers’ skills and attitudes are critical for successful ICT integration. In Greece, a variety of training
programs exist to build teacher capacity, but uptake and quality are uneven. Historically, Greece established a
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national ICT training system known as the “B-level” courses [19]. Introduced in the 2000s and expanded in
the 2010s, these courses (often 36–80 hours) were intended to certify teachers in basic educational technology
skills. For example, between 2008–2014 the government ran a long-term program “Training of teachers in
ICT” via Regional Training Centres (ΠΕΚ) and later in-service centers (ΚΕ.ΔΙ.ΒΙ.Μ). These programs gave
teachers a foundational credential in ICT use [20]. More recently, the Institute of Educational Policy and other
bodies have offered workshops and online courses on using specific tools (interactive whiteboards, distance
learning platforms, coding, etc.) [21].
Despite these offerings, many Greek teachers feel that available training is insufficient or not well
aligned with classroom needs. Giavrimis (2023) reports that teachers “highlighted the shortcomings of the
Greek educational approach in terms of… the training of teachers regarding ICT” [22]. In particular,
Giavrimis’ survey found that state-supported training has not kept up with technology changes [23]. Teachers
commented that “training is not at all encouraging, and it depends on the teachers and their willingness”
[24]. A notable complaint is that after the initial B-level certification, no continuous support is provided: in-
service courses have become sporadic, and teachers often must seek further learning on their own time and
expense.. Giavrimis notes: “State support is insufficient regarding equipment and teacher training… In-ser-
vice training in Greece needs to be improved or extended” [25].
Another factor is motivation and perceived relevance. Some veteran teachers, already overwhelmed by
curricular demands, view ICT training as an extra burden. The above finding – that many hold even a master’s
degree and an ICT certificate.– may suggest a self-selecting group: younger or more academically advanced
teachers who embrace ICT[26]. Others, especially in older generations, may need more convincing of the
pedagogical value. Research on Greek educators also highlights digital inequalities among teachers: those with
higher initial confidence are more likely to integrate ICT, whereas less confident teachers avoid it [27].
To professionalize ICT integration, Greece has introduced ICT coordinators and support structures.
Many schools now have a designated teacher or “ICT school coordinator” responsible for managing equipment
and advising colleagues (as also mandated in some policy documents) [28]. Regionally, educational direc-
torates hire supervisors for digital courses [29]. There are also EU-supported initiatives: for example, the
eTwinning program connects Greek teachers with European peers for collaborative ICT projects, and Eras-
mus+ offers mobility courses on digital pedagogy. However, the impact of these is still limited and depends
on teachers’ own engagement [30].
Trends
In recent years, there has been a shift toward more self-directed and blended professional development.
The pandemic’s disruption, while disruptive, did accelerate some online training offerings: webinars on dis-
tance teaching tools (e.g. Moodle, Webex) became more common, and many teachers gained informal experi-
ence [31]. Post-pandemic, platforms like e-me (national digital learning environment) now incorporate training
modules for teachers. Newer courses emphasize not just tool use, but pedagogical strategies for ICT (e.g.
“Flipped Classroom”, “Collaborative Digital Projects”, etc.) [32]. Teacher training also increasingly includes
digital safety and ethics (in line with EU media literacy frameworks). Nevertheless, gaps remain in making
training continuous and contextual rather than one-off [33].
Future Perspectives
Experts argue that boosting teacher capacity will require a multi-faceted approach. Sustained funding
for regular in-service courses, possibly tied to career advancement, is needed. Creating professional learning
communities (school networks where teachers share ICT lesson plans and experiences) could help disseminate
good practices [34]. The introduction of digital portfolios or badges to certify advanced ICT pedagogical skills
might incentivize ongoing learning. On the digital skills framework side, Greece is aligning with the EU’s
DigCompEdu teacher framework, which could standardize competencies expected of teachers at various lev-
els. In practice, future training may become more integrated: for instance, as the new curriculum is rolled out,
teacher workshops will likely cover how to use specific digital tools in science, mathematics, or languages
[35]. If these efforts succeed, Greek teachers will gradually feel more confident as “digital actors” – a term
Giavrimis uses to describe teachers who see themselves as active participants in shaping digital education [36].
Student Learning Outcomes
A key justification for investing in ICT is the expected benefit for student learning. In Greece, studies
suggest that ICT use can have positive effects, though the evidence is mixed and context-dependent [37]. On
the positive side, teachers often observe improvements in student motivation and understanding. For example,
the case study by Katsikas found that teachers reported ICT “improves educational outcomes for students with
special educational needs, such as learning difficulties” [38]. The visual and interactive nature of ICT tools
seems particularly helpful for such learners, as well as for engaging the class as a whole [39]. Teachers also
note higher participation: children who might be shy are often more willing to answer questions or show work
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71
when using digital media. Additionally, the exploratory and game-like aspects of ICT can foster curiosity and
creativity (e.g. building a digital story or designing a simple animation encourages creative thinking) [40].
From a skills perspective, students in Greek primary schools are gradually developing stronger digital
competencies. The formal ICT course ensures that by Grade 6, all pupils have basic keyboarding, coding, and
internet-research skills. Anecdotally, primary pupils today often handle tablets and laptops adeptly at home,
so schools focus on critical thinking and safe use. The Ministry’s emphasis on computer literacy and problem-
solving (see policy section) reflects an assumption that these skills will benefit learning in all subjects [41].
Conclusion
ICT integration in Greek primary schools is advancing on many fronts, driven by clear policy commit-
ments and enthusiastic pockets of practice. Recent curriculum reforms and legal measures explicitly embed
technology into teaching, reflecting global trends and EU guidelines. Classrooms today often feature digital
tools, and teachers report qualitative benefits for engagement and inclusion. However, persistent challenges
loom: inadequate infrastructure in some schools, insufficient teacher training, and the need for pedagogically
sound implementation. The evidence on student outcomes suggests that moderate, well-supported ICT use can
boost learning, but only if underlying support systems are strong.
Looking forward, the Greek context points to a few priorities. First, bridging the digital divide – ensuring
all students and teachers have access to up-to-date equipment and high-speed internet – is crucial. Government
plans (e.g. NRRP investments) aim to address this, but follow-through is key. Second, teacher capacity must
continue to grow; sustained professional learning and collaboration will help educators move from basic tech-
nical skills to innovative pedagogy. Third, curricula should evolve in tandem with technology: as tools like
AR or AI become available, the content of lessons will need to adapt. Finally, ongoing evaluation is needed:
Greek education stakeholders should measure not just implementation, but how ICT affects student competen-
cies and motivation over time.
In summary, the integration of ICT in Greek primary education is a work in progress. Policies and re-
sources are increasingly supportive, and teachers recognize the value of digital tools, but success depends on
overcoming systemic hurdles. If Greece can maintain its momentum – guided by careful planning and inclusive
support – ICT may well become a powerful engine for enhancing teaching and learning in its primary schools.
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THE PECULIARITIES OF THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE «I» CONCEPT OF RURAL SCHOOL
GRADUATES STUDYING AT A TEACHER TRAINING COLLEGE
M.J. Kaimollina
Master's student of the Faculty of Education "Pedagogy and Psychology"
Pavlodar Pedagogical University named after A. Margulan
Pavlodar, Kazakhstan
Abstract
This article explores the concept of the "Self" as a psychological and pedagogical phenomenon closely
related to self-awareness, self-evaluation, understanding one's role in social interaction, and the drive to realize
one’s inner potential. It serves as a theoretical foundation for understanding and analyzing the connection
between a student's consciousness (what the student thinks and feels) and agency (what the student does). As
noted by the Kazakh scholar Kudaibergen Zharikbayev, although a newborn is called a "human," they can only
be considered a "personality" after growing up, becoming independent, and defining their "Self" in relation to
others.
Keywords: personality, village, concept, cognitive development, rural school.
The behavior of a modern cultural person is not only the result of development from childhood, but also
the result of historical development.
Within the framework of child psychology, he formulated the law of development of higher mental
functions, which initially arise as a form of collective behavior, a form of cooperation with other people, and
only then they become internal individual functions of the child, and it is subject to the action of socio-historical
laws. The biological type of development occurs through the inheritance of the properties of the species and
individual experience in the process of adaptation to nature.
Who will the "child" become?"I was interested in the question. To consider this problem, Vygotsky
identified 2 levels of cognitive development: 1. – this is a specific level of development, determined by the
child's ability to independently solve problems. Level 2 – the level of its potential development, determined
by the nature of the tasks that the child can solve under the guidance of adults or jointly with a capable peer.
Vygotsky called the distance between these two levels the zone of proximal development.
Psychological terms such as" self-esteem"," self-image"," I"," self-attitude","personality". For these
concepts, I use the concept. Designation of its own different projections . At the same time, the question arises:
"What Am I?""Everyone understands what I am?"and"how do I get it?"
The student period is the period of formation of personality, self-consciousness and development of self-
concept.
The process of changing the self-concept is a natural and unique result , and it affects personal
development during college. Self-awareness of the" I " and its adequate assessment is the key to stability and
stability .A person becomes a subject of life, allows their professional and personal self-development.
K. Zharykbaev's thoughts on the concept of "I" differ in that he considers the problem of personality in
Russian psychology on the basis of national existence and spiritual values. In his research, he deeply analyzed
the role of Family Education, the environment, national traditions and social relations in the formation of a
person as an individual. Zharykbaev's specific research on the concept of" I " was largely related to such
problems as the peculiarities of the development of the personality on a national basis, the formation of the
child's self-consciousness. Қ. Жарықбаевтың «Мен» концепциясына қатысты зерттеу бағыты: Self-
awareness and National Education.
Zharykbayev considered the formation of the concept of" I " in connection with spiritual and moral
education, the influence of parents and society. In his opinion, he concluded that the child's sense of "I" is not
just a cognitive process, but the result of spiritual and psychological development.
Age-related personal development:
He showed that the concept of a child's "I" is formed at different levels in preschool, primary and
adolescence, and upbringing and social attitudes play a decisive role in this process.
In his research and works, Zharykbayev, "history of Kazakh psychology" (1996) – in this work he
focused on the problems of National Knowledge, upbringing, and personal development, combining the image
of the "I" with the values of a national character.
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"Be a man! he studied the path of personal maturity, the recognition and maturity of a person's
personality in a philosophical and psychological context. In his works, Zharykbayev also considered the
features of the concept of "I" of a child in a rural environment on the basis of Kazakh ethnopsychology. He
noted that rural education has a positive effect on the development of the "I" of the personality through such
qualities as personal responsibility, respect for elders, and a penchant for work. Thus, the research of
Zharykbayev shows the close relationship of the concept of" I " with the personal development of a national
character. His vision can serve as a theoretical and methodological basis for studying the image of the "I" of
rural graduates studying at a modern pedagogical college.Атап атқанда, ұлттық құндылықтарды,
тəрбиенің ерекшеліктерін, жəне əлеуметтік беімделу үдерістерін зерттеу арқылы ауыл жастарының
«Мен» концепциясының қала дамитынын түсіндіруге мүмкіндік береді.
At the scientific and methodological level, it is not enough to know the qualitative features of the cultural
and educational potential of a rural school and its characteristics of graduates of rural schools in order to in-
fluence the development of a positive attitude, behavior in adolescents studying in a rural school. Graduates
of rural schools, as a rule, are brought up with such traditional values as high diligence, respect for elders,
responsibility for the family. These qualities have a positive effect on the path of their self-knowledge – the
formation of the image of "I".
For example, students from a rural school begin to compare themselves to their peers in the city when
they arrive at college. This-indicates the activation of the "I" - Video (Me) element proposed by William James.
Taking into account the content of these contradictions, we formulated the research problem: What are
the features of the influence of the cultural and educational potential of a rural school on positive self-formation
in adolescents?The solution to this problem was set as the goal of my research work.
My research is based on the assumption that the features of the development of the "concept of me" of
rural graduates studying at the pedagogical college are determined by the qualitative specificity of the cultural
and educational potential of the rural school. In order to achieve the goal of the study, in accordance with the
content of the working hypothesis, I identified the following specific tasks :
To reveal the essence of the concept of I, to determine the content, criteria and indicators.
To reveal the qualitative features of the cultural and educational potential of the rural school.
Experimental study of the features of the development of the concept of positive "I" in adolescents of rural and
urban schools.
The solution of research tasks was carried out using a set of methods, including: theoretical analysis and
generalization of scientific and methodological literature, psychodiagnostics, taking into account cultural
historical theories and philosophical views.
Education of young people from rural regions in pedagogical colleges is an intensive stage in the
processes of self – knowledge and personal reflection, as well as their professional formation. At this stage,
the features of the formation and development of the concept of "I", which is the basis of the self-consciousness
of the individual, are of particular importance. The concept of" I " is a psychological and pedagogical
phenomenon that is inextricably linked with self – awareness, assessment, understanding of the role of a person
in relations with society and the desire to realize his inner potential. This concept is a reference point in the
personal development of a person and determines his activity in the social environment, his own views and
life principles.
For rural graduates studying in pedagogical colleges, this issue is doubly important: on the one hand,
they need to rethink their inner world and rebuild their own "I" in the process of adapting to a new social
environment, on the other hand, they need to master their professional and social roles as future teachers and
form a worthy value system. This process directly affects the effectiveness of their future professional
activities, the level of self-realization and overall life success. Therefore, the theoretical and methodological
analysis of the features of the development of the concept of "I" of rural graduates is an urgent scientific and
practical problem in the fields of pedagogy and psychology.
In this regard, the concepts proposed by the psychology of social knowledge occupy an important place.
In social psychology, there is a point of view that a person develops in constant contact with his social envi-
ronment. Here, a person's self-esteem, role identification, the desire to find their place are of decisive im-
portance. In the humanistic direction, Carl ransom Rogers considers the concept of" I " as a way to achieve
inner integrity, basing it on the ability of a person to know himself. In his opinion, a person develops as har-
moniously and freely as he can perceive his experience and true essence.
Most rural graduates do not immediately have the opportunity to show their true abilities. Because the
patterns of behavior inherent in them, such as shyness, low self-esteem, subordination to adults, can negatively
affect competitiveness in urban conditions. At the same time, Sigmund Freud's concept of the ego becomes
more relevant. He describes the ego – as a structure in the human psyche that adapts to reality, harmonizing
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76
between internal desires and external requirements. The ego of a student from the countryside – on the one
hand, tries to strike a balance between his natural character and the values learned from the environment, on
the other – between the demands and academic pressures in the urban environment.
In the traditional Kazakh worldview, the process of personality development is closely related to moral
and ethical norms. Personality is not only an external form of behavior, but also a reflection of the inner
conscience, honor and responsibility of a person. This is reflected in folk wisdom through proverbs and
sayings: "be Zharly, be arly", "at thirteen, the lord of Otau", "shame is the Guardian of Faith" from generation
to generation, the main guideline of human existence is indicated.
For rural youth studying at a pedagogical college, the development of the concept of "I" is inextricably
linked with their professional self-determination, acceptance of their role as future teachers and adaptation to
it. This period is a crucial time when they acquire not only theoretical knowledge, but also form their own
position, Life direction, attitude as specialists. For the successful implementation of this process, it is important
that the educational institution conducts such work as psychological support, adaptive trainings, professional
guidance, and the creation of personal development plans.
For rural graduates, the development of the concept of" I " largely depends on their socio-cultural capital
and the experience of primary socialization. A teenager who grew up in a rural environment is often formed
as withdrawn, subordinate to the older, prone to collective consciousness. Such patterns of behavior can lead
to certain obstacles in the urban environment, especially in an environment that requires activity and self-
expression, such as a pedagogical college. At this point, The Theory of social development of Leonid
Semenovich Vygotsky is relevant. He believed that the cognitive development of the child takes place through
social communication. That is, for a young person from the village, a teacher and a community of peers in a
new environment are important factors that bring the image of his "I" to a new level.
When a student from the village enters a new environment, he often feels low social status. Such inner
insecurity can sometimes lead to a feeling of alienation, social isolation, or vice versa – excessive adaptation,
that is, the loss of one's final "I". This phenomenon was described in the XX century by the American scientist
Charles Horton Cooley as the "self in the mirror" (looking-glass self). He said that a person recognizes his
image by the reaction of other people. That is, the concept of "I" of rural youth develops directly dependent on
the attitude and attitude of people around them.
The period of education at the pedagogical college is the beginning of their achievement of not only
knowledge, but also personal integrity, determination of life goals, awareness of their future professional role.
At this stage, young people see themselves as future teachers, which is the impetus for their combination of
personal "I" with professional "I". As the Kazakh scientist, Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences Kaliyev
Seidakhmet Kudashevich believes, the formation of the personality of the future specialist is a process of
simultaneous spiritual, moral, professional – practical and worldview maturity.
Also, for most students from rural backgrounds, the family is of great importance. The image of their
"I" is often inextricably linked with the hopes of parents, responsibility to the native village. This phenomenon
can increase the motivational base, but it is also likely to become an obstacle to internal pressure and self-
realization. Such an ambiguous effect is considered by the popular psychoanalyst Karen Horney as an internal
conflict between the "real self" and the "ideal self".
The concept of personality "I" consists of cognitive, emotional and behavioral components. The
harmonious development of these elements is crucial for rural youth to find their place in the new environment.
The teaching profession is an area of high social significance, requiring self-dedication, orientation of one's
"I" for the benefit of society. Consequently, for a student of a pedagogical college, the development of the
concept of "I" is not only about finding oneself, but also a deep understanding of the social role, taking it
responsibly.
In conclusion, the peculiarity of the development of the concept of "I" for rural graduates studying at a
pedagogical college is an internally complex process. It consists in the intersection of values formed from
childhood, the requirements of a new environment, professional goals and factors of social adaptation. At the
same time, the development of the student's ability for self – reflection, inner harmony, critical thinking directly
contributes to his personal development.
In conclusion, the image of the "I" of students of the pedagogical college from the village is formed
under the influence of many internal and external factors. Among them, the most important are social
adaptation, self – assessment, identification with a professional role, motivational structure and determination
of life goals. Empirical research shows that rural youth at first show self-doubt, but over time they develop as
full-fledged individuals, revealing their inner potential. Therefore, managing this process through targeted
pedagogical support will be the key to their successful development as specialists and citizens.
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77
Rural graduates have low self-esteem when they come to college and high adaptation difficulties.
They often study with the aim of helping the family, which indicates the priority of extrinsic motivation
in their concept of "I".
Self-awareness on the path of professional development — is formed over time, for which a system of
psychological and pedagogical support is needed.
References
1. Zharykbayev, Kudaibergen. History of Kazakh psychology. - Almaty: Rauan, 1996.
2. Zharykbayev, K., Kaliyev, S. Kazakh education. - Almaty: Category, 1995.
3. Mukanov, M. M. age and pedagogical psychology. - Almaty: School, 1982.
4. Ermentaeva, A. philosophical and psychological foundations of Personality Development. - Almaty:
Kazakh University, 2007.
→ A deep theoretical analysis of the personality, the individual, the image of the "I" is given.
5. Carl Rogers. About the personality: looking at a humanistic psychologist. - M., 1994.
→ Explains the psychological foundations of the concept of" I " from a humanistic point of view.
6.William James. The Principles of Psychology. – Harvard University Press, 1890.
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APPLYING CRITICAL THINKING TO MASTER FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE IN ESL LEARN-
ING
Turebayev Bakytzhan Orazbayevich
Lecturer at the Non-profit joint-stock company Shakarim University
Tagiltseva Alexandra Vladimirovna
Lecturer at the Non-profit joint-stock company Shakarim University
Abstract
The article is devoted to the study of the role of critical thinking in the acquisition of figurative speech
in the study of English as a second language (ESL) at the B2 level. The main focus is on how the use of critical
thinking strategies contributes to a deeper understanding and accurate use of metaphors, idioms and other
means of figurative meaning. The study presents experimental data collected among first-year students and
analyzes the results of completing tasks aimed at interpreting and productively using figurative expressions.
Keywords: critical thinking, figurative language, metaphors, cognitive processes, learning, communi-
cation, intermediate.
Introduction
Critical thinking is the ability to objectively analyze and evaluate information, identify logical errors
and make reasonable conclusions. This process is key to intellectual activity and is an integral part of educa-
tional programs in various countries. An important aspect of critical thinking is the ability to use figurative
language, which some researchers believe that they can change the perception and interpretation of infor-
mation.
Figurative language includes metaphors, metonymies, hyperboles, and other expressive devices that
play a role not only in literary creativity, but also in everyday communication. Research shows that metaphors
not only decorate speech, but also expand cognitive processes, such as problem solving and perception of
situations. For example, metaphors, as thinking tools, can serve to explain complex ideas and concepts, which
is especially relevant in educational and professional fields [1, 41].
Modern research shows that the use of metaphors and other figures of speech in teaching contributes to
the development of critical thinking in students, as it allows them to look at a problem from different points of
view and justify their decisions [2, 64]. In addition, figurative language is actively used in scientific and jour-
nalistic texts to clarify and convey meaning, which makes it an important tool in scientific and educational
practice.
In this regard, the aim of this study is to analyze the role of figurative language in the formation and
development of critical thinking, as well as to identify the connections between them in the context of learning
and communication. In particular, the study aims to determine the mechanisms through which metaphors and
other figurative expressions can improve cognitive processes such as perception, analysis and argumentation.
Theoretical Foundations of Critical Thinking and Figurative Language
Critical thinking is an important component of educational standards around the world. In the United
States, critical thinking is often viewed as the ability to objectively evaluate information, analyze arguments,
and make informed decisions [3, 13]. In his work, he argues that critical thinking encompasses a range of
cognitive processes, such as analysis, synthesis, interpretation, and evaluation. In this context, metaphors and
other types of figurative language become tools that not only facilitate deeper understanding, but also help
organize information in a cognitively accessible form.
In the theory and practice of education in Russia, critical thinking is also considered a key competency
for the successful development of students. Traditionally in Russia, this concept is associated with analytical
and synthetic methods of cognition, which are developed through the active use of logic and argumentation.
However, recent research, such as Belyaev’s work, has emphasized the importance of figurative language for
the formation and development of critical thinking, arguing that metaphors can serve as an important mecha-
nism for rethinking complex problems and situations.
Figurative language, in turn, is closely linked to cognitive processes such as perception and interpreta-
tion. Lakoff and Johnson in their classic work substantiated the role of metaphors as tools for thinking. They
argue that metaphors not only decorate speech, but also structure our perception of the world.
Metaphors also play an important role in the formation of arguments and theoretical models. According
to the work of D. Sternberg, figurative language helps to reveal abstract ideas and makes them accessible to a
wider audience. In education and research, this is especially important, as many concepts, such as theories and
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79
hypotheses, are often difficult to convey without the use of metaphors. In this context, the use of metaphors
not only helps with understanding, but also helps to create more effective arguments.
Particular attention should be paid to studies conducted in Kazakhstan, where critical thinking is also
actively introduced into educational programs. In particular, the work of scientists such as Abdilova empha-
sizes the importance of developing critical thinking through the use of various tools, including figurative lan-
guage, which allows students to approach problem solving and interpret information more accurately [4, 363].
Thus, critical thinking and figurative language are linked through the ability of metaphors and other
figures of speech to improve the perception of information and the formation of arguments. The use of these
tools in educational practices contributes to better understanding and assimilation of material, as well as the
development of analytical skills in students.
The Impact of Figurative Language on Perception of Information and Development of Argumentation
Skills Figurative language is actively used to create images that affect the perception and comprehension of
information. Metaphors and other figures of speech have the power to not only convey abstract ideas, but also
to express attitudes toward these ideas. According to the work of Lakoff and Johnson, metaphors are not just
decorations of language, they are an important part of our thinking that helps shape our perception of the world
and make decisions. For example, the metaphor «path to success» in the context of education or career gives
us a clear idea of the process of achieving a goal, making it more conscious and structured.
Research shows that metaphors can play an important role in increasing the effectiveness of argumen-
tation. In particular, in the context of an academic environment, metaphors are used to build clearer, more
persuasive arguments. Metaphors and analogies can be used to explain complex theories and concepts, espe-
cially when it comes to interdisciplinary research. For example, using analogies such as «the brain as a com-
puter» helps people to more easily perceive neuroscientific concepts, making them accessible to a wider audi-
ence. The use of figurative language is also important in the critical analysis of information, as metaphors and
other types of figurative expressions help to reveal hidden assumptions that can influence the perception of
arguments. In the Russian context, research conducted by Belyaev shows that the use of metaphors in teaching
allows not only to effectively transfer knowledge, but also to develop the ability to critically evaluate infor-
mation, identify its limitations and possible manipulations [5, 214].
In addition, figurative language contributes to the development of creativity and analytical skills, which
are important elements of critical thinking. Metaphors and analogies help to create new connections between
different concepts, which opens up opportunities to solve problems from non-standard positions. Research
conducted in Kazakhstan emphasizes that the use of figurative language in teaching helps to develop students'
ability to inductive and deductive thinking, which is an important aspect of a critical approach to information.
An example of such use is the teaching method based on metaphors, which is actively used in a number
of educational institutions. This method allows students to better understand abstract concepts and develop a
critical assessment of information. In particular, the metaphor of «learning as a journey» is used to present the
educational process as a continuous development and progress, which helps students to better understand their
path and goals in learning.
Figurative language not only contributes to better perception and understanding of information, but also
has a significant impact on the development of argumentation skills, critical thinking and analytical abilities
in students. In this regard, the integration of metaphors and analogies into educational practices can have a
positive impact on the quality of education and the training of future specialists.
The Role of Critical Thinking in the Perception and Use of Figurative Language
Critical thinking plays a key role in the analysis and interpretation of information obtained through
figurative language. Unlike literal expressions, metaphors and analogies require the reader or listener to ac-
tively engage in the analysis process, which stimulates the development of critical thinking. Lowenstein notes
that to fully understand metaphors, it is necessary not only to know the context, but also to be able to identify
hidden assumptions that can determine the direction of interpretation. This is especially important in the con-
text of modern information overload, where the ability to critically perceive information is becoming not only
desirable, but also necessary for an adequate perception of the world.
The use of metaphors in political and social debates can be used to demonstrate how figurative language
helps shape public opinion and support argumentation. For example, in a series of studies on political meta-
phors, Meadow showed that the use of metaphors such as «war on terror» or «escape from poverty» has a
powerful effect on the perception of social phenomena and public action. Metaphor serves not only as a tool
for conveying meanings, but also as a strategic tool for manipulating the perception of information, which
requires a high level of critical awareness from debate participants and the audience.
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The use of figurative language in science and education also emphasizes the importance of developing
critical thinking. In particular, the use of metaphors can change the perception of scientific theories and con-
cepts. Clearly expressed metaphors can contribute to better assimilation of the material, but excessive use of
metaphors can lead to a distortion of the essence of scientific findings. This emphasizes the importance of
developing critical analysis skills and the ability to distinguish between metaphorical and factual statements,
which is especially relevant in the field of scientific research. According to the research of Suvorov and
Kuchmina, in an educational context, figurative language, if used without a proper critical approach, can distort
the perception of facts and scientific data, which, in turn, will lead to incorrect conclusions and misunderstand-
ings [6, 26].
An equally important aspect is the influence of figurative language on perception and decision-making
in the social and political spheres. In a study conducted in Kazakhstan, Abishev and Chenkeeva showed that
metaphors are actively used to formulate political programs, advertising, and public campaigns. In this context,
critical thinking is necessary to distinguish reality from manipulative approaches based on excessive or exag-
gerated use of metaphors [7, 319].
Thus, the development of critical thinking not only improves the perception of figurative language, but
also helps in making informed decisions. Active use of critical reflection, in turn, allows for a deeper under-
standing of metaphors and other types of figurative expressions, reducing the likelihood of their manipulative
use. An empirical study of the impact of a short case study on critical thinking on students' interpretation of
figurative language
List of abbreviations: CT – Critical Thinking figurative language – Figurative Language ESL – English
as a Second Language CEFR – Common European Framework of Reference for Languages L1 – First Lan-
guage N – Total sample size (total number of participants) n – Subsample size (number of participants in a
group) M – Arithmetic mean SD – Standard deviation t – t-statistic (Student's criterion) p – p-value (level of
statistical significance) d – Cohen's d (measure of effect size).
Understanding and correctly interpreting figurative language (figurative language), including meta-
phors, idioms, similes, personifications, hyperbole and litotes, poses significant cognitive and linguistic chal-
lenges for foreign language learners, especially at advanced levels where a deep understanding of authentic
texts is required. At intermediate level learners are exposed to a variety of figurative language forms and need
strategies to understand them effectively. The ability to successfully decode non-literal meanings is essential
for achieving a high level of communicative and intercultural competence. Despite numerous studies on fig-
urative language teaching in the ESL context on ESL learners’ difficulties with idioms [8, 3]. And the growing
interest in integrating critical thinking skills into language teaching, there is a clear gap in empirical evidence
directly linking the use of critical thinking strategies to improved ability to interpret different types of figurative
language in non-native speakers using a design involving pre-comparison.
Critical thinking, in this context understood as a set of cognitive strategies and dispositions aimed at
actively and skillfully conceptualizing, applying, analyzing, synthesizing, and/or evaluating information gath-
ered or generated through observation, experience, reasoning, or communication, serves as a guide to belief
and action. Applied to reading and interpreting text, critical thinking includes such skills as analyzing context,
distinguishing between facts and interpretations, assessing the credibility of information, identifying hidden
meanings and authorial intentions on the process of one's own understanding. In theory, it is these skills that
can help ESL learners to overcome literal interpretation and recognize the multi-layered meanings inherent in
figurative language [9, 5]. Using an introductory assessment design allows us to assess the initial level of
figurative language interpretation skills before the intervention and to measure the effect of the intervention
itself more accurately.
The aim of this study was to empirically assess the impact of a brief, focused intervention to activate
critical thinking strategies on the interpretation performance of ESL learners in a variety of figurative language
forms, using baseline and post-intervention analyses.
In the experiment, the authors specifically utilized an interactive case analysis methodology for Group
A, wherein participants were actively engaged in a structured exploration of a real-world scenario. This process
involved providing Group A with a detailed case study, rich in context and complexities, that required careful
examination and critical thinking.
The approach included a variety of interactive components, such as group discussions, role-playing ex-
ercises, and collaborative problem-solving tasks. Participants were encouraged to analyze the case from mul-
tiple perspectives, challenging assumptions and evaluating different outcomes. Real-time feedback, coupled
with the opportunity to ask questions and revise their analyses, fostered a dynamic learning environment.
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Additionally, the authors integrated tools such as data simulations, decision-making frameworks, and
collaborative platforms to facilitate deeper engagement and enhance the decision-making process. The inter-
active nature of the case analysis allowed for continuous self-reflection, enabling Group A to refine their con-
clusions based on new insights and evidence as the experiment progressed.
It was hypothesized that the difference in Figurative Language Interpretation success between the ex-
perimental and control groups would be statistically significantly greater after the intervention than before.
Methodology
A quantitative, comparative study was used using a quasi-experimental pre-test-post-test control group
design. The study consisted of two phases: pre-test (2 weeks) and experimental (4 weeks). The independent
variable was the type of case analysis obtained at the beginning of the experimental phase (case analysis using
critical thinking strategies vs. standard). The dependent variable was the success of figurative language inter-
pretation, measured based on the scores received by the participants for completing the interpretation task on
a weekly basis.
The study involved 31 students (N=31), who were first-year students majoring in «Foreign Language:
Two Foreign Languages» at Shakarim University in the «Basic Foreign Language» discipline. The experiment
consisted of two groups: Group A, 12 students, and Group B, 13 students. The participants gave their consent
to participate in the study, and the names of the students and the groups were anonymized.
Materials
Text stimulus. The study was conducted as part of the «Basic English» (Basic Foreign Language) dis-
cipline. The discipline took place 3 hours per week. Every week during the 6 weeks of the study (2 introductory
assessment + 4 experimental), 1 hour of class time was allocated to the experimental task. The text material
contained various forms of figurative language (metaphors, idioms, comparisons, personifications, hyperboles,
litotes, etc.), integrated in a natural way.
Critical thinking instruction materials. A three-page booklet was developed for Group A with a brief
and clear description of the four key critical thinking strategies relevant to text interpretation: 1) Context anal-
ysis; 2) Recognizing non-literal meaning; 3) Generating and evaluating hypotheses; 4) Reflection. Each strat-
egy was accompanied by simple examples.
Assessment materials. The success of interpreting figurative language expressions was assessed weekly
using a specially developed analytical rubric. The assessment methods are described in Table 1, the assessment
criteria are presented in Table 2, and the system for correlating numerical results with letter grades is outlined
in Table 3.
Data collection procedure. Data collection was carried out in two identical classrooms simultaneously,
weekly during all 6 weeks of the study (2 introductory assessment + 4 experimental), during one hour of class
time. Introductory phase (Weeks 1-2): Both groups were given a text passage and a 40-minute figurative
language interpretation task weekly without any additional case analysis. Data were collected.
The tasks included written interpretation of passages with metaphors, idioms and other figurative lan-
guage forms, explanation of meanings, classification of figures of speech and argumentation of meanings based
on context.
Experimental phase (Weeks 3-6): At the beginning of Week 3, Group A received a 15-minute case
analysis using critical thinking strategies. Group B completed a filler task or waited at the same time. After the
case analysis, both groups were given a new text passage and a 35-minute figurative language interpretation
task weekly (from Week 3 to Week 6). The tasks were completed in writing. The use of external resources was
not allowed. Written responses were collected for subsequent assessment. Students' work was coded and the
results were analyzed anonymously to ensure the confidentiality of the participants' data. Each student's entry
score was the average of their scores for Weeks 1 and 2. Each student's final score was the average of their
scores for Weeks 3, 4, 5, and 6.
At the beginning of Week 3, Group A participated in an interactive case analysis session: discussion of
a complex speech episode, definition of meanings, joint interpretation, role-playing, and reflection.
Data analysis. Written responses were scored by two independent raters trained in the use of the scoring
rubric. Raters were blinded to the group to which the papers belonged. Discrepancies in scoring (<8% of all
cases) were resolved by joint discussion between raters until consensus was reached. Each student’s weekly,
baseline, and final scores were calculated as a percentage of 100. Scoring reliability was confirmed by a high
inter-rater reliability coefficient (Cohen’s Kappa = 0.88). An independent t-test was used to compare mean
scores between groups: separately for baseline and final levels. The normality of score distribution across
stages was pre-tested using the Shapiro-Wilk test (α = 0.05). Effect size was estimated using Cohen’s d
(d=t√n1+n2n1n2).
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Table 1. Methods for assessing the interpretation of figurative language at level B2
Assessment Method
Description
Written Assessments
Multiple-choice Questions (MCQs) for understanding figurative expressions.
Fill-in-the-blanks to apply figurative expressions in context.
Short Answer Questions to explain meanings of figurative expressions.
Contextual Analysis of figurative language in texts.
Oral Assessments
Role-plays using figurative language in dialogues.
Interviews or discussions incorporating figurative language.
Pronunciation and intonation evaluation while using figurative phrases.
Peer Review
Group Discussions on figurative language use, evaluating appropriateness and clarity.
Peer feedback on figurative expressions during conversations.
Text Analysis
Literary Text Analysis for figurative language, explaining metaphors, idioms, etc.
Media Analysis (advertisements, news articles) to assess figurative language use and impact.
Table 2. Assessment criteria for interpretation of figurative language at level B2
Criteria
A (91-100%)
B (75-89%)
C (60-74%)
D (50-59%)
F (0-49%)
Comprehension of
Figurative Meaning
Excellent under-
standing, can explain
complex expressions
with clarity.
Good understanding,
can explain most ex-
pressions but may
struggle with com-
plex ones or lack
clarity.
Satisfactory under-
standing of common
expressions, strug-
gles with less com-
mon/complex ones,
explanations may be
vague or partially in-
correct.
Basic understanding
of only very com-
mon/transparent ex-
pressions, frequent
misinterpretations or
inability to explain.
Little to no under-
standing or ability to
explain figurative
meaning.
Ability to Use Fig-
urative Speech Ap-
propriately
Uses a wide range of
figurative expres-
sions naturally and
appropriately in dif-
ferent contexts.
Uses a range of fig-
urative expressions
appropriately in fa-
miliar contexts, some
usage may feel
slightly unnatural or
limited.
Uses some common
figurative expres-
sions, but often inap-
propriately or unnat-
urally, limited range.
Attempts to use fig-
urative expressions
but often incorrectly,
leading to misunder-
standing or awk-
wardness.
Cannot use figurative
expressions correctly
or at all.
Contextual
Appropriateness
Consistently uses fig-
urative language in
the correct context
(formal/informal)
and tone, enhancing
communication.
Generally uses fig-
urative language ap-
propriately for con-
text and tone, occa-
sional lapses.
Struggles with con-
textual appropriate-
ness and tone, lead-
ing to occasional
confusion or awk-
wardness.
Frequently uses fig-
urative language in-
appropriately for
context or tone, hin-
dering communica-
tion.
Ignores context or
tone when attempting
to use figurative lan-
guage.
Cohesion and
Clarity
Figurative expres-
sions enhance clarity
and cohesion, inte-
grating seamlessly
with the message.
Figurative expres-
sions generally con-
tribute to clarity and
cohesion, though in-
tegration may not al-
ways be seamless.
Figurative expres-
sions may sometimes
hinder clarity or co-
hesion, integration is
often awkward.
Figurative expres-
sions frequently
cause confusion or
disrupt the figurative
languageow of the
message.
Figurative expres-
sions make the mes-
sage unclear or unin-
telligible.
Creativity and
Variety
Uses a variety of fig-
urative expressions
creatively, demon-
strating a deep under-
standing and rich vo-
cabulary.
Shows good variety
in using common and
some less common
expressions, some
evidence of creative
use.
Uses a limited range
of mostly common or
basic expressions, lit-
tle to no evidence of
creativity.
Uses a very limited
range of only basic
expressions, no crea-
tivity.
Does not use a vari-
ety of expressions or
shows no creativity.
Table 3. System of correlation of numerical and letter grades
Grade
Percentage
Range
Description
A
91-100%
Excellent command of figurative language with accurate understanding and effective usage in context.
B
75-89%
Good understanding and usage of figurative speech with minor errors in interpretation or context.
C
60-74%
Satisfactory understanding but struggles with applying figurative expressions naturally or in the correct con-
text.
D
50-59%
Basic understanding with frequent misusage of figurative expressions, leading to communication issues.
F
0-49%
Fails to demonstrate sufficient understanding or correct use of figurative language.
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Results
Analysis of the normality of distribution of baseline and final levels using the Shapiro-Wilk test showed
that the data in both groups at both stages were approximately normally distributed (p > 0.05), which allowed
us to apply a parametric t-test to compare the mean scores between groups at each stage. The mean scores by
week and by stage of the study for each group are presented in Table 4.
Table 4. Average scores by weeks and by stages of the study by groups (N=25, in %)
Group
n
Week 1
(Initial
grade)
Week 2
(Initial
grade)
Average initial
assessment score
(M)
SD (Initial
grade)
Week 3
(Final
grade)
Week 4
(Final
grade)
Week 5
(Final
grade)
Week 6
(Final
grade)
Average
final
grade (M)
SD (Final
assessmen
t)
Group A
12
74.5
75.8
75.2
3.0
77.0
78.5
80.0
81.5
79.2
2.8
Group B
13
72.0
73.5
72.8
3.2
72.5
73.5
74.5
75.5
74.0
3.1
The results of the independent t-test for baseline levels showed that the difference between Group A (M
= 75.2%, SD = 3.0) and Group B (M = 72.8%, SD = 3.2) was not statistically significant; t(23) = 1.90, p =
0.070. The difference was 2.4 percentage points. The effect size was small (Cohen's d = 0.76).
The results of the independent t-test for post-test levels showed a statistically significant difference be-
tween Group A (M = 79.2%, SD = 2.8) and Group B (M = 74.0%, SD = 3.1); t(23) = 4.28, p < 0.001. The
difference was 5.2 percentage points. The effect size was large (Cohen's d = 1.71).
Comparison of the results by stages shows that although Group A had slightly higher scores already at
the introductory assessment stage, the difference between the groups was insignificant. After conducting the
case analysis on critical thinking for the experimental group and 4 weeks of the experiment, the gap between
the groups increased statistically significantly (from 2.4 p.p. to 5.2 p.p.).
The weekly scores of the participants in Group A are presented in Table 5, and those of the participants
in Group B are presented in Table 6.
Table 5. Weekly scores of Group A participants (n=12, in %)
Students
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Average initial as-
sessment score (M)
Average final
grade (M)
Final letter
grade
1
76.0
77.0
79.0
80.0
81.0
82.0
76.5
80.5
B
2
70.0
72.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
71.0
75.5
B
3
73.0
74.0
76.0
77.0
78.0
79.0
73.5
77.5
B
4
74.0
75.0
77.0
78.0
79.0
80.0
74.5
78.5
B
5
69.0
71.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
70.0
74.5
C
6
77.0
78.0
80.0
81.0
82.0
83.0
77.5
81.5
B
7
71.0
72.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
71.5
75.5
B
8
75.0
76.0
78.0
79.0
80.0
81.0
75.5
79.5
B
9
72.0
73.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
78.0
72.5
76.5
B
10
78.0
80.0
81.0
82.0
83.0
84.0
79.0
82.5
B
11
73.0
75.0
77.0
78.0
79.0
80.0
74.0
78.0
B
12
74.0
75.0
77.0
78.0
79.0
80.0
74.5
78.5
B
Average for
Group A
74.5
75.8
77.5
78.8
79.8
80.9
75.2
79.2
B
Table 6. Weekly scores of Group B participants (n=13, in %)
Students
Week 1
Week 2
Week 3
Week 4
Week 5
Week 6
Average initial as-
sessment score (M)
Average final
grade (M)
Final letter
grade
14
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
70.5
73.5
C
15
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
78.0
73.5
76.5
B
16
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
68.5
71.5
C
17
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
71.5
74.5
C
18
65.0
66.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
65.5
69.5
D
19
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
72.5
75.5
B
20
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
69.5
72.5
C
21
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
70.5
73.5
C
22
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
71.5
74.5
C
23
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
68.5
71.5
C
24
73.0
74.0
75.0
76.0
77.0
78.0
73.5
76.5
B
25
67.0
68.0
69.0
70.0
71.0
72.0
67.5
70.5
C
26
70.0
71.0
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
70.5
73.5
C
Average for
Group B
69.7
70.9
72.0
73.0
74.0
75.0
70.3
73.6
C
The final (average final score) numerical percentage scores of each participant and the corresponding
letter grade are presented in Table 7.
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Table 7. Final (Final assessment) scores of participants by groups for the interpretation of figurative
language (N=25, in % and letter grade)
Group
№
Final Score (%)
Final letter grade
А
1
80.5
B
А
2
75.5
B
А
3
77.5
B
А
4
78.5
B
А
5
74.5
C
А
6
81.5
B
А
7
75.5
B
А
8
79.5
B
А
9
76.5
B
А
10
82.5
B
А
11
78.0
B
А
12
78.5
B
Average for Group A
79.2
B
Б
13
73.5
C
Б
14
76.5
B
Б
15
71.5
C
Б
16
74.5
C
Б
17
69.5
D
Б
18
75.5
B
Б
19
72.5
C
Б
20
73.5
C
Б
21
74.5
C
Б
22
71.5
C
Б
23
76.5
B
Б
24
70.5
C
Б
25
73.5
C
Average for Group B
73.1
C
According to the grading system (Table 3), the average final level of Group A (79.2%) corresponds to
the letter grade 'B'. The average final level of Group B (73.1%) corresponds to the letter grade 'C'. The distri-
bution of students by final (final assessment) letter grades also shows a difference (Table 8).
Table 8. Distribution of final letter grades by groups (N=25)
Letter grade
Group A (n=12)
Group B (n=13)
A (91-100%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
B (75-89%)
11 (91.7%)
3 (23.1%)
C (60-74%)
1 (8.3%)
8 (61.5%)
D (50-59%)
0 (0.0%)
2 (15.4%)
F (0-49%)
0 (0.0%)
0 (0.0%)
As can be seen from Table 8, the vast majority of students in Group A (91.7%) received a final grade of
'B', with one student receiving a 'C'. In Group B, the majority of students (61.5%) received a 'C', with some
students receiving grades of 'B' and 'D'. No participant in either group received a failing grade (below 50%).
The qualitative analysis of written interpretations, supported by rubric scores, revealed systematic dif-
ferences in strategies between the groups. Already at the introductory assessment stage, there were some dif-
ferences in the use of context and understanding of figurative language mechanisms, but these were less pro-
nounced than at the final assessment stage. At the final assessment stage, students in Group A were signifi-
cantly more likely to demonstrate the ability to use the surrounding textual context to clarify or derive the
meaning of a phrasal word (an average of 4.3 points out of 5 for the context criterion during the final assessment
period) compared to students in Group B (an average of 3.1 points out of 5). This was especially noticeable
when interpreting less transparent idioms, where erroneous literal translations are possible without context. In
addition, at the final assessment stage, students in Group A were more likely to successfully identify the mech-
anism for creating figurative meaning (an average of 1.8 points out of 2 for the criterion of understanding the
non-literal mechanism during the final assessment period) compared to students in Group B (an average of 1.2
points out of 2). For example, when interpreting personifications or hyperbole, students in Group A were more
likely to point out the attribution of human properties or deliberate exaggeration/understatement to create an
effect, whereas students in Group B were able to give the correct figurative meaning, but without an explicit
understanding of the mechanism.
Discussion
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85
The results of this study with pre-assessment and post-assessment analyses provide strong support for
hypothesis H1, demonstrating that even a brief targeted intervention aimed at activating critical thinking strat-
egies can lead to statistically and practically significant improvements in advanced ESL learners’ ability to
interpret a variety of figurative language forms. While the difference in mean scores between groups was small
and statistically insignificant at the pre-assessment stage (2.4 p.p., p = .070), after the critical thinking case
analysis for the experimental group and the 4 weeks of the experiment, the gap in mean scores increased
statistically significantly (5.2 p.p., p < .001). This increase in difference, supported by the large effect size at
the post-assessment stage (d = 1.71), indicates a positive impact of the CT case analysis. The vast majority of
the experimental group achieved level 'B' at the end of the 4 weeks of the experiment, while the control group
showed a lower average score and a wider spread of final scores between 'B', 'C' and 'D'. The analysis of the
average scores by weeks (Table 4) also shows that although both groups demonstrated some progress during
the 6 weeks of the study, the group with the critical thinking case study had higher scores both in the introduc-
tory assessment phase and demonstrated a more pronounced increase in scores during the experimental phase.
The qualitative analysis allowed us to gain a deeper understanding of how critical thinking contributes
to improvement. Students using critical thinking do not simply memorize meanings, but actively analyze lan-
guage units in their textual environment (contextual analysis) and evaluate the non-literal nature of expressions
and the mechanisms of meaning transfer (recognition of non-literality, evaluation of hypotheses). These critical
thinking skills help to overcome the tendency to translate literally, which often causes errors when working
with idioms and other figures of speech, and promote a more precise and nuanced understanding of meaning,
which is especially important for personifications, hyperbole, and litotes, where the literal meaning clearly
diverges from the figurative one. The ability to apply these strategies, as assessed by the rubric criteria, is
directly correlated with higher numerical scores and, as a result, higher letter grades.
Limitations of the Study
It is important to acknowledge the limitations of this study. The relatively small sample size (N=25)
may limit the generalizability of the results to a wider population of ESL learners. The use of only one text
passage or a series of passages from a limited number of works may limit the applicability of the results to
other genres or styles of texts. The short duration of the critical thinking case study (15 minutes) and its use
only at the beginning of the experimental phase may mean that the observed effects are minimal compared to
longer and more systematic critical thinking training integrated into the curriculum. The participants' prior
critical thinking skills were not measured or controlled, although the introductory assessment phase provides
some indication of the initial level. The assessment was conducted within one type of task only (written inter-
pretation), although the assessment methods (Table 1) may include other types of activity; the results may
differ when using oral tasks or tasks on figurative language production.
Conclusions and Practical Recommendations
The results of this study provide empirical grounds to believe that integrating the teaching of critical
thinking strategies into the ESL curriculum at intermediate level is a promising direction for improving the
effectiveness of teaching figurative language interpretation. Teachers are recommended to include in their
lessons exercises aimed at: a) systematic analysis of the context when encountering unfamiliar or potentially
figurative expressions; b) teaching the recognition of different types of figures of speech (metaphor, simile,
personification, hyperbole, litotes, etc.) and their typical functions; c) stimulating discussion of possible fig-
urative meanings and justification of the choice of the most appropriate meaning based on text clues. The
development and use of rubrics for self- and peer-assessment of interpretations can also facilitate the develop-
ment of reflection, which is part of critical thinking. The introductory assessment-summative assessment anal-
ysis demonstrated that this approach leads to a significant increase in results, expressed in statistically signifi-
cantly higher average scores and the achievement of a higher level by the majority of students at the end of the
experimental phase.
Prospects for further research
Further studies are needed to confirm and expand on the findings, using a larger sample size, a longitu-
dinal design to assess the long-term effect of systematic critical thinking training, and to study the impact of
critical thinking on the interpretation of figurative language in different text genres (e.g. academic, journalistic)
and in learners of different levels of language proficiency. Studies using qualitative methods (e.g. think-aloud
protocol analysis) could provide an even deeper understanding of the cognitive processes involved in inter-
preting figurative language using critical thinking. The impact of critical thinking on other aspects of language
proficiency, such as figurative language production, is also of interest. Comparison of results in students of
different educational profiles could reveal the impact of specific training.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
86
References
1. Gibbs, R. W. (2008). The Cambridge Handbook of Metaphor and Thought. Cambridge University
Press. 2. Paul, R., & Elder, L. (2014). Critical Thinking: Tools for Taking Charge of Your Learning and Your
Life (3rd ed.). Pearson Education.
3. Facione, P. A. (2015). Critical Thinking: What It Is and Why It Counts. Insight Assessment.
4. Абдилова, Ж. Г. (2020). Developing critical thinking in Kazakhstan through figurative language
Eurasian Journal of Philology Science and Education
5. Беляев, В. П., & Гладкова, И. В. (2019). Развитие навыков критического мышления: Учебно-
методическое пособие для магистрантов всех направлени и специализаци. Издательство УГГУ.
6. Суворов, В., & Кучмина, А. (2018). Как образны язык в образовании может искажать факты,
если используется без критического подхода. Научно-практически журнал «Вестник Университета
Россиско академии образования»
7. Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Critical Thinking in Psychology: Separating Good From Bad. Canadian Psy-
chology/Psychologie canadienne, 44(3), 319–333.
8. Баетова, Н. и Робертсон, Д. Л. (2024). Казахстански националистически глобализм:
парадокс, язык и высшее образование. Глобализация, общества и образование, 22(1), 1–18. URL:
https://doi.org/10.1177/17577438231225126
9. Meadows, B. (2007). Distancing and showing solidarity via metaphor and metonymy in political
discourse: A critical study of American statements on Iraq during the years 2004–2005. CADAAD Journal,
1(2), 1–17.
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87
TASK-BASED FRAMEWORK FOR TEACHING SPEAKING AT THE BASIC STAGE OF SEC-
ONDARY SCHOOL
Dinasilova Altynai Olzhaskyzy
4th year student of Foreign Languages Teacher Training Faculty
6B01701 – “Teacher of two foreign languages”
Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages
Almaty, Kazakhstan
Golovchun A.A.
Candidate of Pedagogical Sciences, Professor
Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages
Almaty, Kazakhstan
РАМКА ОБУЧЕНИЯ ГОВОРЕНИЮ НА ОСНОВЕ ЗАДАНИЙ НА БАЗОВОМ ЭТАПЕ
СРЕДНЕЙ ШКОЛЫ
Динасилова Алтынай Олжасқызы
студентка 4-го года обучения
Педагогический факультет иностранных языков
6B01701 – “Учитель двух иностранных языков”
Казахский университет международных отношений
и мировых языков имени Абылай хана
Алматы, Казахстан
Головчун Алефтина Анатольевна
Кандидат педагогических наук, профессор
Казахский университет международных отношений
и мировых языков имени Абылай хана
Алматы, Казахстан
Abstract
This article examines the development of communicative competence in students of grades 5–8 through
task-based learning (TBL) and proposes methods for implementing task-based speaking activities in English
lessons during pedagogical practice.
Аннотация
В данно статье рассматривается развитие коммуникативно компетенции у учащихся 5–8
классов посредством обучения на основе задани (Task-Based Learning, TBL), а также предлагаются
методы внедрения задани на развитие устно речи на уроках англиского языка в ходе
педагогическо практики.
Keywords: task-based learning, speaking, communicative competence, English lesson, secondary
school.
Ключевые слова: обучение на основе задани, говорение, коммуникативная компетенция, урок
англиского языка, средняя школа.
Currently, learning foreign languages is essential in the education of modern students in Kazakhstan. It
allows them to access global knowledge, communicate internationally, and develop cultural awareness.
Among the four basic skills, speaking is one of the most challenging to develop at the basic stage of secondary
school, where students are only beginning to express themselves in English. The primary objective of teaching
English at this stage is to form communicative competence, and task-based learning (TBL) offers a practical
method to reach this goal.
TBL emphasizes communication through meaningful tasks. Unlike traditional methods focusing on repetition
or isolated grammar practice,
TBL allows students to use the language naturally, interactively, and with a clear purpose. According to J.
Willis and R. Ellis, a task is a classroom activity in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome.
One of the core advantages of the task-based framework is that it places communication at the center of
the learning process. In this approach, students are not simply learning about the language—they are learning
through the language. Each task is built around a meaningful goal that reflects real-life communication, such
as exchanging information, solving a problem, or completing a project. This not only motivates learners but
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also gives them a clear reason to speak. For students at the basic stage of secondary school, particularly in
grades 5 to 8, such practice is essential. At this age, learners benefit most from contextualized and engaging
tasks that reflect their personal experiences. When speaking tasks are tied to familiar themes—like school,
family, hobbies, or daily routines—students are more likely to participate actively and use language confi-
dently. Moreover, tasks can be designed to integrate multiple language skills. For example, a speaking task
might include listening to a dialogue, reading short prompts, writing notes, and finally performing the task
orally. This integration strengthens overall language competence and helps students make connections between
different skills.
The task-based framework also contributes to building learner autonomy. By taking responsibility for
completing tasks, choosing language forms, and interacting with peers, students gradually shift from dependent
learners to independent users of the language. They begin to monitor their own speech, correct errors, and
make conscious vocabulary choices-all key indicators of communicative development. Another benefit is the
flexibility of TBL for various classroom contexts. Whether in large classes or small groups, tasks can be
adapted in complexity, structure, and timing. The approach also supports inclusive education, allowing all
learners regardless of their individual level—to participate meaningfully through differentiated roles and
teacher scaffolding.
TBL can be especially effective for students in grades 5–8, who are still developing both their language
proficiency and their confidence in using English.
It helps overcome the psychological barrier that often prevents learners from speaking. Moreover, task-based
activities allow teachers to focus
on practical language usage rather than theoretical knowledge.
Task-based learning (TBL) serves not only as a means for developing linguistic competence, but also
contributes to the activation of cognitive and socio-communicative processes among learners at the basic stage
of secondary education. Engagement in structured communicative tasks presupposes the mobilization of such
cognitive operations as reasoning, analysis, comparison, and generalization. Through participation in task se-
quences, learners develop skills in expressing personal opinion, interpreting interlocutor input, and formulating
contextually appropriate responses, which are fundamental for achieving functional foreign language profi-
ciency.
Of particular importance is the authenticity embedded in task content. When communicative tasks are
framed within real-life or simulated situations (e.g., planning a class event, discussing health-related habits),
learners demonstrate higher levels of motivation and involvement. The practical orientation of such tasks en-
hances the meaningfulness of language use and contributes to the internalization of lexical and grammatical
structures through purposeful application.
Furthermore, TBL promotes interaction in pair and group formats, which stimulates peer-supported learning
and develops students’ capacity for cooperative dialogue. This process reinforces not only oral fluency, but
also interpersonal competencies such as turn-taking, active listening, and negotiation of meaning. In the con-
text of multilingual classrooms, which are characteristic of the Kazakhstani educational system, these features
are particularly relevant, as they create conditions for inclusive and respectful communication among learners
with diverse linguistic backgrounds.
The iterative structure of task-based instruction enables the implementation of formative assessment
mechanisms, including both teacher-directed and learner-reflective feedback. The opportunity to revisit, refine,
and improve performance across multiple task cycles supports the development of metacognitive awareness
and learner autonomy- key components of sustainable language education.
Table 1 – Stages of a Task-Based Speaking Lesson
Stage
Goal
Activity Examples
Lead-in
Set context, activate prior knowledge
Discuss pictures, answer questions, brainstorm ideas
Noticing 1
Provide model input
Listen to teacher/model dialogue, answer gist questions
Noticing 2
Highlight useful language/speaking strategies
Analyze useful phrases, reorder scripts, listen for details
Task preparation
Plan what to say, use visual organizers
Fill prompts, write key ideas, rehearse
Task performance
Perform the task in pairs/groups
Role-plays, dialogues, interviews
Feedback & reflection
Improve accuracy, fluency, raise awareness
Peer/self-assessment, error correction, repeat task (optional)
TBL activities can include interviews, problem-solving, role-plays, and information gap tasks.
They must be age-appropriate, engaging, and relevant to the learners' everyday experiences.
Let us examine a classroom example from a 6th grade English lesson on the topic “My School Day.”
First, students are asked to look at a series of pictures depicting morning and school routines.
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89
They describe the pictures in pairs. Next, the teacher tells a short story about their own school day and asks
students to order events from memory. Then students are given jumbled parts of a student’s school day and
must put them in order.
After this, students fill in a schedule template with their own activities and use it to tell their partner about their
school day. The partners ask follow-up questions such as “What time do you have English?” or “Do you like
Math lessons?” At the end, the teacher writes common errors and strong phrases on the board and gives feed-
back.
In another task for 7th grade on the topic “Healthy Lifestyle,” students are divided into two groups: “doctors”
and “teenagers.”
Each group receives a set of phrases about habits (e.g., junk food, exercise, screen time). Students
prepare dialogues where the “doctors” give advice and the “teenagers” respond.
The aim is to use modal verbs (should, must, can) and health-related vocabulary in a natural context. Such
tasks motivate students, enhance group cooperation, and help even less confident learners participate actively.
Speaking becomes not a test, but a form of expression. Through repetition and real-life scenarios,
students absorb vocabulary and grammatical structures naturally.
TBL is particularly valuable in the Kazakhstani context, where learners often face limited exposure to
real English usage. By simulating life situations, tasks help bridge the gap between textbook English and au-
thentic communication.
Teachers, in turn, are encouraged to act as facilitators and monitors, guiding learners while allowing space for
improvisation and creativity.
Task-based learning is a powerful approach to developing speaking skills at the basic secondary level.
It promotes communicative competence, fosters motivation, and prepares students for real-world language use.
Implemented correctly, it transforms the English classroom into a dynamic, student-centered environment
where every learner finds their voice.
Another significant advantage of the task-based approach is the opportunity it provides for differentiated in-
struction. In classrooms with mixed-ability learners, tasks can be adjusted in complexity and structure so that
every student can participate at their level. For instance, stronger students can be assigned leadership roles in
group work, while others can be given additional scaffolding such as sentence starters or visual aids. This
inclusiveness allows for equal access to language practice and reduces the pressure associated with speaking
in a foreign language.
Additionally, task-based activities naturally lend themselves to formative assessment. During the task perfor-
mance phase, teachers can observe and take notes on individual learner progress, such as fluency, vocabulary
usage, pronunciation, and interaction strategies. Rather than relying solely on tests, educators can use this
information to give immediate, constructive feedback, target future lessons, and build learner confidence.
In the context of Kazakhstan’s multilingual education strategy, which promotes Kazakh, Russian, and English,
task-based lessons are particularly suitable. They allow students to draw on their full linguistic resources and
gradually transition from one language to another through communicative practice. For example, teachers may
permit short code-switching during preparation phases while encouraging full English use during the task it-
self.
Let us consider another practical example for grade 8 students, based on the topic “Future Professions.” In this
lesson, students are divided into small groups and asked to create a short presentation about a dream job.
During the lead-in, the teacher introduces various professions using flashcards and short videos. Students then
brainstorm qualities and skills required for each job. For the task, each group chooses one profession (e.g.,
pilot, engineer, teacher) and prepares a mini-presentation covering daily duties, required education, pros and
cons, and why someone might choose this career. The audience is encouraged to ask follow-up questions. The
activity ends with peer feedback and teacher guidance on appropriate language structures like 'You need to…',
'It’s important to…', 'I would like to be…'.
In terms of long-term outcomes, task-based learning fosters learner autonomy. Students become more
responsible for their language development when they know they are expected to speak, listen, and collaborate
regularly. They start taking initiative in conversations, seek new vocabulary actively, and reflect on their speak-
ing performance. Moreover, tasks help create a routine of meaningful use of English, making the language a
living, practical tool, not just an academic subject.
Thus, the task-based framework for teaching speaking at the basic stage of secondary school demonstrates
high pedagogical effectiveness and practical value. Unlike traditional methods focused predominantly on
grammar and repetition, the task-based approach creates real communicative situations, stimulating the active
use of language and the development of fluency. This is especially important for students in grades 5–8, who
are forming the foundations of their foreign language competence.
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90
The implementation of task-based learning (TBL) contributes to the development of key components
of communicative competence - such as the ability to express personal opinions, ask questions, respond ap-
propriately, and maintain dialogue in meaningful contexts. Students learn not isolated words or grammatical
rules, but how to interact using language as a real tool for communication. Moreover, task-based speaking
activities foster motivation, reduce psychological barriers, and involve all students, regardless of their initial
level of proficiency.
TBL tasks also allow for differentiation and inclusion. Through group work, role distribution, and visual sup-
port, teachers can provide a comfortable environment for weaker students, while encouraging stronger learn-
ers to demonstrate leadership and creativity. At the same time, the teacher's role transforms from an instruc-
tor into a facilitator and guide, supporting the learning process and providing constructive feedback after the
completion of tasks.
References
1. British Council (n.d.) Task-based learning. https://www.teachingenglish.org.uk/article/task-based-
learning
2. Carless, D. (2007) The suitability of task-based approaches for secondary schools: Perspectives
from Hong Kong. System, 35(4), 595–608. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2007.09.003
3. Ellis, R. (2003) Task-based language learning and teaching. Oxford University Press
4. Littlewood, W. (2007) Communicative and task-based language teaching in East Asian classrooms.
Language Teaching, 40(3), 243–249. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444807004363
5. Nunan, D. (2004) Task-based language teaching. Cambridge University Press
6. Richards, J. C., & Rodgers, T. S. (2014) Approaches and methods in language teaching (3rd ed.).
Cambridge University Press
7. Willis, J. (1996) A framework for task-based learning. Longman
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
91
AS TO THE PROBLEM OF VOCABULARY ACCUMULATION WHILE TEACHING PROFES-
SIONAL FOREIGN LANGUAGE TO MARITIME HIGHER EDUCATION APPLICANTS OF
NAVIGATIONAL DEPARTMENT
Konstantynova Tetiana
senior lecturer, Department of Humanities,
Danube Institute
of the National University “Odesa Maritime Academy”
Izmail, Ukraine
ORCID ID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6374-343X
Abstract
The article considers the problem of accumulation of a professional lexical vocabulary in teaching for-
eign language to cadets of marine educational institutions of navigation department. Emphasis is placed on the
need to master basic and professionally oriented vocabulary for successful speech skills development. The
authors propose an effective methodology - creation of «lexical cards» for new words, which allows activating
visual and associative memory, as well as provides a deep elaboration of lexical units. The methodology con-
sists of several stages: individual choice of words, work with a dictionary, oral presentation, game forms of
consolidation and final written task. This approach contributes to a better understanding of professional vo-
cabulary, the development of oral and written speech, as well as increases the general motivation of students
to learn a foreign language.
Keywords: professionally oriented vocabulary, foreign language, maritime education, cadets, lexical
skills, lexical business card, associative method, memorization methods, navigation department, communica-
tive competence.
One of the most important components of learning any foreign language is the accumulation of vocab-
ulary. Only by acquiring some professional vocabulary, you can begin to study the interrelations of words in
the contest of maritime sphere - grammar, stylistics and so on. But what words should be learned first? And
how many words do you need to know? According to linguists, the complete dictionary of the English language
contains at least one million words as an example the second edition of the 20-volume Oxford English Dic-
tionary and Webster’s New International Dictionary which includes a description of 600,000 words. Of course,
no one knows that many words, and to use such a huge dictionary is very difficult. Lexical professional mini-
mum dictionaries are intended for students' learning of the language, and not for translators. With the help of
a minimum dictionary it is impossible to learn natural language in its entirety, but you can quickly and effec-
tively learn the part of it that has the greatest value for practical professional needs of communication on board
the ship.
The vocabulary in the language system is an important component of speech activities: listening, speak-
ing, reading and writing. This determines its important place in every foreign language lesson and the for-
mation of lexical skills to be constantly in the eye of the teacher. To teach the lexical side of foreign language,
a selection of productive vocabulary is made, intended for speaking in monological and dialogic form in social-
domestic, educational-labor and sociocultural spheres of communication, as well as verbal and receptive vo-
cabulary, Providing perception and understanding of texts for reading and listening.
Even if you have learned the necessary vocabulary, it does not automatically mean that you can com-
municate freely in a foreign language. Because you still need to know the rules of building sentences. Well,
this often turns out not enough. As practice shows, for confident assimilation of a foreign language do not go
without close communication with the mother tongue. And learning new words, when communicating with a
native speaker is much faster and more efficient. In the practice of Western countries, three levels of vocabulary
are defined. These levels are used to teach foreign students the language. So 8000 words is enough to read and
speak in a foreign language. First level or level A2 The basic level (400-600 words) covers 90% of all word
needs in everyday speech and approximately 70% in words in various texts. Second level or level B1 minimum
vocabulary (800-1000). This level is sufficient to provide the need for 95% of words in everyday speech and
80-85% in texts. Third level or B2 medium vocabulary (1500-2000 words) which is sufficient to fully cover
the need for words in spoken and 90% text.
As an effective method for overcoming the above-mentioned difficulties and increasing the efficiency
of memorizing professionally-oriented words, we propose using the creation of so-called “business cards” of
lexical units in the process of working with new vocabulary. The essence of this method is as follows: at the
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92
initial stage of familiarization with new lexical material, students are asked to select 5-6 new lexical units from
11-12 included in the lexical minimum of the topic being studied, and create a business card for each of them.
Students select the words that are of greatest interest to them, which “in itself increases the chances of memo-
rizing and further using these words in speech” [4]. A business card can be a page in a notebook or a separate
sheet of paper, in the center of which the selected word is written. To enhance the visual effect and activate
visual memory, the word can be written with a colored pen or marker. The next stage involves working with a
dictionary (in our study, the Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English), during which students find and
write down in a card all the information about a given lexical unit, namely: transcription of the word; meaning
of the word; derivative forms (in other parts of speech); examples of sentences with a given word; synonyms;
antonyms; collocations (stable combinations with other words); grammatical features; association (individual
for each student).
We would like to dwell on the last point in more detail. Among the numerous effective techniques and
methods for memorizing words, in our opinion, the associative method deserves special attention, based on
memorizing new words through the establishment of visual, sound or other psychological associations with
the word being studied. The author of this method is unknown, but Stanford University scientists studied the
effectiveness of this method. Considering the fact that our memory works on the principle of associating al-
ready known information with newly received information, this method gives good results compared to con-
ventional memorization.
The algorithm is very simple and accessible to everyone. A new foreign word is pronounced out loud
and an association is established with a word of the native language that is similar in pronunciation. In turn, a
semantic association is selected for the consonant word of the native language. Different people can have
completely different associations with the same word. The more unusual and absurd the association, the sim-
pler and easier it is to remember the word. Thus, the method of compiling a business card allows students to
get a complete idea of a new lexical unit, which greatly facilitates the process of memorizing it and further
use. After composing business cards, students are offered a choice of telling about a real life situation or mak-
ing up a fictional story using the studied lexical units, applying the acquired theoretical knowledge in practice.
At the next stage of consolidation of new vocabulary, each student presents the selected words to the
other students, telling in a foreign language about what he learned about each new word in the process of
working with the dictionary and composing a business card. This type of activity, on the one hand, is an ex-
cellent way of oral practice for the presenter; on the other hand, it helps to enrich the knowledge of other
students who worked on another group of words. The role of the teacher at this stage is to observe the students
and provide feedback or comments if additional information about the words is needed.
At the stage of monitoring the assimilation of new lexical material, students, in the form of a game,
assess the degree of memorization of words and the readiness to use them in speech activity. Students work in
pairs, where one student acts as a test subject, and the other tests the opponent, asking him questions in a
foreign language, regarding the words he has studied earlier, taking out one of the six business cards in turn.
Then the students change roles. In the event of any questions or controversial situations during the discussion,
the students can ask the teacher for help.
And finally, at the final stage of working with professionally oriented vocabulary, students are asked to
write a message on a topic related to the vocabulary being studied, making maximum use of all the studied
words, set expressions, synonyms and antonyms, paying attention to both the semantic and grammatical cor-
rectness of the use of new words in written work. From all of the above, we can conclude that competently
organized work of students with new lexical material, as well as the use of effective methods of memorizing
words, can contribute to increasing the effectiveness of assimilation of professionally oriented vocabulary and
increasing the vocabulary of students.
In conclusion, the accumulation of professionally oriented vocabulary is a fundamental component in
teaching a foreign language to maritime students, particularly those in navigational departments. Mastery of
key lexical units enables students to engage more effectively with grammar, stylistics, and communication
within their professional field. However, vocabulary learning should not be random or passive. A structured
and practical approach—such as the creation of “lexical business cards”—proves highly effective in enhancing
both the understanding and retention of new terms. This method, based on personalized selection, active dic-
tionary work, and associative memory techniques, supports the development of both productive and receptive
vocabulary skills. Furthermore, applying learned words through speaking, writing, and interactive peer activ-
ities reinforces their usage in real-life maritime communication scenarios. Ultimately, well-organized and
methodologically sound vocabulary instruction significantly contributes to the communicative competence
and professional readiness of maritime students.
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93
References
1. Lampariello L. Forget it: the secret of remembering words [Электронны ресурс]. – URL:
http://www.thepolyglotdream.com/forget-it-thesecret-of-remembering-words/.
2. Longman dictionary of contemporary English: словарь / Direct. D.Summers. – Harlow: Longman,
2003. – 1950 p.
3. Zhou, Yingdi English vocabulary accumulation, barriers, and strategies among Chinese non-English
majors. International Journal of Research Studies in Language Learning 2024 Volume 10 Number 2, 65-79
DOI: 10.5861/ijrsll.2024.015
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94
UDC 37.013.42
THE PECULIARITIES OF WORK OF GENERAL SCHOOL WITH DIFFICULT TEENAGERS
Samedov Kamran Enver oglu
Doctor of Philosophy in Pedagogy, Associate Professor
Baku Slavic University
УДК 37.013.42
ОСОБЕННОСТИ РАБОТЫ СРЕДНЕЙ ОБЩЕОБРАЗОВАТЕЛЬНОЙ ШКОЛЫ С
ТРУДНОВОСПИТУЕМЫМИ ПОДРОСТКАМИ
Самедов Кямран Энвер оглы
доктор философии по педагогики, доцент
Бакинский славянский университет (Баку, Азербайджан)
Abstract
The given article is dedicated to one of the actual problems of pedagogues - to work of general school
with difficult teenagers. In the article is emphasized a role of teachers collective in work with difficult teenag-
ers. An article examines forms and methods of work of general school with difficult teenagers. An article
emphasizes in this work a professional training of teachers. In the article are given necessary recommendations
of rising of the level of this work.
Аннотация
В статье рассматриваются особенности работы с трудновоспитуемыми подростками.
Подчёркивается особая роль школы как важного социального института в решении данно проблемы.
Приводятся методы и формы работы педагогического коллектива с такими подростками,
акцентируется внимание на необходимости профессионально подготовки учителе. Отмечается, что
успешная работа с трудновоспитуемыми подростками требует консолидации усили всех социальных
институтов общества.
Keywords: the general school, difficult teenagers, forms and methods of work, professional training of
teachers, pedagogical collective, social institutions of society
Ключевые слова: средняя общеобразовательная школа, трудновоспитуемые подростки, формы и
методы работы, профессиональная подготовка учителе, педагогически коллектив, социальные
институты общества
Вопросы развития, формирования и воспитания подрастающего поколения, обретения им
высокого уровня социально зрелости являются очень трудными и по это причине всегда находятся
в центре повышенного внимания всех социальных институтов общества. На социализацию молодых
люде в обществе дествуют немало факторов со свое специфико воспитательно-формирующе
деятельности. Одним из главных социальных институтов общества, достаточно эффективно
воздествующих на сознание и поведение молодых люде, на широту их мировоззрения и кругозора,
является средняя общеобразовательная школа. «Средняя школа обладает большим потенциалом
воздествия на личность, накопила достаточно высоки уровень опыта работы с учащимися и
достаточно успешно претворяет в жизнь сво богаты ресурс воспитательно- формирующе
деятельности» (1, 12). Работа средне школы, её педагогического коллектива с учащимися разных
возрастов, воспитания и формировании их как молодых люде высокого уровня социально зрелости
и глубины духовно-интеллектуального потенциала является высше оценко эффективности
педагогического труда. Сама по себе профессионально-педагогическая деятельность учителе средне
школы требуют от них высокого уровня личностных качеств, творческого подхода к свое профессии,
высокого уровня профессионально подготовки. Все эти качества учителе средне школы,
помноженное на их острое желание эффективного формирования своих подопечных – учащихся,
требует высоко отдачи внутренних сил и достаточного уровня социально-психологическо и
профессионально эрудиции. Особо заботы учителе средне школы и проявления их личностно-
профессиональных качеств требуют молодые люди (подростки), которых принято называть
трудновоспитуемыми. Многие практические работники систем образования понятие
«трудновоспитуемы» понимают несколько в узком плане и уверены в том, что трудновоспитуемые
молодые люди (подростки) – это просто учащиеся не особенно восприимчивые к воспитательно-
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формирующим воздествиям со стороны старшего поколения, что, на наш взгляд является не совсем
корректным восприятием феномена трудновоспитуемости.
Ученые-исследователи и практические работники систем образования с высоким уровнем
профессионально подготовки (Д.И. Водзински, Л.С. Славина, А.А. Примаченок, А.Г. Громцева, А.С.
Запесоцки, А.П. Фан, А.И. Кочетов, А.Д. Джумабаев, Л.М. Зюбин, Л.И. Рувински и др.) считают,
что трудновоспитуемость надо воспринимать как сложное, духовное внутреннее проявление
личностно-социально характеристики молодых люде. И если не организовать строную,
последовательную, целенаправленно дествующую воспитательно-формирующую работу с такими
подростками, то дальнешее проявление трудновоспитуемости могут трансформироваться в
выраженное девиантное и делинквентное поведение молодых люде.
В психолого-педагогическо и социально научно литературе трудновоспитуемость молодых
люде понимается как отклонение от нормы поведения, совершение противоправных поступков, а
иногда и поступков откровенно преступного характера, практически полная личностно-социальная
инфантильность, нежелание следовать и принимать нормы и правила общественного поведения и т.д.
«Само появление такого феномена как «трудновоспитуемы подросток», конечно же нельзя считать
каким-либо одномоментным, сиюминутным проявлением духовно-интеллектуально составляюще
молодых люде» (4, 32). Это процесс очень сложны и длительны по времени своего появления и, в
первую очередь, и это бесспорны факт, связан с грубыми ошибками в работе педагогического
коллектива средне школы. Социальная и гражданско-правовая позиция молодых люде – это не
только духовно-интеллектуальны ресурс, накопленны в процессе учебно-воспитательно работы
школы, эта позиция является выраженным следствием уровня сознания и навыками практическо
деятельности все социально-педагогическо и психологическо системы воздествия организация
внутришкольно жизни. Конечно, какие-бы социально, педагогические и психологические, верно
организованные условия работы учительского персонала не были бы в конкретно школе, все равно
како-то мизерны процент появления трудновоспитуемых подростков может иметь место (в области
формирования личности не всё подвластно школе). Однако, основываясь на результатах научных
исследовани и личном практическом опыте, можно сказать, что уменьшить количество
трудновоспитуемых подростков можно было бы при соблюдении некоторых условных требовани
очень эффективного и дественного характера:
а) обязательное формирование позитивно обстановки во все жизнедеятельности средне
школы;
б) учителям-предметникам и учителям общественных дисциплин в обязательном порядке
следует учитывать круг интересов, потребносте и склонносте учащихся;
в) как можно чаще проводить именно с трудновоспитуемыми подростками этические беседы,
причём беседа не просто на отвлечённые темы, а на темы, которые так или иначе входят в круг
личностно-социальных интересов индивида;
г) по возможности чаще привлекать трудновоспитуемых подростков к общественно работе,
поручать им организацию интересных мероприяти, стараться в проведённых в школе мероприятиях
сознательно назначать их ответственными за важные сегменты творческо деятельности школьного
коллектива;
д) обязательное привлечения к работе учителе с трудновоспитуемыми подростками их
родителе, друзе по месту жительства, одноклассников, с которыми они поддерживают тесные
дружеские отношения.
Большое влияние на личностно-социальное формирование трудновоспитуемых подростков
оказывают, на первы взгляд, не особенно примечательные внешние факторы. К примеру, по месту
жительства конкретного трудновоспитуемого подростка неофициально дествует какая-либо
группировка молодых ребят, которые (в како-то степени это дествительно имеет место) безразличие
со стороны учителе школы и других представителе старшего поколения пытаются заместить именно
одним им понятным проявлением свободолюбивого духа и деструктивным образом поведения. Что же
может сделать в таком случае конкретны учитель средне школы, чтобы нивелировать негативные
влияния тако группировки на своего ученика, пусть даже трудновоспитуемого. Конечно, просто
прити к нему домо и пожаловаться родителям заранее можно оценить как самы необдуманны и,
скорее всего, вызывающи со стороны молодого человека отчуждение и злобу шаг. Если учитель
воспользуется услугами правоохранительных органов – еще хуже, он вообще потеряет уважение в
глазах своих сверстников по месту жительства. Остается самы последни вид работы с такими
подростками (и это, к слову говоря, очень важны вид работы) в условиях школы через его самых
близких друзе попытаться наладить с ним личны контакт, основывающися на круге его интересов.
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К примеру, учитель знает, что его подопечны трудновоспитуемы подросток очень увлекается
творчеством и музыко группы Битлз. Зная это увлечение, можно наладить тесны контакт с молодым
человеком (правда, и сам учитель должен хотя бы мало-мальски профессионально разбираться в
творчестве это группы). Друго пример, подросток увлекается боксом и ходит в спортивную секцию
по боксу, учитель также на основанном его интересе к боксу, может наладить с ним отношения,
интересно рассказывая и профессионально о боях Мака Тасона, Джорджа Формена, Мухаммеда
Али, Леннокса Льюиса и др. Практика показывает, что налаживание позитивных межличностных
контактов с трудновоспитуемыми подростками через их интересы и увлечения, дает прекрасные
результаты (объединенные общими увлечениями и интересами люди прекрасно понимают друг друга
и, что очень немаловажно, эффективно самосовершенствуются в своем поведении). «Необходимо
заметить очень важны нюанс в работе с трудновоспитуемыми подростками – если тако молодо
человек постоянно мешает проведению уроков, громко разговаривает, отвлекает внимание от заняти
других учеников, это ещё не значит, что он будет таким же образом поступать всё время» (5, 41).
Другое дело, если он в своём таком поведении чувствует ещё поддержку нескольких других
учеников, то такое поведение будет наблюдаться у него достаточно длительное время. Другими
словами, нельзя говорить, что трудновоспитуемы подросток всё время будет проявлять жестокость,
грубость по отношению к своим одноклассникам. Одному ему это делать совершенно неинтересно, он
будет всё время искать поддержку своему образу поведения в классе со стороны других учеников. Если
же он не надёт поддержки, то, как отмечают учителя- профессионалы более старшего возраста, такое
поведение без поддержки со стороны других учеников класса, постепенно ему надоедает, и он
прекращает свою негативную деятельность. Почему это происходит – потому что в подростковом
возрасте очень сильно стремление каким-либо образом привлечь к себе внимание, играть в каком-либо
процессе доминантную роль, а не находя поддержки и интереса у других учеников класса, он
постепенно «затухает» и отказывается от свое деятельности. Учителя-профессионалы должны
максимально профессионально использовать этот факт, более успешно, творчески интересно работать
с классом, наладить с ним позитивные межличностные отношения. В таком случае,
трудновоспитуемы подросток, не находя поддержки и явно выраженного интереса к себе со стороны
класса, постепенно отказывается от своего негативного поведения. Следует также заметить, что
эффективность работы педагогического коллектива школы с трудновоспитуемыми подростками в
неполно степени зависит от уровня профессионально подготовки самих учителе. Конечно же,
разговор идёт о молодых учителях, только приступивших к свое профессионально деятельности и
не обладающие необходимым опытом педагогическо деятельности (хотя, бывают и весьма
положительные факты и оценки педагогическо деятельности молодых учителе). Очень часто, при
работе с подростками за допущенные ими промахи совсем незначительного характера, молодые
учителя, исходя из своего собственного субъективного отношения к какому-либо процессу или факту,
связанному с конкретным учащимся- подростком, автоматически нарекают его трудновоспитуемым и
активно распространяют это мнение среди других учителе в межличностных разговорах в
учительско, столово, на каком-либо мероприятии. В ответ подросток, так незаслуженно попавши в
разряд трудновоспитуемых учащихся, естественно, стремится доказать молодым учителям
совершенно обратное, и, не всегда правильно выбирая методы и формы переубеждения, еще больше
осложняя ситуацию, а молодо учитель ещё более убеждается в правильности свое оценки. «Очень
часто можно наблюдать такую ситуацию, когда один молодо учитель, на основании своего
субъективного подхода, считает конкретного подростка трудновоспитуемым, а друго учитель с этим
не соглашается и говорит, что этот подросток просто гиперактивен» (6, 24). Разногласия и разные
оценки учителе, одних и тех же подростков, нередко способствует зарождению межличностных
конфликтов между учителями. Трудновоспитуемые подростки, являющиеся прекрасными
наблюдателями, видя своеобразную перепалку между учителями, повышение голоса, оскорбление в
адрес друг друга, думают, что эти люди мне всё время говорят – не груби, не хами, не разговарива на
повышенных тонах, а сами всё это делают. Значит, моя позиция и мои дествия не так уж плохие и
подсознательно утверждается в свое позиции.
Ещё велики классик педагогики А.С Макаренко в своих публикациях утверждал, что неверная
организация воспитательного процесса и допущенные в течение этого процесса промахи психолого-
педагогического характера, осложняют процесс формирования и личностно-социального
самоопределения подростков, создавая при этом у них своеобразные предпосылки возникновение
неверного алгоритма поведенческо деятельности. Работа педагогического коллектива средне школы
с подростками, особенно трудновоспитуемыми подростками требуют исключительного
профессионализма и высокого уровня тактичности. Можно на практике наблюдать такую картину,
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учителя чтобы оправдать какую-либо свою позицию перед классом, допускают необоснованную
грубость и резкие выражения в адрес трудновоспитуемых подростков. К примеру: «Ты как был
ограниченным человеком, так и остался»; «Что можно ожидать от тебя в будущем, ты же ничего не
знаешь и ничего не смыслишь»; «От таких учеников, как ты, надо обязательно активно избавиться и
просто забывать о них». Такие неэтичные слова и грубые выпады в адрес трудновоспитуемых обычно
не проходят даром и вызывают у молодых люде жёсткую ответную реакцию, - такую же грубость в
адрес учителе, издевательства над их внешним видом, нежелание присутствовать на их уроках, а если
и присутствовать то всячески мешать их правильному поведению. Работу с трудновоспитуемыми
подростками среднее образовательная школа должна организовать так, чтобы затрагивать практически
все стороны развития и самоопределения личности. Иногда можно наблюдать такую картину – группа
трудновоспитуемых подростков и их друзья по классу, которые так или иначе симпатизируют им,
желая поставить какого-либо учителя (чаще всего классного руководителя) в неловкое положение,
заранее вооружившись како-либо информацие, взято из интернета, специально перед всем классом
заводят разговор на эту тему, активно к нему подключая классного руководителя. Если классны
руководитель не ответит на поставленные вопросы (это вполне естественно), то эти же сами подростки
на повышенных тонах возмущаются якобы недостаточно осведомлённостью учителя и всячески
злорадствуют над ним. Чтобы таких случаев было поменьше учёные-исследователи (Т. А. Власова, Л.
А. Долгова, А.М. Кожевникова, М.С. Певзнер, Л.М. Зюбин, А.Г. Ковалев, В.Н. Липиник, Л.В.
Благонадежная, С.С. Остроумов и др.) рекомендуют чаще и активнее использовать возможности
приглашения специалистов различных направлени общественно жизни на встречу с коллективом
класса. В этом случае с одно стороны, уменьшается количество случаев откровенно конфликтного
характера учителе с коллективом класса, с друго – коллектив класса получает массу фактов и новых
знани из различных областе жизни, что значительно повышает уровень позитивности
межличностных отношени класса с учителями и способствует повышению авторитета учителе. «Мы
всё прекрасно понимаем, что на процессы развития и формирования личности трудновоспитуемых
подростков оказывает огромное влияние их семья и межличностные отношения в это семье» (2, 37).
Учителя, активно занимающиеся вопросами работы с трудновоспитуемыми подростками, не должны
забывать об этом и поддерживать тесную связь с родителями молодых люде. В этом деле также
бывают трудности и неожиданности. Скажем, трудновоспитуемые подростки стесняются своих
одноклассников, которым становятся известно, что како-либо учитель посещал их семью и имел
разговор с его родителями. Здесь надо проявить в высше степени этически подход к ситуации и не
делать того, что трудновоспитуемы подросток не хочет. И уж совсем будет неверным тот шаг
учителе, которые чтобы познакомиться с семьё какого-либо трудновоспитуемого подростка,
прибегают к услугам сотрудников правоохранительных органов. В работе с трудновоспитуемыми
подростками надо весьма деликатно относиться к вопросу гендерного характера. Ни в коем случае для
влияния на подростка не следует его ругать в присутствии девочки из его класса, которо он
симпатизирует – это, со всех сторон провальны ход и может вызвать со стороны трудновоспитуемых
подростков совершенно неожиданные, неадекватные поступки (подростки могут сильно нахамить
учителю, даже ударить его и будут считать это в порядке веще). Тако поступок со стороны
трудновоспитуемых подростков, конечно же вызывает резкое осуждение со стороны всего
педагогического коллектива. Однако, будем справедливы, такая картина может возникнуть только
лишь тогда, когда на лицо низки уровень профессионально подготовки учителе, отсутствие у них
твёрдых знани в области педагогики, психологии и социологии работы с трудновоспитуемыми
подростками.
Конечно же, специфика работы общеобразовательно школы с трудновоспитуемыми
подростками имеет в своём уникальном арсенале массу методов и форм, которые практически
невозможно проанализировать в объёме одно статьи, но одно обязательное и необходимое условие
позитивно работы с трудновоспитуемыми подростками не следует никогда забывать – любо метод,
любая форма воспитательно-формирующе работы с трудновоспитуемыми подростками должна, в
первую очередь, иметь высоки уровень гуманистическо направленности.
Литература
1. Гуров В.Н. Социальная работа школы с семье. М.: Просвещение, 2004, 192 с.
2. Иванов А.Е. Культурная среда образовательного учреждения. М.: Гардарики, 2006.
3. Организация социально-педагогическо работы в учреждениях образования. Минск, 2007
4. Степанов В.Г. Психология трудных школьников. М.: ФАИР-ПРЕСС, 2004.
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5. Тагирова Г.С. Психолого-педагогическая коррекция работы с трудными подростками. М.:
ФАИР-ПРЕСС, 2008, 128 с.
6. Холостова Е. И. Социальная работа с дезадаптированными детьми. М.: Академия, 2012, 612
с. 7. Хухлаева В.В. Психология подростка. М: Академия, 2005, 160 с
References
1. Gurov V. N. opus Sociale scholae cum familia. Moscoviae: Prosveshchenie Publ., 2004, 192 p.
2. Ivanov A. E. ambitus culturalis institutionis institutionis. Moscoviae: Gardariki Publ., 2006.
3. Institutio operis socialis et paedagogici in institutis educationis. Minsk, 2007.
4. Stepanov V. G. psychologia difficilium puerorum. Moscoviae: PULCHRA-TORCULAR, 2004.
5. Tagirova G. S. Correctio Psychologica et paedagogica laboris cum difficilibus adolescentibus.
Moscoviae: PULCHRA-TORCULAR, 2008, 128 p.
6. Kholostova E. I. socialis opus cum liberis maladaptis. Moscoviae: Akademiya Publ., 2007, 612 p.
7. Khukhlaeva V. V. Psychologia teenager. Moscoviae: Akademiya Publ., 2005, 160 р.
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Philological sciences
LEARNING LANGUAGES IN DIFFERENT WAYS
Mammadli Mehpara Mahir
Azerbaijan Technical University
Republic of Azerbaijan
DİLLƏRİN MÜXTƏLİF ŞƏKİLDƏ ÖYRƏNİLMƏSİ
Mammadli Mehpara Mahir
Azerbaijan Technical University
Republic of Azerbaijan
Dil hadisələrinin öyrənilməsi məsələsi geniş və əhatəli tədqiqat sahəsidir. Bu cəhətdən dil hadisələrinin
tədqiqində dialektik metodun tələblərinə əsaslanmaq lazımdır. Dialektik metod tələb edir ki, bütün hadisələr,
onları tarixi inkişafı qarşılıqlı əlaqədə, əksliklərin vəhdəti və mübarizəsi əsasında tədqiq edilməlidir.
Cəmiyyətdə insanların bir-biri ilə ümsiyyətdə, fikir mübadiləsində olması üçün çox əhyəmiyyətli və son
dərəcə mükəmməl bir vasitə olan dil, moxcəhətli və mürəkkəb bir funksiyanı yerinə yetirir. İnsanlar arasında
ünsiyyət vasitəsi kimi çox mühüm olan bir funksiyanı daşımaq və onun qanunauyğun inkişafını hərtərəfli
aydınlaşdrımaq üçün dil müəyyən bir sistem quruluşa malikdir.
Dilin quruluşu dedikdə, ilk növbədə onu əmələ gətirən tərkib hissələri nəzərdə tutulur ki, bunlar da
insanlar arasında ünsiyyətin yaranmasında mühüm rol oynayan ünsürlər – səslər, sözlər, söz birləşmələri və
cümlələrdir. Səslər – fonemlər ayrılıqda heç bir məna daşımır, söz və morfemlərin əmələ gəlməsinə və onları
başqa söz və morfemlərdən fərqləndirməyə xidmət edir.
Ünsiyyət prosesində dilin birləşdirici funksiyasından bəhs edərək V.İ.Koduxov: “Dil öz inteqral
(birləşdirici) funksiyasını o zaman yerinəı yetiri ki, o, beynəlmiləl və dünya səviyyəli ünsiyyət vasitəsi kimi
istifadə edilsin… xalqlar arasında ünsiyyət vasitəsi kimi istifadə edilməyən dil isə diferensial (fərqləndirici)
funksiyanı yerinə yetirmiş olur”.
Sözün quruluşu və ölçüsü fonemlərin – səslərin sayı və növündən asılıdır. Söz birləşmələrinin və
cümlələrin qurulması üçün isə sözlərdən istifadə olunur. Bu deyilənlərdən aydın olur ki, bütün bu ünsürlərin
hər biri dilin quruluşunun təşkilində eyni dərəcəli əhəmiyyətə malikdirlər. Ayrılıqda müxtəlif dilləri nəzərdən
keçirərkən aydın olur ki, hər bir dilin yalnız özünəməxsus xüsusiyyətləri, əlamətləri olduğu kimi, eyni
zamanda, başqa dillərlə də. bir neçə ümumi əlamətlərə malikdirlər. Hər bir dilin inkişaf dərəcəsi onun
qrammatik quruluşu ilə deyil, dildə olan sözlərin çoxluğu ilə, onun leksik tərkibinin zənginliyi ilə ölçülür.
İstənilən hər hansı bir dilin təqdid edilməsində ən başlıca məsələlərdən biri onun təsviri və lüğət tərkibinin
öyrənilməsidir ki, buda ümumiyyətlə, leksikologiyanıln bir sıra mühüm məsələlərinin dərindən təhlili olmadan
mümkün deyil.
Dilin lüğət tərkibindən danışarkən hər şeydən əvvəl onun öz daxili imkanları, daxili vəsaiti hesabına
zənginləşməsini nəzərə almaq lazımdır. Ədəbi dilin tarixi inkişafı prosesində və istərsə də, müasir dildə yeni
sözlərin yaranmasında ümumxalq danışıq dili və onun müxtəlif söz düzəltmə vəsaiti (sözdüzəldici şəkilçilər
və sözbirləşmələri) başlıca və tükənməz mənbədir. Həqiqətdir ki, ümumxalq danışıq dilindən qidalanmayan
və onun hesabına zənginləşməyən bir dil nəticədə məhv ola bilər.
Belə təqdiqatların aparılmasının əhəmiyyəti olduqca böyükdür, çünki onlar həmişə semasiologiyanın
çoxmənalılıq, sözbirləşmələri, sözlərin sinonimlik və antonimlik münasibəti, sözlərin semantic dəyişilməsinin
xüsusiyyətləri kimi bir sıra mühüm problemləri çox geniş və yeni faktiki materiallara əsasən tədqiq etməyə
imkan verir.
Tədqiq etdiyimiz dillər-İngilis və Azərbaycan dilləri morfoloji əlamətlərinə görə müxtəlifdirlər. belə ki,
ingilis dili flektiv dillər sırasına, Azərbaycan dili isə bütün başqa türk dilləri kimi aqlyutinativ dillər sırasına
daxildir.
Müqayisə cisim və hadisələrdəki başlıca əlamətləri öyrənməyin yollarından biri hesab edilir. Eyni
zamanda təbiət və cəmiyyətin cisim və hadisələrinə xas olan oxşar və fərqli əlamətləri aşkara çıxarmağa
yönələn bir prosesdir. Müqayisə edilən obyektlər arasında oxşar, fərqli, həm oxşar və həm də fərqli əlamətlərin
olduğunu aşkara çıxarmaq üçün tutuşdurma metodunun başlıca vəzifəsi olan müxtəlif tədqiqat obyektlərinin
oxşar və tam müqayisə metodlarından istifadə olunur. Əgər əlamətlərini üzə çıxarmaqdırsa, qarşılaşdırmada
əsas məqsəd bu cür obyektlərin fərqli cəhətlərini müəyyənləşdirməkdir. Tam müqayisə metodu – qarşılıqlı
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müqayisəli metod isə tədqiqat obyektlərinin eyni zamanda həm oxşar, həm də fərqli cəhətlərini aşkara
çıxarmağa imkan verir. Məhz bu nöqteyi nəzərdən dilçilər istər qohum, istərsə də müxtəlif sistemli dillərin
tədqi edilməsində qarşılıqlı – müqayisəli metodun böyük əhəmiyyətə malik olduğunu göstərirlər.
Dilin və ya geniş mənada dil ailəsinin leksik sisteminin tarixi inkişaf baxımından tətbiq etmədən onu
müqayisəli öyrənmək mümükün deyil. Müqayisəli-qarşılaşdırma metodunun tarixi göstərir ki, ayrı-ayrı
dillərdə danışan xalqlar oxşar əşyaları adlandırarkən onların müxtəlif əlamətlərini fərqləndirirlər. həm də onlar
oxşar əşyaların adlandırılması üçün bu əlamətləri nəzərə alır, müxtəlif dillərə məxsus sözləri həmin əlamətlərin
və ya xassənin ictimai məzmununda əks olunan anlayış baxımından səciyyələndirirlər. Başqa cür desək,
müxtəli sözlər eyni əşyanın adı kimi çıxış edərək ayrı-ayrı mənalara malik ola bilər, çünki onların ifadə
etdikləri anlayışlar real predmetlərin müxtəlif cəhətlərindən çıxarılır. Məsələn, rus dilində “ruka” sözünün
ingilis və Azərbaycan dillərində iki qarşılığı var. İngiliscə “hand”, “arm”, Azərbaycanca isə “əl”, “qol”, və s.
Müqayisəli-tarixi metodun dilçilik elminin inkişaf edib mütəşəkkil bir elm kimi formalaşmasında və
elmdə bir sıra mühüm sahələrin yaranmasında rolu böyükdür. Məhz müqayisəli-tarixi metod əsasında dillərin
qohumluq üzrə təsnifatı mümkün olmuşdur.
Müqayisəli-tarixi metoddan istifadə edərək dillərin material cəhətdən qohumluğunun (dilin lüğət fondu
və qrammatik quruluşunun oxşar cəhətlərinin) bir kökdə olduğunu və onların inkişafını nəzərə almaq lazımdır.
Dilləri müqayisəli şəkildə öyrənərkən, bir tərəfdən, qarşılaşdırılan dillərin hər birinin ayrılıqda malik
olduğu xarakterik qanunlar, digər tərəfdən, bir qrup dillərə mənsub olan qanunlar və nəhayət bütün dillər üçün
ümumi olan qanunlar müəyyənləşdirilir.
Nəhayət, dillərin müqayisəli tədqiqinin əhəmiyyəti bir də ondan ibarətdir ki, bu hal dillər arasındakı
ümumi, oxşar cəhətləri araşdırmaq üçün tədqiqatçıya səmərəli istiqamət verir. R.Yakabson yazır ki, müxtəlif
dillərin tipoloji müqayisəsi dillər üçün olan dil universalilərini aşkara çıxarmağa imkan yaradır.
Istifadə olunmuş ədəbiyyat
Rus dilində
1. Аракин В.Д. Сравнительная типология англиского и русского языка. Изд. " Просвешение'',
Ленинград 1979.
2. Аракин В.Д. Методика преподавания англиского языка в V- VII класса. М., 196 0 .
3. Амосова Н.Н. Основы англиско фразелогии. Л. 1963
4. Балли Ш. Французская стилистика. М ., 1961
5. Берковская С.М. К вопрос у о ра звитии пословиц и поговорок в англиском языке, М. 19
86 6. Булаховски А.Л. Курс русского литературно го языка. М., L 954
7. Булаховски А. Л. Введение в яз ы кознани е. М., l 954
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THE EVOLUTION AND GLOBAL IMPACT OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE
Hamidova Tovus Arshad
Azerbaijan State Pedagogical University,
Republic of Azerbaijan
Abstract
English is a language that has changed a lot over a very long time—more than fifteen hundred years! It
started as a language spoken in a small part of Europe and is now used all around the world. This article talks
about how English is built, how it changed over time, and how many people speak it today. It also explains
how children and grown-ups learn English, whether it’s their first language or one they learn later. Plus, it
looks at the challenges and interesting questions that come when many people speak English from different
places. The study uses different types of science about words and the brain to help us understand English better
today.
Keywords: English language, language evolution, second language acquisition, linguistic globalization,
sociolinguistics
English is the language that more people speak than any other, including both people who speak it as
their first language and those who learn it later. It’s very important for talking to people from different coun-
tries, doing science, business, and making agreements between countries. English has words from many dif-
ferent languages, simple grammar rules, and is spoken all over the world. To understand why English is so
special today and why it can be hard for some people to learn, it helps to know about its history, how it’s built,
and how people think about it.
Then, around 900 years ago, people from France came to England because of something called the
Norman Conquest. They brought their language, which changed many words and how sentences were made,
turning Old English into Middle English. A long time ago, there was an old form of English called Old English.
It was spoken by tribes from Germany who moved to England a very long time ago. Their language had lots
of special endings and words from their Germanic roots. Finally, from around 1700 until now, English became
a global language. Because England's ships traveled far and wide, and with inventions like the telephone and
internet, English is now spoken all over the world! Later, between about 1500 and 1700, something exciting
called the Renaissance happened. People started exploring new ideas, and the printing press was invented,
which helped people share books and words more easily. During this time, English grew bigger and more
organized.
In 1066, the Normans from France took over England, and many French words became part of English.
This new version is called Middle English. By the late 1400s, during the Renaissance, many new ideas and
books helped make English more organized. The invention of the printing press allowed books to be printed
quickly, so more people started reading and understanding English better. This period is called Early Modern
English, and famous writers like William Shakespeare helped make English important in the world. And today,
English is spoken in many countries all over the world!
English mostly uses simple words and helper words (like "am," "is," "will," "have") to show how words
fit together. Instead of changing the main words a lot, English changes helper words or the order of words to
show different meanings. In English, sentences usually have a specific order: who or what is doing something
(subject), then the action (verb), then what the action is done to (object). For example, "The dog (subject) eats
(verb) the bone (object)." This order helps us understand sentences. The meaning of what someone says de-
pends a lot on the situation. For example, saying "Nice weather today" could be just a comment or a polite
way to start talking. Knowing how to talk politely or understand hints is important so people can get along and
communicate clearly. English has lots of different vowel sounds (like the sounds in "cat," "cake," or "cousin")
and people speak it with different accents depending on where they are from. This can change how words
sound and how well people understand each other.
English became the most popular language in the world mainly because of the British Empire's history
and the big influence of the United States in money, culture, and ideas. Today, over 70 countries use English
as their main or second language. English is also very important in areas like science, technology, and law
around the world. But, because English is so widespread, it can sometimes cause smaller languages and cul-
tures to disappear or be less noticed.
Kids learn their first language, like English, naturally by hearing and seeing it all around them. Their
brains are naturally ready to understand and learn language, kind of like a built-in rule book. Good language
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lessons mix teaching grammar (the rules of language) with activities that help kids practice talking and using
the language in real situations. Using technology like language apps and online classes can also make learning
more fun and effective. When people try to learn a new language, like English after already knowing another,
teachers help by giving them lots of real and interesting things to listen to and read. It's important that learners
stay motivated and find the language meaningful to them.
The main language of the internet, science, business, and international diplomacy is now English. In
international organizations like the World Bank, the United Nations, and international aviation, it is the most
often used language. Since English is the primary language used for publishing scientific research in academia,
it is an essential tool for international cooperation. English-language media, including as movies, music, books,
and social media, have a huge cross-cultural impact on popular culture. However, the loss of regional languages
and identities as well as linguistic imperialism are issues brought up by this domination.
The global spread of English may marginalize local cultures and languages. Non-native forms of English
(such as Indian English and African English) challenge the notion of a single "standard" English. Online com-
munication accelerates language transformation, introducing new slang terms, acronyms, and grammatical
shifts. Conclusion
English continues to evolve as both a native and global language. While it facilitates international com-
munication, its spread also raises critical questions about identity, equity, and language preservation. Contin-
ued research in linguistics and education is needed to ensure that English supports, rather than erodes, linguistic
diversity.
References
1. Plag, I., Braun, M., Lappe, S., & Schramm, M. (2015). Introduction to English Linguistics (3rd
ed.). De Gruyter Mouton.
2. Fromkin, V., Rodman, R., & Hyams, N. (2017). An Introduction to Language (11th ed.). Cengage
Learning.
3. Yule, G. (2020). The Study of Language (7th ed.). Cambridge University Press.
4. Crystal, D. (2003). The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language. Cambridge University
Press.
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Physical sciences
STABILITY ANALYSIS OF A COMPOSITE WIND TURBINE MAST
Zholaman Ayan Sagyntaiuly
master’s student, Shokan Ualikhanov University
Kazakhstan, Kokshetau,
Abstract
This paper demonstrates a stability analysis of a composite wind turbine mast using the finite element
method (FEM). The mast is modeled as a variable cross-section flexible column with a concentrated rotor mass
at the tip. Dynamic behavior and stress distribution caused by the wind load are considered in the work. A
computational model is formulated to evaluate the influence of cross-sectional shape and material properties
on high-tall turbine mast structural stability and resilience. The results are utilized in the optimization of the
mast design parameters and in minimizing costs in the fabrication of masts. Emphasis is given to the economic
feasibility of the use of composite materials in modern, high-performance wind turbines. The study highlights
the integral role of taper geometry in minimizing stress and vibration, giving clues for forthcoming develop-
ments in wind energy infrastructure.
Keywords: wind turbine, mast, composite materials, stability, finite element method, wind load, dy-
namic analysis.
Wind energy has emerged as a key renewable energy source, offering cost-competitive solutions com-
pared to traditional power generation. The flexible column is represented by a variable cross-section. The rotor
mass is uniformly distributed at the top of the column. The problem is solved using finite-element equations
based on the column length model.
The force distributed along the column was studied. The number was given by experiment.
Wind energy is a rapidly growing renewable energy source. Today, wind energy provides energy that is
competitive with traditional energy sources.However, to reduce investment costs during the construction of a
good wind turbine, the initial costs should be low, since they constitute a large part of the total capital [7, p.
62-68].
When increasing the power of a wind turbine, it is necessary to not only increase the radius of the rotor,
but alsoThe height of the mast should also be increased. Modern wind turbines can reach heights of up to 200
meters. 20% of all costs spent on the construction of a wind turbine go to the mast, as it is the main component
of the wind turbine [3].
To enable the optimal structure of the wind power grid, ensuring that this energy structure is competitive
compared to traditional energy sources.
Similar studies have been conducted in this direction. Some authors have analyzed the fatigue of loads
and conducted research based on their structural stability [1, p. 1015-1025].
Composite We have obtained a calculation and model of the force that affects the stability of the column
shell and the costs of its construction.
For the initial design, use the HV column change. The cross-section is shown as a cross-section [2, p.
1018]. Such studies have been conducted analytically, numerically, or by finite element method [9, p. 194].
The research objectives of this work are: to consider the dynamic characteristics and stresses due to
wind load on the wind turbine mast, which will have an impact on optimizing their design geometry and re-
ducing initial financing.
The wind turbine mast is represented by a flexible beam of variable cross-section (Fig. - 1). The bottom
is fixed, and the mass is modeled at the rotor tip. The wind force is distributed by a concentrated force F(t) on
the mast tip and a force f(x,t) along it.
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Figure - 1. Dynamic column model
The solution set leads to an equation with fourth-order independent derivatives
(1)
where ρ and E are the density and modulus of elasticity of the material, – damping coefficient;
me - cross-sectional area and moment of inertia of the beam; L is the height of the column, x is the current
coordinate along the axis; is the horizontal deviation, and δ is the Dirac delta function.
The following boundary conditions:
- for the fixed edge:
, (2)
- for the free edge:
(3)
(4)
is used.
The initial conditions here are:
, (5)
The wind load acting on the rotor and the frame is determined in the form of a concentrated force at the
free edge by the following equation [8, p. 150]:
(6)
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it's just the velocity coefficient, R– radius is the tip of the rotor, ω is the angular velocity of the rotor,
– wind speed, – air density, β – angle of inclination of the saw, – the resistance at the rotor front, which
is determined from experimental diagrams [5, p. 1018].
The wind deflection is determined by the following formula [6, p. 344]:
(7)
here – the current diameter of the column, – is the correction factor of the limited cylinders,
and – The coefficient of the column's frontal resistance, which depends on the Reynolds number [4, p.
55]. The change in wind speed with height is calculated using the following formula [1, p. 1017]:
(8)
– wind speed at n meters, α – exponential for calculating the coefficient of ground resistance (0.16
for sea and 0.4 for urban areas with flat areas), – the height of the ground at which the wind speed is equal
to 0 (usually varies from 0.01 to 0.2 m).
4
Solution:
Using a standard boundary element (FE) and a 2D discretized column, the 2 DOF nodes of the beam (W
– deflection and θ – rotation) can be expressed as equation (1) as follows:
(9)
where, [MG], [CG] and [KG] are local weights, respectively, matrix stiffness and damping; [U] is the
node vector parameter; [FG] is the node vector load. According to the boundary conditions (2), equation (9) is
zero, so equation (9) can be written as:
(10)
where [M], [C] and [K] are local weights, N × N dimensions of matrix stiffness and damping, and [U]
and [F] are N × 1 load dimensions of the node (n = 2N, N is the number of elements used for discretization).
The damped Rayleigh scheme will be linearly decaying for the formed matrix.
As a matrix combination of mass and stiffness
[C] = ξ [M] η [K]
and take ξ and η as constants.
Taking into account the mass boundary condition (4), the matrix can be modified as follows:
The force acting on the column is distributed along the concentrated load F(t) and the force vector f(x,t)
along it.
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Therefore, equality (10) is given as follows:
(11)
The solution obtained using the eigenfrequencies of the column has its own characteristics.
(12)
where λ is an eigenvalue.
The solution to problem (11) is found by performing a first-order systematization, that is, by expanding
the first-order derivatives of the node vector parameters.
The system of equations (11) can be given as follows:
(1 (13)
The solution of the system of inhomogeneous equations is the Cauchy (13) is determined by applying
the matrix exponent to the formula:
(14)
– the initial moment of time.
Trapezoidal approximation method of the integral For = 0, discretized (14) is given in the following
form:
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(15)
here is the discretization step, .
When determining the tension of a column (The solution of equation (15) allows. To use equation (16)
as follows, it is necessary to ensure that its stress (not exceeding 1 MPa) does not have a significant effect.
– ignoring the internal force and – inner strengthGiven that the horizontal dimension of the column is
smaller than its length:
(16)
to the formula(16) we come, here – if the bending moment, –the outer diameter of the column.
The formula for the relationship between bending moment and deflection
(Applying to (16), equality (17) becomes:
(17)
This means finding the formulas for the bending moment and the fracture or bending of the column
(with the diffuser) in the event that the specified height and maximum weight of any wind turbine column
exceed the specified value.
This study advances the optimization of wind turbine masts through a dynamic FEM framework, inte-
grating aerodynamic loads, variable cross-sections, and composite material mechanics. Key findings highlight
the critical role of taper geometry in mitigating stress and vibration, while cost models underscore the eco-
nomic viability of composites for tall masts. Future work should explore nonlinear aeroelastic effects and man-
ufacturing scalability to further reduce LCOE (Levelized Cost of Energy). As wind turbines grow taller to
harness stronger winds, such analyses will be pivotal in balancing structural resilience with renewable energy
affordability.
References
1. Базеос Н. [Bazeos N.], Хатзигеоргиу Г.Д. [Hatzigeorgiu G.D.], Хондрос И.Д. [Hondros I.D.] и др.
Динамически анализ ветряных турбин [Static and dynamic analysis of wind turbines] // Engineering Struc-
tures. - 2002. - Vol. 24. - P. 1015-1025.
2. Ватакабе М. [Watakabe M.], Охаши М. [Ohashi M.], Окада Х. [Okada H.] и др.
Экспериментальное исследование аэродинамических характеристик [Experimental study on aerody-
namic characteristics] // Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics. - 2002. - Vol. 90, № 12-
15. - P. 1817-1829.
3. Датская ассоциация ветроэнергетики [Danish wind industry association]. Башни
ветрогенераторов [Wind Turbine Towers] // Официальны сат. URL:
http://guidedtour.windpower.org/en/tour/wtrb/tower.htm (дата обращения: 10.02.2025).
4. Дутта П.К. [Dutta P.K.], Гхош А.К. [Ghosh A.K.], Агарвал Б.Л. [Agarwal B.L.] Исследование
ветровых нагрузок [Study of wind loads] // Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics. -
2002. - Vol. 90, № 1. - P. 55-69.
5. Колосков А., Аникушин И. Формирование телепорта для крупных систем кабельного
телевидения //Теле-Спутник, №9(71), 2001 г.
6. Мовнин М.С., Израелит А.Б. Техническая механика. Часть первая. Теоретическая механика.-
Ленинград.: «Судостроение», 1971.-344 с.
7. Моленар Д.П. [Molenaar D.P.] Экономически эффективное проектирование и эксплуатация
ветрогенераторов с переменно скоростью [Cost-effective Design & Operation of Variable Speed Wind
Turbines]. - Делфт: Delft University Press, 2003. - ISBN 9-040-72383-4.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
108
8. Тимошенко С.П. [Timoshenko S.P.], Янг Д.Х. [Young D.H.], Уивер В. [Weaver W.] Проблемы
вибрации в инженерных сооружениях [Vibration Problems in Engineering]. - 5-е изд. - Нью-Йорк: John
Wiley and Sons, 1990. - ISBN 0-471-63228-7.
9. Хорват Г. [Horváth G.], Тот Л. [Tóth L.] Обзор возобновляемых источников энергии [Renewable
energy sources review] // Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews. - 2001. - Vol. 5, № 2. - P. 191-200.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
109
Political sciences
THE ROLE OF TURKMENISTAN'S NEUTRALITY IN THE DEVELOPMENT OF SCIENTIFIC
DIPLOMACY
Haitbayeva Shaira Kadyrovna
Head of chair,
International University for Humanities and Development
Ashgabat City, Turkmenistan
Garlyev Bayram Muradovich
Instructor,
International University for Humanities and Development
Ashgabat City, Turkmenistan
Kadyrov Ilyas
Chief Logistics Specialist;
The Ministry of Industry and Construction Production of Turkmenistan
Ashgabat City, Turkmenistan
Over the past years, the institution of permanent neutrality of Turkmenistan has been consistently de-
veloped both in terms of theory and in terms of achieving specific goals, and has become an essential factor in
ensuring not only Turkmenistan's national interests, but also regional stability, as well as promoting dialogue
for peace on a global scale. The results achieved allow us to speak about a strategically thought-out foreign
policy course, which is receiving increasing support in the world community. An example is the creation within
the framework of the United Nations, at the initiative of Turkmenistan, of the Group of Friends of Turkmeni-
stan's Neutrality, designed to ensure a broad multilateral dialogue on the practical application of the principles
of neutrality in conflict prevention, elimination of their causes and consequences. The country has also devel-
oped a Set of United Nations Rules on the effective application of the principles of neutrality in resolving inter-
State issues of preserving and consolidating peace.
For the first time, Turkmenistan's foreign policy course based on neutrality was announced in July 1992
at the plenary session of the Conference of Heads of State and Government of the Participating Countries of
the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (CSCE). Since that time, Turkmenistan has been taking
concrete practical steps on the world stage to gain support from other states, primarily its neighbors in the
region. To promote the idea of neutrality, the rostrum of the meeting of Heads of State of the Economic Co-
operation Organization, which was held in Istanbul in July 1993, was used. The 3rd meeting of the Heads of
State of the Economic Cooperation Organization, which took place on March 14, 1995 in Islamabad, became
the starting key to the initiative to declare its neutrality to the Community of Nations. Firstly, noting that new
political realities dictate the need to create a kind of peacekeeping center in Asia, the President of Turkmenistan
declared the state's readiness to assume such a role with the support and guarantees of international organiza-
tions, primarily the UN and ECO. Secondly, in the Islamabad Declaration, the ECO member countries - Af-
ghanistan, Iran, Pakistan, Turkey, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan and Tajikistan − expressed
their readiness to support Turkmenistan in its intention to obtain the status of a permanently neutral state.
Thirdly, it was after the Islamabad meeting that foreign states began to declare their official position on Turk-
menistan's neutrality.
In October 1995, at a meeting of the heads of State and Government of the participating countries in
Cartagena (Colombia), Turkmenistan also enlisted the support of the Non-Aligned Movement. This is reflected
in the additional paragraph of the Cartagena Resolution. It contains an appeal to the United Nations to ensure
international recognition of this initiative. It is also important to note the fact that, by actively promoting the
idea of neutrality during high-level meetings and at international forums and conferences, Turkmenistan sup-
ported its initiative with a principled policy of non-interference. The country did not join any union or bloc,
did not take part in any conflict in the CIS, but, on the contrary, contributed to the settlement of the inter-Tajik
conflict. Three rounds of inter-Tajik negotiations were held in Ashgabat, and Tajikistan always emphasizes
the positive role played by Turkmenistan at that time.
Thus, having first enlisted the support of neighboring countries and reputable regional organizations, as
well as the leaders of major states bilaterally, pursuing a policy of non-interference and good-neighborliness,
Turkmenistan declared its neutrality from the high rostrum of the United Nations at the 50th session of the UN
General Assembly. The status of permanent neutrality of the State has become a fundamental element for
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determining the relationship between Turkmenistan's domestic and foreign policy. Neutrality allowed a new
sovereign entity on the political map of the world to create the necessary state institutions, carry out democratic
transformations, dynamically develop the national economy, consolidate society to strengthen stability and
harmony.
Time has shown Turkmenistan's fidelity to its international obligations, the conformity of its neutral
status with the long-term goals of the Community of Nations, the interests of the development of States and
peoples of the world in peace and security. Our country, as a neutral state, makes every effort to develop
national culture, which necessarily implies the creation of all conditions for the revival of true folklore art, a
wide presentation of classical works, the availability of all modern trends in this field, as well as regular cultural
exchanges. The status of neutrality, of course, contributes to the dynamic development of the national economy
and the country's regions, attracting broad foreign investment, developing small and medium-sized businesses,
industrializing production, introducing the latest technologies and the results of scientific and technological
progress. Another important indicator of a neutral state is the development of domestic science, the improve-
ment of the national education system in accordance with international standards, and the establishment of
international relations in these areas.
Scientific diplomacy is a special form of international scientific and technical cooperation related to
public diplomacy and is a system of interactions between scientists, research teams, research organizations and
related government activities aimed at developing international relations, taking into account the interests of
Turkmenistan, developing dialogue between the scientific and technical community and improving mutual
understanding between peoples. Joint efforts of countries in the field of scientific diplomacy may be based on
actions aimed at meeting the national interests of the country (access to know-how, resources and knowledge,
expansion of influence, establishment and strengthening of bilateral relations, assistance in achieving sustain-
able development goals, ensuring security, crisis resolution, strengthening the economy, intensification of
trade, development of new standards ); cross-border interests (introduction of standards and definitions, licens-
ing of new technologies, combating crises and natural disasters); the need to solve global problems (overcom-
ing common cross-border challenges, regulating uncontrolled spaces) [1].The following international and in-
tergovernmental organizations are involved in a wide range of the above-mentioned actions in the field of
scientific diplomacy; public administration institutions: foreign policy departments, science, education and
innovation management bodies; research and educational organizations: academies, universities, professional
associations of scientists, non-governmental research organizations and large research infrastructures that op-
erate at the local, regional, national and international levels; organizations that finance research, such as na-
tional research councils and agencies for the financing of scientific projects: many different stakeholders in-
teracting at all levels of government. International and intergovernmental organizations such as the United
Nations, the IMF, the OECD, WHO, and the WTO have divisions or projects related to scientific diplomacy
[2]. The objectives of scientific diplomacy are to assist in setting the international agenda, mediating negotia-
tions, supporting political initiatives, and stimulating international cooperation and interaction between mem-
ber States of organizations.
Turkmenistan has chosen a model called positive neutrality. Its fundamental principles were formulated:
peacefulness, non-interference in the affairs of other States, respect for their sovereignty and territorial integ-
rity, non-participation in international military organizations and treaties. The world reacted kindly and sym-
pathetically to the country's efforts to consolidate neutrality as an international legal status. Turkmenistan's
neutrality has become a significant factor in international peacekeeping efforts in our region. It was in Ash-
gabat that a series of negotiations took place under the auspices of the United Nations, which played an im-
portant role in achieving peace and harmony in Tajikistan. Turkmenistan has become a reliable ally and effec-
tive partner of the United Nations in preserving and maintaining political stability in the region, developing
good-neighborliness, friendship and cooperation." This definition was also confirmed in the decision of the
United Nations, with the support of all States in the region, to open the UN Regional Center for Preventive
Diplomacy for Central Asia in Ashgabat in 2007.
Today, Turkmenistan has a well-defined course in the development of science, culture and education.
Having creatively rethought the significance and potential of neutrality on a global scale, correlating it with
the objective realities of modern development, Turkmenistan places special emphasis on the economic aspect
of neutrality and the purposeful development of scientific and cultural infrastructure throughout the country
[3]. Turkmenistan considers the resource opportunities and advantages of the country's geographical location
as factors of a positive impact on the development of international scientific and technical cooperation, an
important condition for the preservation of archaeological and cultural monuments, and the commissioning of
a huge number of modern administrative, cultural, educational, medical and scientific facilities. The capital
and the main cities of Turkmenistan have become the center of various international conferences, exhibitions
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
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and forums. Therefore, the concept of neutrality has already become the personification of freedom and inde-
pendence, dignity, honor and national pride of the Turkmen people, their desire to live in peace, friendship and
harmony with the peoples of all countries.
References
1. Copeland D. Science Diplomacy: What’s It All About? Centre for International Policy Studies. 2011.
2. Mauduit J.-Ch., Soler M. G. Building a Science Diplomacy Curriculum. Frontiers Media S.A. 2020.
3. Haitbayeva S.K., Kadyrov I. Implementation of scientific and technical cooperation projects between
Turkmenistan and Japan. Global and Regional Aspects of Sustainable Development (December 26-28, 2024).
Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Technical sciences
DEVELOPMENT OF AN AUTOMATİC CONTROL SYSTEM FOR THE STABİLİZATİON UNİT
OF A CATALYTİC REFORMİNG PLANT
Huseynov I.A.
Abbasov T.M.
Azerbaıjan State Oıl and Industry Unıversıty
Abstract
This study focuses on the implementation of a fuzzy logic-based control system for enhancing the
temperature regulation of the stabilization column within a catalytic reforming unit. Conventional control
strategies, such as PID controllers, often face limitations when managing nonlinear process behavior and
unmeasurable disturbances. To overcome these challenges, a fuzzy controller was developed using operator
expertise and linguistic rule sets, enabling more flexible and adaptive responses under varying process
conditions. Simulation results revealed that the fuzzy system achieved superior temperature stability, with
lower overshoot and faster recovery compared to traditional methods. These findings suggest that fuzzy logic
provides a reliable and cost-effective alternative for improving control performance and product quality in
dynamic industrial environments.
Keywords: Catalytic reforming; stabilization column; fuzzy logic; intelligent control; PID comparison;
process optimization; temperature regulation; nonlinear systems.
Introduction. Modern industrial plants often operate under conditions of uncertainty, influenced both
by internal system complexities and unpredictable external disturbances. One of the most sensitive and
complicated examples of this is the catalytic reforming unit, which plays a key role in refining processes.
Although traditional mathematical models have been used for simulating reforming systems, they often fall
short when it comes to building reliable control solutions. This is largely because the behavior of such systems
is highly dynamic and rarely remains constant over time. Due to these challenges, many reforming plants
continue to depend on local automatic control systems, supplemented by the judgment and intuition of
experienced operators. These professionals, through years of practical involvement, gather valuable know-how
on how to adjust process parameters in ways that ensure consistent performance. That type of experiential
knowledge becomes a strong foundation for developing more intelligent and flexible control systems. One of
the biggest limitations in conventional modeling lies in dealing with factors that are difficult to measure
directly—such as the quality of incoming feedstock, catalyst activity, or the condition of combustion
equipment. These qualitative elements require a method that can include human insight and interpret vague or
incomplete information. In this regard, fuzzy logic provides a useful solution, allowing control systems to be
built on linguistic rules and expert reasoning rather than hard-coded equations. This research aims to improve
the control and efficiency of catalytic reforming by introducing a fuzzy logic-based control system, designed
specifically for the stabilization column of the reforming unit. This part of the system is critical, as it manages
the separation and treatment of the reformate stream. The proposed fuzzy controller will rely not only on sensor
data, but also on the practical knowledge of engineers and technicians who work directly with the equipment.
Among all variables in the stabilization column, the bottom product temperature—representing the
stable reformate—is one of the most important indicators of final product quality. Ensuring its stability is key
to maintaining consistent performance across the entire unit.
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Figure 1. General structure and function of a catalytic reforming unit.
Brief Description of the Process Unit. In the stabilization column K-2, an unstable reformate stream
flows directly from the catalytic reforming reactors. This stream mainly consists of a gasoline-range
hydrocarbon mixture. At the top of the K-2 column, light gases and vapors are removed. These vapors are then
cooled and sent to the E-2 irrigation tank, where gas and liquid phases are separated. The separated gas from
vessel E-2 is sent to the plant’s fuel gas system. Meanwhile, the condensed liquid—called the unstable
overhead product—is pumped back into column K-2 through pump H-10 to serve as reflux. This internal
circulation helps maintain equilibrium at the top of the column. To provide the necessary heat for stabilization,
a portion of the stable reformate is routed through furnace P-4. After absorbing heat, it reenters column K-2 to
help maintain the desired temperature levels. Once the heat exchange requirement is satisfied, the remaining
stable reformate is cooled and sent to the gasoline blending area for storage and further processing.
Figure 2. Flow diagram of the stabilization column and connected units.
Process Analysis as a Control Object. Understanding the stabilization column K-2 as a control
object requires identifying different types of variables and factors that influence its behavior. Based on how
these factors interact with the process, they can be grouped into several categories:
1. Disturbances that allow stabilization: These are variables that can change significantly but are still
manageable through automatic control systems. Most often, they include certain flow and pressure conditions
in the incoming streams.
2. Controllable disturbances: These disturbances can be measured but are not easily stabilized. For
example, the feed flow coming from upstream equipment can be tracked, but its value might not be adjustable
within this system.
3. Uncontrollable disturbances: Some factors, such as changes in heat transfer efficiency or
fluctuations in physical properties of the fluids, cannot be measured directly or reliably during operation.
4. Possible control actions: These are inputs to the system—such as heat, material flow, or energy
supply—that can be adjusted automatically to correct the process behavior and keep it within desired limits.
5. Output variables (controlled parameters): These are the values that indicate whether the system is
in balance or not. Typical examples include:
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● Liquid level: shows how well the liquid phase is managed.
● Pressure: reflects balance in the gas phase.
● Temperature: indicates thermal consistency in the system.
● Concentration: helps monitor the presence of specific components in the product stream.
By classifying all relevant parameters in this way, it becomes easier to design a control system that
responds effectively to both measured and unmeasured changes in the process.
Figure 3. Table of process variable classification – disturbances, outputs, and actions.
Overview of Existing Mathematical Models of Catalytic Reforming. Mathematical models used to
describe catalytic reforming processes are generally divided into two main categories: analytical models that
rely on chemical and physical laws, and empirical models that are based on observed data from specific
operating units. Analytical models are designed using a deep understanding of the transformations that occur
inside the reactor. Early examples of these models aimed to represent how different groups of hydrocarbons
react under reforming conditions. Some of them attempted to track the way molecules behave, the temperature
changes over time, and how heat flows through the system. One such model was even implemented on early
computer systems and served as the foundation for computer-aided design tools used in reactor development.
Another model took into account the movement of solid catalyst particles in a reforming reactor, combining
energy and material balance equations to represent how the system works. These models often included many
input variables like feed flow rate, reaction speed, heat generation, and catalyst movement.
Some analytical models are highly complex—one example included more than fifty differential
equations and monitored the behavior of twenty different chemical species. While such detail is useful in
theory, it poses real challenges in practice. Gathering that much data in a real plant environment is difficult,
and even small errors in measurement can reduce the accuracy of the model. Also, since process conditions
can change while measurements are being collected, the model might no longer reflect the current state of the
system. Kinetic-based analytical models are generally good at reflecting the natural behavior of the reforming
process when everything is running smoothly. But they are less effective in accounting for sudden changes,
like unexpected feed variations or external disturbances. Their complexity and the amount of data they require
make them difficult to apply in real-time process control systems.
In contrast, empirical models offer a more practical solution. These models are built using experimental
data gathered from actual operations. For instance, some use regression analysis to relate reformate yield to
specific process variables, with model coefficients determined through plant testing. Others use statistical
techniques to capture how the system behaves under typical conditions. However, most empirical models are
built under the assumption that the system is stable. They often fail to account for process disturbances that
occur frequently in real operations—such as unpredictable changes in feed quality or thermal behavior. These
types of changes can significantly affect the final product.
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Some researchers have suggested switching to probabilistic models, which are better at dealing with
uncertainty. Studies show that when random variations—especially in feedstock—are taken into account, the
model becomes more reliable. This is important because in real plants, properties of the incoming materials
may change as they move between storage tanks, affecting the overall product quality.
Figure 4. Comparison of empirical vs. probabilistic model performance under feed variations.
In summary, while many mathematical models have been developed for catalytic reforming, most of
them—especially analytical ones—struggle to reflect the actual disturbances and parameter changes that take
place in live industrial systems. As a result, their usefulness in modern, real-time control environments is often
limited.
Problem Statement. The stable reformate collected from the bottom of the stabilization column is a
key final product in the catalytic reforming process. After stabilization, this output moves on to the last stages
of gasoline production, which include storage, blending, and transfer. As a result, maintaining reliable control
of the stabilization process is essential for ensuring consistent product quality and overall process efficiency.
Since the main goal of the reforming unit is to produce high-octane fuel components, proper process
control is critical. While catalyst improvements can help with performance, upgrading to more advanced
catalyst materials is often expensive and not always practical for industrial operators. Therefore, smarter
process control methods offer a more flexible and cost-effective alternative. One of the most promising
approaches is to design an intelligent control system that incorporates the expertise of experienced operators.
Fuzzy logic is particularly suitable for this purpose. Unlike traditional control systems that follow strict
mathematical rules, fuzzy logic allows the use of human-style reasoning to make decisions based on practical
knowledge and observations. In the stabilization section of the reforming unit, operators often rely on their
experience to adjust the process. For instance, they are responsible for managing the stripping operation to
ensure that moisture and hydrogen sulfide are completely removed. Another important task is to prevent light
hydrocarbons from entering the stable reformate stream. These operational goals require fine-tuned, real-time
decisions that standard control systems may not be able to handle on their own. By combining official
guidelines with real-world experience, it’s possible to build a rule-based system that mimics how operators
think. For example, if the feed flow increases, the reactor temperature needs to be adjusted accordingly. These
kinds of relationships can be expressed through fuzzy “IF–THEN” rules, using linguistic terms like “small
increase” or “moderate decrease.”
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Figure 5. Graphical representation of fuzzy rule mapping between feed rate and temperature
adjustment.
A fuzzy inference engine, often of the Mamdani type, can then apply these rules to determine control
actions. This type of controller doesn’t need perfect precision—it uses overlapping rule sets and weight-based
logic to make balanced decisions. Over time, the system can be fine-tuned using feedback from actual process
performance, helping it become more accurate and responsive. Several studies have shown that fuzzy control
systems can successfully replace or support traditional regulators like PI or PID controllers. These systems
often deliver faster responses, reduce overshoot, and improve the overall stability of industrial processes. In
applications ranging from temperature regulation in power plants to speed control in electric motors, fuzzy
logic has consistently shown strong performance under varying conditions. These findings support the idea
that fuzzy control methods can be a practical and powerful addition to catalytic reforming units—especially in
areas like the stabilization column, where operator judgment plays a major role and traditional controllers may
fall short.
Conclusion
The analysis of system behavior under changing conditions shows that both the PID controller and the
fuzzy logic controller can maintain stable thermal performance in the lower section of the stabilization column.
In general, both control strategies achieved acceptable levels of process stability. However, the system
managed by the fuzzy logic controller demonstrated a clear improvement in terms of control smoothness and
overshoot prevention. The fluctuations in temperature were much more limited compared to those seen with
the PID system. This indicates that the fuzzy controller has a stronger ability to keep the process within optimal
limits without aggressive or delayed corrections. In addition to minimizing temperature swings, the fuzzy
controller helped improve the dynamic characteristics of the entire control loop. It maintained the target
temperature over time and reacted more effectively to disturbances or changes in operating conditions. This
contributed to more consistent output quality and reduced the need for manual intervention. Given the variable
nature of stabilization column operations—where feed composition, flow rates, and external factors frequently
shift—the adaptability of the fuzzy controller stands out as a major strength. Unlike PID systems, which may
require frequent retuning, the fuzzy logic controller is better equipped to respond to non-linear and
unpredictable process dynamics. Overall, these findings support the integration of fuzzy logic as a core
component of intelligent process control strategies in catalytic reforming. Its ability to stabilize output, adjust
to real-world variability, and enhance performance without added complexity makes it a valuable tool for
modern industrial systems.
References
1. Petrov, P.A. (2007). Modeling of the catalytic reforming process. Fundamental Research, 12(2), 308–
309. 2. Shura, I.A., Sotnikov, V.V., & Sibarov, D.A. (2008). Mathematical modeling for control of catalytic
reforming processes. Information Systems and Technologies, 1–3, 307–311.
3. Shcherbatov, I.A., & Protalinskiy, O.M. (2009). Decision-support system for operators of poorly
formalized processes. Automation in Industry, 7, 41.
4. Protalinskiy, O.M., Michurov, Yu.I., & Shcherbatov, I.A. (2005). A hybrid model of the Claus
catalytic reactor. Izvestiya of Higher Education Institutions: North Caucasus Region. Technical Sciences,
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5. Leonenkov, A.Yu. (2005). Fuzzy Modeling in MATLAB and FuzzyTech. St. Petersburg: BHV-
Petersburg.
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1.734.
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7. Skhirtladze, A.G., Fedotov, A.V., & Khomchenko, V.G. (2012). Automation of Technological
Processes and Productions. Moscow: Abris.
8. Istomin, A.L., & Krivov, M.V. (2005). Development of a mathematical model for catalytic reforming
in refining production. Proceedings of the Angarsk State Technical Academy, 1(1), 110–117.
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Gasoline: A Technical Overview. Moscow: TsNIITENeftekhim.
10. Gyngazova, M.S., Kravtsov, A.V., Ivanchins, E.D., et al. (2011). Reactor modeling and simulation
of moving-bed catalytic reforming. Chemical Engineering Journal, 176, 134–143.
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Congress. Moscow: Gostoptekhizdat.
12. Beltsov, B.A. (1966). Mathematical description of platforming. Chemistry and Technology of
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13. Zhorov, Yu.M. (1978). Modeling of Physico-Chemical Processes in Oil Refining and
Petrochemistry. Moscow: Khimiya.
14. Zeynalov, M.F. (1986). Control of a Two-Stage Catalytic Cracking Unit under Uncertainty. PhD
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INFORMATION-ANALYTICAL SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE FOR EXPERT EVALUATION OF
STUDENT BEHAVIOR IN DISTANCE LEARNING
Mahammad Orujov
Azerbijan State Oil and Industry University
Abstract
This paper presents a comprehensive technical architecture for an information-analytical system de-
signed to facilitate expert evaluation of student behavior in distance learning environments. The proposed
system addresses critical challenges in remote education by implementing a scalable microservices architecture
that enables real-time student interaction monitoring, analysis, and evaluation. The system integrates advanced
data processing capabilities with secure authentication mechanisms and intelligent analytics to provide educa-
tors with actionable insights into student engagement patterns. Key technical contributions include a distrib-
uted architecture using Node.js and Python microservices, PostgreSQL database optimization, real-time data
streaming with Apache Kafka, and machine learning-based behavioral analysis. Performance testing demon-
strates 99.7% uptime, sub-200ms response times, and capability to handle 10,000+ concurrent users. The sys-
tem successfully processes over 1 million student interactions daily while maintaining GDPR compliance and
data security standards.
Keywords: Distance Learning, System Architecture, Microservices, Student Behavior Analyis, Real-
time Processing
INTRODUCTION
The rapid transition to distance learning has created unprecedented challenges in evaluating student
behavior and engagement. Traditional assessment methods prove inadequate for capturing the nuanced
interactions that occur in virtual learning environments. Current systems lack the technical sophistication to
process vast amounts of real-time behavioral data while providing educators meaningful insights.
Existing distance learning platforms primarily focus on content delivery rather than comprehensive
behavioral analysis. Technical limitations include poor scalability, inadequate data processing capabilities, and
insufficient integration between assessment and analytics components. Most platforms struggle with real-time
data processing, often experiencing delays of several minutes in updating student progress indicators.
The research gap lies in the absence of a unified technical architecture that can simultaneously handle
high-volume data ingestion, real-time processing, expert evaluation workflows, and intelligent analytics.
Current solutions are fragmented, requiring multiple disparate systems that create data silos and integration
challenges.
This paper contributes a novel system architecture that addresses these technical challenges through: (1)
a scalable microservices design optimized for educational data processing, (2) real-time behavioral analytics
using stream processing, (3) secure multi-tenant architecture supporting thousands of concurrent evaluations,
and (4) intelligent caching strategies that reduce database load by 60% while improving response times.
SYSTEM ARCHITECTURE DESIGN
The proposed system employs a distributed microservices architecture designed for high availability,
scalability, and maintainability. The architecture consists of six primary layers: presentation, API gateway,
microservices, data processing, storage, and infrastructure.
Overall Architecture Design
The system architecture follows a hexagonal design pattern, ensuring loose coupling between business
logic and external dependencies. The core consists of independent microservices communicating through well-
defined APIs and message queues. This design enables horizontal scaling of individual components based on
demand patterns typical in educational environments.
The API Gateway serves as the single entry point, implementing rate limiting, authentication, and
request routing. It utilizes NGINX with custom Lua scripts for intelligent load balancing, directing requests to
optimal service instances based on current load and geographic proximity.
Microservices Structure
• Authentication Service: Built with Node.js and Express.js, handles JWT token generation and
validation. Implements OAuth 2.0 for third-party integrations and multi-factor authentication for enhanced
security. Redis caching reduces authentication lookup times by 75%.
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• Student Behavior Service: Developed in Python using FastAPI framework. Processes behavioral
events such as mouse movements, keyboard interactions, video engagement metrics, and assignment
submission patterns. Utilizes Apache Kafka for event streaming with automatic retry mechanisms.
• Expert Evaluation Service: Java Spring Boot application managing evaluation workflows, rubric
assignments, and scoring mechanisms. Implements workflow orchestration using Apache Airflow for complex
multi-step evaluation processes.
• Analytics Service: Python-based service using Apache Spark for distributed data processing.
Generates real-time dashboards and predictive models for student performance. Incorporates machine learning
algorithms for anomaly detection in learning patterns.
• Notification Service: Node.js service handling real-time notifications via WebSocket connections.
Integrates with email and SMS providers for multi-channel communication. Implements message queuing with
RabbitMQ for reliable delivery.
Database Schema Design
The system utilizes a polyglot persistence approach optimized for different data types and access
patterns. PostgreSQL serves as the primary relational database for structured educational data, with automatic
partitioning by academic term to optimize query performance.
Student behavioral data is stored in MongoDB collections partitioned by timestamp, enabling efficient
time-series queries. Redis provides caching for frequently accessed data, with automatic expiration policies
based on data volatility.
The database schema implements event sourcing for audit trails, ensuring complete traceability of all
system interactions. Automated backup procedures create incremental backups every 4 hours with point-in-
time recovery capabilities.
TECHNICAL IMPLEMENTATION
Backend Technology Stack
The backend architecture leverages modern technologies optimized for educational workloads. Node.js
services handle I/O intensive operations like real-time communication and file processing, while Python
services manage CPU-intensive analytics and machine learning tasks.
• API Development: RESTful APIs built with OpenAPI 3.0 specifications ensure consistent
documentation and client generation. GraphQL endpoints provide flexible data queries for complex dashboard
requirements, reducing network overhead by 40% compared to REST alternatives.
• Message Queue Implementation: Apache Kafka handles high-throughput event streaming with
automatic partitioning across multiple brokers. Topic replication factor of 3 ensures data durability, while
consumer groups enable parallel processing of behavioral events.
• Caching Strategy: Multi-level caching implementation includes Redis for session data, Memcached
for query results, and application-level caching for computed analytics. Cache hit rates exceed 85% for
frequently accessed data.
Frontend Implementation
The frontend utilizes React.js with TypeScript for type safety and enhanced developer experience.
Component architecture follows atomic design principles, ensuring reusability and maintainability across
different user interfaces.
• Real-time Features: WebSocket connections via Socket.io enable instant updates for evaluation
scores, student activity feeds, and system notifications. Connection pooling and automatic reconnection
mechanisms ensure reliable real-time communication.
• State Management: Redux Toolkit manages complex application state with optimistic updates for
improved user experience. Middleware handles API calls with automatic retry logic and error boundary
implementations.
• Performance Optimization: Code splitting reduces initial bundle size by 60%, while service
workers enable offline functionality for essential features. Progressive Web App capabilities allow installation
on mobile devices.
Integration Mechanisms
• Learning Management System Integration: SCORM 2004 and xAPI (Tin Can API) compliance
enables seamless integration with existing educational platforms. Custom adapters handle data transformation
between different LMS formats.
• Third-party Tool Integration: RESTful APIs facilitate integration with video conferencing
platforms, plagiarism detection services, and grade book systems. Webhook mechanisms provide real-time
data synchronization.
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• Mobile Application Support: Native mobile applications for iOS and Android share business logic
through React Native, while platform-specific features utilize native modules for optimal performance.
DATA PROCESSING & ANALYTICS
Real-time Data Processing Pipeline
The system processes student behavioral data through a sophisticated pipeline designed for low latency
and high throughput. Apache Kafka Streams enables real-time processing of clickstream data, with custom
serializers optimized for educational event schemas.
• Data Ingestion Layer: Custom JavaScript tracking libraries capture user interactions with minimal
performance impact. Events are batched and compressed before transmission, reducing network overhead by
50%. Client-side buffering ensures data persistence during network interruptions.
• Stream Processing Architecture: Apache Spark Streaming processes events with 2-second micro-
batches, enabling near real-time analytics. Custom aggregation functions calculate engagement metrics,
attention spans, and interaction patterns. Windowing operations provide rolling averages over configurable
periods.
• Event Sourcing Implementation: All behavioral events are stored in immutable event logs,
enabling complete reconstruction of student activity timelines. CQRS pattern separates read and write
operations, optimizing query performance for analytics workloads.
Analytics Algorithms
• Behavioral Pattern Recognition: Machine learning models built with scikit-learn identify
engagement patterns from mouse movement trajectories, keyboard dynamics, and video interaction data.
Random Forest algorithms achieve 87% accuracy in predicting student attention levels.
• Performance Prediction Models: Gradient boosting models analyze historical performance data,
assignment submission patterns, and engagement metrics to predict academic outcomes. Feature engineering
incorporates temporal patterns and cross-subject correlations.
• Anomaly Detection Systems: Isolation Forest algorithms identify unusual behavioral patterns that
may indicate academic dishonesty or technical issues. Real-time scoring enables immediate alerts for
suspicious activities.
Data Visualization Components
• Dashboard Architecture: React-based dashboards utilize D3.js for custom visualizations and
Chart.js for standard charts. Server-sent events enable real-time updates without polling overhead.
• Interactive Analytics: Drill-down capabilities allow educators to explore data at different
granularity levels, from institution-wide trends to individual student behaviors. Export functionality supports
PDF reports and CSV data downloads.
• Mobile-Responsive Design: Adaptive layouts ensure optimal viewing across devices, with touch-
optimized interactions for tablet-based evaluations.
SECURITY & SCALABILITY
Security Implementation
• Authentication & Authorization: JWT tokens with RS256 signing provide stateless authentication
with 15-minute expiration and refresh token rotation. Role-based access control (RBAC) implements fine-
grained permissions based on institutional hierarchies.
• Data Protection: AES-256 encryption secures data at rest, while TLS 1.3 protects data in transit.
Database-level encryption keys are managed through HashiCorp Vault with automatic rotation policies.
• Privacy Compliance: GDPR and FERPA compliance implemented through data minimization
principles, automatic data retention policies, and comprehensive audit logging. Right-to-deletion functionality
enables complete data removal upon request.
Scalability Solutions
• Container Orchestration: Kubernetes deployment with horizontal pod autoscaling responds to
traffic patterns typical in educational environments. Custom metrics based on concurrent evaluations trigger
scaling decisions.
• Database Scaling: Read replicas distribute query load across multiple PostgreSQL instances, while
connection pooling with PgBouncer manages database connections efficiently. Automated failover ensures
high availability.
• Content Delivery Network: CloudFront distribution caches static assets globally, reducing load
times by 70% for international users. Intelligent caching policies optimize for educational content access
patterns.
Performance Monitoring
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• Application Performance Monitoring: New Relic integration provides detailed performance
insights with custom dashboards for educational metrics. Distributed tracing identifies bottlenecks across
microservices.
• Infrastructure Monitoring: Prometheus and Grafana monitor system health with custom alerts for
educational-specific metrics like concurrent evaluations and assessment submission rates.
• Capacity Planning: Automated analysis of usage patterns predicts scaling requirements, particularly
for exam periods and semester transitions when system load increases dramatically.
SYSTEM TESTING & RESULTS
Testing Methodology
• Load Testing: JMeter test suites simulate realistic educational workloads, including concurrent
evaluations, student submissions, and real-time analytics queries. Tests replicate peak usage patterns during
final exams with 10,000+ simultaneous users.
• Security Testing: OWASP ZAP automated security scans identify vulnerabilities, while manual
penetration testing validates authentication mechanisms and data protection measures. Regular security audits
ensure ongoing compliance.
• Integration Testing: Comprehensive test suites validate API contracts between microservices,
database consistency, and third-party integrations. Automated testing runs on every deployment with 95%
code coverage.
Performance Results
• Response Time Analysis: Average API response times measure 145ms for simple queries and
280ms for complex analytics requests. 99th percentile response times remain below 500ms under normal load
conditions.
• Throughput Measurements: The system processes 15,000 behavioral events per second during
peak usage, with linear scalability demonstrated up to 50,000 events per second through horizontal scaling.
• Resource Utilization: CPU utilization averages 45% during normal operations and peaks at 75%
during high-load scenarios. Memory usage remains stable with efficient garbage collection tuning.
Comparative Analysis
• Performance Benchmarks: Compared to traditional learning management systems, the proposed
architecture demonstrates 60% faster query response times and 3x higher concurrent user capacity. Real-time
processing capabilities exceed existing solutions by 85%.
• Cost Efficiency: Cloud infrastructure costs are 40% lower than monolithic alternatives due to
efficient resource utilization and auto-scaling capabilities. Pay-per-use pricing models align costs with actual
usage patterns.
• User Satisfaction: Beta testing with 500+ educators shows 92% satisfaction rates, with particular
praise for real-time analytics and intuitive interface design. Student feedback indicates minimal performance
impact on learning activities.
CONCLUSION
This paper presents a comprehensive technical architecture for expert evaluation of student behavior in
distance learning environments. The proposed microservices-based system successfully addresses scalability,
performance, and security challenges inherent in educational technology platformsKey technical achievements
include sub-200ms response times, 99.7% system availability, and the ability to process over 1 million daily
interactions while maintaining strict data privacy standards. The modular architecture enables independent
scaling of components based on educational workload patterns.Future work will focus on incorporating
advanced AI models for predictive analytics, expanding mobile capabilities, and developing standardized APIs
for broader educational ecosystem integration. The system architecture provides a solid foundation for next-
generation distance learning platforms.
References
1. Chen, L., & Wang, M. (2024). Microservices Architecture in Educational Technology: A Systematic
Review. Journal of Educational Computing Research, 62(3), 445-472.
2. Rodriguez, A., Kim, S., & Thompson, J. (2024). Real-time Analytics in Distance Learning:
Performance and Scalability Considerations. Computers & Education, 198, 104-118.
3. Singh, P., & Martinez, R. (2023). Security Framework for Educational Data Processing Systems.
Educational Technology & Society, 26(4), 67-82.
4. Liu, X., Brown, K., & Davis, M. (2024). Machine Learning Applications in Student Behavior
Analysis: A Technical Perspective. IEEE Transactions on Learning Technologies, 17(2), 123-137.
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5. Johnson, D., Wilson, A., & Lee, C. (2023). Scalable Architecture Patterns for Educational Platforms.
ACM Transactions on Computing Education, 23(3), 1-28.
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IMPACT OF DATA AUGMENTATION ON OBJECT RECOGNITION IN NEURAL NETWORKS
Nail I. Mammadov
Master's Student:
Scientific Supervisor: Kifayat A. Mammadova
Dos.
Abstract
This work investigates the impact of various data augmentation methods on the object recognition prob-
lem in convolutional neural networks (CNN). During the research, four main augmentation methods (rotation,
scaling, flipping, and brightness changes) were tested on CIFAR-10 and our own limited-volume dataset, and
their effects on model performance were analyzed comparatively. The results show that, especially when deal-
ing with limited-volume datasets, appropriate data augmentation strategies significantly reduce overfitting dur-
ing the model training process and improve generalization ability. The research demonstrates that the combi-
nation of augmentation techniques produces better results compared to using a single technique and increases
the model's accuracy on test data by 8.7%.
Introduction
With the rapid development of deep learning technologies, significant achievements have been made in
the field of object recognition. However, training high-quality neural networks requires large amounts of la-
beled data. In practice, especially in narrow specialized fields, data collection and labeling is a labor-intensive
and expensive process. Data augmentation techniques are widely used to solve this problem.
Data augmentation is the process of artificially creating new data from existing training data. This
method allows increasing the volume of the database used in neural network training and ensures that the
model is more resistant to various variants (variations). Basic augmentation techniques include operations such
as rotating, scaling, flipping, cropping images, and changing brightness and contrast.
In this research work, the impact of various data augmentation methods and their combinations on the
performance of CNN models in object recognition problems will be investigated. The main goal is to determine
the optimal augmentation strategy to achieve maximum accuracy with minimum data volume.
Problem Statement
Problem formulation
Solution Approach
Dataset Used. Two datasets were used in the research:
• CIFAR-10: A standard dataset consisting of 50,000 training and 10,000 test images belonging to 10
categories.
• Azerbaijani National Costumes (ANC): A limited-volume dataset collected by us, consisting of 1,250
images belonging to 5 categories. Only 250 training images are available for each category.
1. Data Augmentation Methods. The following augmentation techniques were analyzed in the re-
search:
2. Scaling (Zoom): Changing the size of the image. With scaling coefficients sx and sy:
3. Flipping: Reflecting the image along horizontal or vertical axes. For horizontal flipping:
4. Brightness Changes: Changing the intensity of image pixels. With I(x,y) as original intensity, α as
change coefficient, and β as level change:
CNN Architecture A simple but effective CNN model was built to measure the impact of
augmentation techniques:
def create_model(input_shape=(32, 32, 3), num_classes=10):
model = Sequential([
Conv2D(32, (3, 3), padding='same', input_shape=input_shape, activation='relu'),
BatchNormalization(),
Conv2D(32, (3, 3), padding='same', activation='relu'),
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BatchNormalization(),
MaxPooling2D(pool_size=(2, 2)),
Dropout(0.25),
Conv2D(64, (3, 3), padding='same', activation='relu'),
BatchNormalization(),
Conv2D(64, (3, 3), padding='same', activation='relu'),
BatchNormalization(),
MaxPooling2D(pool_size=(2, 2)),
Dropout(0.25),
Flatten(),
Dense(512, activation='relu'),
BatchNormalization(),
Dropout(0.5),
Dense(num_classes, activation='softmax')
])
return model
The model was trained with stochastic gradient descent (SGD) optimizer:
Where θt are the model parameters at time t, μ is the learning rate, and J(θt) is the gradient of the error
function.
The following experiments were conducted to evaluate the impact of augmentation:
1. Training the model without any augmentation (baseline model)
2. Training with a single augmentation technique:
o Only rotation (between -15° and +15°)
o Only scaling (between 0.8-1.2 coefficients)
o Only horizontal flipping
o Only brightness changes (between -0.2 and +0.2)
3. Training with combination of all augmentation techniques
Each experiment was conducted for up to 50 epochs on CIFAR-10 and ANC datasets, and training was
stopped when validation accuracy did not improve for 5 epochs.
Results on CIFAR-10
The impact of augmentation techniques on model accuracy on the CIFAR-10 dataset is shown in Table
1. Table 1. Results of various augmentation techniques on CIFAR-10
Avqumentasiya üsulu
Təlim dəqiqliyi
Test dəqiqliyi
Təlim/test fərqi
Avqumentasiyasız (baza model)
98.8%
84.53%
14.23%
Yalnız dönmə
94.3%
87.21%
7.11%
Yalnız miqyaslama
95.7%
86.79%
8.88%
Yalnız çevrilmə
96.4%
86.12%
10.29%
Yalnız parlaqlıq
97.6%
85.24%
12.34%
Kombinasiya
92.9%
89.42%
3.44%
As can be seen from the results, when no augmentation is applied, the model shows 98.76% accuracy
on training data, but this figure drops to 84.53% on test data, indicating the model's overfitting problem. The
combination of all augmentation techniques, while reducing training accuracy (92.86%), increases test accu-
racy to 89.42% and significantly improves the model's generalization ability.
Results on ANC Dataset The impact of augmentation on the limited-volume ANC dataset is more
clearly visible (Table 2).
Table 2. Results of various augmentation techniques on ANC dataset
Avqumentasiya üsulu
Təlim dəqiqliyi
Test dəqiqliyi
Təlim/test fərqi
Avqumentasiyasız (baza model)
99.84%
73.60%
26.24%
Yalnız dönmə
92.16%
78.40%
13.76%
Yalnız miqyaslama
94.72%
77.60%
17.12%
Yalnız çevrilmə
98.24%
75.20%
23.04%
Yalnız parlaqlıq
97.92%
76.00%
21.92%
Kombinasiya
89.28%
82.40%
6.88%
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Mathematical Analysis
Augmentation techniques help the model achieve better generalization ability by increasing the variation
of training data. As a mathematical explanation, when augmentation is applied, the error function minimized
by the model expands as follows::
Where - s the standard error function,- model, t - is the augmentation transformation,
- is the distribution of all possible transformations, and (x, y) are samples and labels from the dataset.
As a result of augmentation, a regularization effect is created to increase the model's resistance to unseen
transformations.
Another mathematical explanation for the reduction of overfitting is related to the model's capacity and
Vapnik-Chervonenkis (VC) dimension. Augmentation does not actually reduce the model's complexity, but
affects the upper bound of generalization error by reducing its effective VC dimension:
Where R(h) is the true risk, - empirical risk VC(h) is the VC dimension, m is the number of
training samples, and ω is the confidence parameter.
Augmentation artificially increases the m value, reducing the upper bound of generalization error.
Practical Implementation
The following code section was prepared using the TensorFlow/Keras library for practical implementa-
tion of augmentation techniques:
def create_augmentation_pipeline():
# Kombinasiyalı avqumentasiya
return Sequential([
RandomRotation(0.15),
RandomZoom(0.2),
RandomFlip("horizontal"),
RandomBrightness(0.2)
])
def train_with_augmentation(train_images, train_labels, test_images, test_labels,
use_augmentation=True, epochs=50):
if use_augmentation:
data_augmentation = create_augmentation_pipeline()
train_ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((train_images, train_labels))
train_ds = train_ds.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64)
train_ds = train_ds.map(lambda x, y: (data_augmentation(x, training=True), y))
train_ds = train_ds.prefetch(buffer_size=tf.data.AUTOTUNE)
else:
train_ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((train_images, train_labels))
train_ds = train_ds.shuffle(buffer_size=1024).batch(64).prefetch(buffer_size=tf.data.AUTOTUNE)
test_ds = tf.data.Dataset.from_tensor_slices((test_images, test_labels))
test_ds = test_ds.batch(64).prefetch(buffer_size=tf.data.AUTOTUNE)
model = create_model(input_shape=train_images.shape[1:],
num_classes=len(np.unique(train_labels)))
model.compile(optimizer=SGD(learning_rate=0.01, momentum=0.9),
loss='sparse_categorical_crossentropy',
metrics=['accuracy'])
early_stopping = EarlyStopping(monitor='val_accuracy', patience=5, restore_best_weights=True)
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history = model.fit(
train_ds,
epochs=epochs,
validation_data=test_ds,
callbacks=[early_stopping]
)
return model, history
AMG verilənlər bazası nümunəsi üçün görüntü avqumentasiyası tətbiq edilən kod:
def visualize_augmentations(image, num_augmentations=5):
augmentation = create_augmentation_pipeline()
plt.figure(figsize=(15, 3))
# Orijinal görüntü
plt.subplot(1, num_augmentations + 1, 1)
plt.imshow(image)
plt.title("Orijinal")
plt.axis("off")
# Avqumentasiya ilə yaradılmış görüntülər
for i in range(num_augmentations):
augmented_image = augmentation(tf.expand_dims(image, axis=0))[0]
plt.subplot(1, num_augmentations + 1, i + 2)
plt.imshow(augmented_image)
plt.title(f"Avqumentasiya {i+1}")
plt.axis("off")
plt.tight_layout()
plt.show()
# Nümunə görüntü üzərində avqumentasiya göstərilməsi
sample_image = amg_train_images[0]
visualize_augmentations(sample_image)
Conclusion
In this research work, the impact of data augmentation techniques on the object recognition problem in
neural networks was investigated. As a result of the conducted experiments, the following main conclusions
were obtained:
1. Data augmentation techniques significantly reduce model overfitting and improve generalization
ability.
2. The combination of various augmentation techniques produces better results compared to using a
single technique.
3. The impact of augmentation is more clearly visible especially when dealing with limited-volume
datasets. An 8.8% accuracy improvement was achieved in the ANC dataset as a result of augmentation.
4. Among augmentation techniques, rotation showed itself as the most effective technique, especially
in object recognition problems.
As a result of this research, it is recommended that when working with limited-volume datasets, aug-
mentation techniques should definitely be used, and a combination of augmentation techniques appropriate to
the specific characteristics of the problem should be applied.
For future research, more complex augmentation techniques, including GAN (Generative Adversarial
Networks) based methods and the use of metadata for automatic selection of augmentation techniques can be
explored.
References
1. Goodfellow, I., Bengio, Y., & Courville, A. (2016). Deep Learning. MIT Press. Cambridge, MA.
2. Bishop, C. M. (2006). Pattern Recognition and Machine Learning. Springer-Verlag. New York.
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3. Hastie, T., Tibshirani, R., & Friedman, J. (2009). The Elements of Statistical Learning: Data Min-
ing, Inference, and Prediction (2nd ed.). Springer-Verlag. New York.
4. Murphy, K. P. (2012). Machine Learning: A Probabilistic Perspective. MIT Press. Cambridge,
MA. 5. Vapnik, V. N. (1998). Statistical Learning Theory. Wiley-Interscience. New York.
6. Prince, S. J. (2012). Computer Vision: Models, Learning, and Inference. Cambridge University
Press. Cambridge.
7. Szeliski, R. (2010). Computer Vision: Algorithms and Applications. Springer-Verlag. London.
8. Nielsen, M. A. (2015). Neural Networks and Deep Learning. Determination Press. Available
online: http://neuralnetworksanddeeplearning.com/
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APPLYING THE DEEP KNOWLEDGE TRACKING MODEL IN THE EDUCATION PROCESS
Samandarov Erkaboy
IFAR under “TIIAME” National research university, Tashkent, Uzbekistan
Abstract
Deep Knowledge Tracing (DKT) is a model based on deep learning designed to identify and predict
student knowledge and skills. In the process of Education, traditional methods of assessing the level of
knowledge of students are hidden behind the subjective decisions of teachers and the tests carried out in many
cases. This prevents students from being able to determine their real-time level of knowledge. The DKT model,
on the other hand, analyzes successively the answers that students give to questions during the learning process,
and through it identifies subtle changes in their cognitive state-thus predicting student cognitive levels. This
article will consider the application of the DKT model in the educational process.
Keywords: Knowledge Tracing, Deep Knowledge Tracing, Deep Learning, Bayesian Knowledge Trac-
ing
INTRODUCTION
Knowledge Tracing (KT) is a method for predicting student knowledge, that is, determining the level of
knowledge of a student based on their answers. The Bayesian Knowledge Tracing (BKT) model was a widely
used model in the 1995s for predicting student knowledge and classifying them into classes. This model prob-
abilistically calculated the probability of learning each skill of a student [1]. BKT was a stand-alone model and
had limitations in that it taught separate parameters for each skill and assumed that the student's answer de-
pended only on that skill. In the late 2000s, deep learning methods, especially RNN (Recurrent Neural Net-
work) and LSTM artificial neural networks, appeared. As a result, it became possible to improve the KT model
through these models. This approach allowed the student to retain retrospective memory, fully cover the se-
quence of answers to questions, and learn more complex, context-dependent knowledge. The Deep Knowledge
Tracing (DKT) model, introduced by Jason Piech and colleagues in 2015, extended the capabilities of BKT
and analyzed student interactive data using a full neural network [2].
APPLYING THE DEEP KNOWLEDGE TRACKING MODEL IN THE EDUCATION
The DKT model is based on the LSTM (Long Short-Term Memory) network. The input to the model is
the student's answer to each question. For example, if the student answered question number 101 correctly, it
is represented by the symbol "101+", if he answered incorrectly, it is represented by the symbol "101-". This
sequence is first converted into a vector by "one-hot" encoding. In this case, each vector has a two-state value
"0" or "1" representing the question identifier and the answer result. After that, the LSTM neurons analyze this
sequence and update the student's hidden state. The model outputs the probability of answering the next ques-
tion correctly. To calculate this probability, at each step, the student's hidden state, along with the question
identifier, is calculated in the "embedding" layer and a sigmoid function is applied to it [3]. This layer helps
the model understand the contextual meaning of the questions, that is, it allows you to identify similarities and
differences between questions. As a result, the DKT model predicts when and how carefully the student has
answered the question. To apply DKT in the learning process, you must first prepare a large training data set.
This set contains the answers given by each student to the questions (“correct”/“incorrect”), the question iden-
tifier, the response time, the question type, and other information. It is important to carefully mark the correct-
ness when collecting data. For example, when a question is answered incorrectly, the model sees this as an
example that hides the “incorrect” state. In addition, the gerological data on the student’s response time, for
example, how long it took to answer, are also important in the analysis. It is also necessary to maintain the
sequence of responses and sort them along the time axis, because the LSTM network works sequentially and
if irregular data is received, the accuracy of the model decreases. Typically, data is exported from CSV, JSON
or SQL databases and undergoes appropriate processing steps for DKT. The preprocessing stage includes the
following operations: data cleaning, correction of incorrect or missing values, data imputation, normalization
and encoding processes [4].
The first important step in using the DKT model in the learning process is the model training and vali-
dation processes. The LSTM network is trained based on the previous responses of the students. This process
can take several hours or even days, since a sufficient amount of data is required to fully train the model.
During the training process, the model parameters are updated using the gradient descent algorithm. Typically,
batch size, learning rate and number of epochs are important factors affecting the quality of the model.
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In practice, this model works in real time. For example, when a student answers a question, the online
learning platform launches the DKT model and updates the student's knowledge level. If the model determines
that the student's skills are weak, the system offers him additional exercises, explanatory videos, or other edu-
cational resources. In this way, the learning process is adaptively adjusted and the student is directed to repeat
only the necessary parts. In addition, real-time analysis is reflected between students and teachers through the
teacher panel or dashboard [5].
To implement the DKT model in a real system, it is important to first prepare the platform infrastructure.
Typically, there are the following stages:
1. Data collection: Student response data, questions, and other data are collected. This process uses APIs,
CSV files, or LMS (Learning Management System) databases.
2. Data preprocessing: Cleaning, sorting, one-hot encoding, and embedding are performed. For example,
data preparation is facilitated by using Python libraries such as pandas, NumPy, or Scikit-learn.
3. Model architecture selection: The basic DKT LSTM network or its updated versions (for example,
with a storage attention mechanism) are selected. Some studies have also proven that Transformer-based ap-
proaches are effective.
4. Model training: The LSTM network is trained using Python, TensorFlow, or PyTorch libraries. Using
GPU power significantly speeds up the model's performance.
5. Model evaluation: The model accuracy, AUC, and F1-score metrics are calculated based on the test
dataset. It is also checked that the model produces stable and reliable results through cross-validation on stu-
dents. 6. System integration: The trained model is served as an API. Through this API, the learning platform
sends the student’s latest answers in real time and receives the predicted result. In addition, using containeri-
zation (e.g. Docker), the model can be wrapped in a container and easily deployed in different server environ-
ments.
7. Security and privacy: Encryption and authentication mechanisms are implemented to ensure the con-
fidentiality and security of student data. Compliance with GDPR and other local data protection regulations is
required.
During implementation, close cooperation between the team of programmers, data scientists and teach-
ers is required. Because it is not enough to install it from a technical point of view, teachers must correctly
interpret the model results and use them in the educational process. Additional training, workshops and semi-
nars will help to properly understand the model.
The use of the DKT model in the learning process has several important advantages:
Personalized learning: The level of knowledge of each student is monitored in real time and learning
materials adapted to him are automatically recommended. This increases the effectiveness of the student's
learning, as he only reinforces the knowledge that he needs.
Rapid assessment: The model analyzes the student's answers and immediately gives him the necessary
recommendations. This reduces the time between the teacher and the student and allows for rapid intervention
[6]. Efficient resource allocation: The system focuses only on the student's shortcomings, thereby saving
time and resources. Teachers, on the other hand, have the opportunity to spend their time explaining more
complex topics.
- Benefit from more big data: Big data collected during the learning process can be analyzed with high
accuracy using deep learning methods. This is very important for creating a long-term development strategy.
- Interactive dashboard: Teachers and principals can monitor the status of students and learning trends
through an analytical dashboard created based on DKT.
At the same time, there are several limitations in using the DKT model:
Requirement for large volumes of data: In order for the model to produce good results, sufficient and
high-quality data must be collected. If there is not enough data, the model may encounter the problem of
overfitting during the learning process. In addition, if there is incorrect or inaccurate data during the data
collection process, the reliability of the model decreases.
Difficulty in understanding the model: The internal processes of neural networks are like a “black box”
and it is not clear how the student learns the state of knowledge. This makes it difficult for teachers and peda-
gogical specialists to correctly interpret the results. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce consistent explaina-
bility and model interpretation methods.
Integration and technical requirements: Using the model requires powerful server resources, GPU
power, and uninterrupted service (24/7). In addition, data security and privacy issues are also important. The
use of modern encryption algorithms is required when storing and transmitting personal data [7].
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Cultural and linguistic adaptation: The model must be compatible with the national language and culture
of students. Questions must also be correctly coded and evaluated in the conditions of Uzbekistan. For exam-
ple, it is necessary to pay attention to the correct understanding of students by ambiguous expressions ex-
pressed in the Uzbek language.
Ethical and social issues: There is a risk of intrusion into the privacy of students in the process of col-
lecting and analyzing their data. Therefore, it is important to ensure data confidentiality, obtain user consent,
and maintain transparency [8].
9. Practical Examples and the Conditions of Uzbekistan
Several educational organizations and startups around the world are implementing the DKT model in
the learning process. For example, the Carnegie Learning company creates adaptive learning systems for math-
ematics in the profile and takes the DKT model as a basis. Also, platforms such as Achieve3000 and Khan
Academy are implementing similar ideas. According to their research, systems created based on DKT have
shown that they effectively increase students' skills by 15-20 percent.
In Uzbekistan, several institutes and higher education institutions are also conducting research on DKT.
For example, Tashkent State Pedagogical University is testing the DKT model to create an interactive testing
system for students in mathematics and physics. At the same time, the regional education center in Nukus is
exploring the DKT approach to personalize lessons for local students in the subjects of their native language
and literature. In the process, they are adjusting the model based on student response statistics, average time,
question type, and level of complexity. In addition, local startups such as “Teacher Teleplatform” are also
trying to create adaptive learning modules based on DKT. According to their experience, the model encourages
students to practice more on their weakest topics, which ultimately improves their overall grades. However,
this process has not yet been widely implemented, and local experts need to work together to overcome the
emerging difficulties [9].
CONCLUSION
The Deep Knowledge Tracing model is a powerful tool for achieving personalized learning and more
accurately assessing the student's level of knowledge in the learning process. This model, thanks to the trained
neural network, deeply studies the complex interactions and temporal dependencies in student responses. How-
ever, the DKT model is still not perfect, and its effective use requires clear standards for data quality, technical
infrastructure, and pedagogical understanding. In the future, attention mechanisms, transformer architectures,
and the use of multi-modal data are being studied to further improve DKT models. This will increase the
interpretability and accuracy of the model. Also, in order to fully implement DKT models in Uzbekistan, it is
necessary to strengthen cooperation with local educational institutions and startups, establish information ex-
change, and improve personnel skills. Only in this way can we achieve digital transformation of educational
processes and maximize the educational potential of each student [10]. The DKT model is currently helping
to raise the quality of education to a new level worldwide, and there is high confidence that this approach will
also yield effective results in Uzbekistan in the near future.
References
1. Piech C., Bassen J., Huang J. et al. Deep Knowledge Tracing. NIPS 2015.
2. Piech C. et al. Deep Knowledge Tracing. arXiv:1506.05908 (2015).
3. Educational Data Mining (EDM) 2016: Going Deeper with Deep Knowledge Tracing.
4. Barnard et al. A Survey of Knowledge Tracing. arXiv:2105.15106.
5. Gervet F. When is Deep Learning the Best Approach to Knowledge Tracing? (2020).
6. Frontiers in Psychology. Deep Knowledge Tracing with Learning Curves (2023).
7. Larson E.C. et al. Why Deep Knowledge Tracing has less Depth than Anticipated (2019).
8. ACM Digital Library. Deep knowledge tracing (2015).
9. ScienceDirect. A survey on deep learning based knowledge tracing (2022).
10. NRA Paper. Deep learning for knowledge tracing in learning analytics (2020).
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CONTROL SYSTEM FOR CATALYTIC REFORMING OF OIL REFINING PROCESSES
Uskenbayeva Gulzhan
PhD , Associate Professor, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Shukirova Aliya
PhD , Associate Professor, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Kulniyazova Korlan
Senior Lecturer, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Tasanbaev Salimzhan
PhD, Associate Professor, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Mukhamedrahimova Ardak
PhD student, L.N. Gumilyov Eurasian National University
Abstract
The article is devoted to the issues of increasing the efficiency of control over the technological process
of catalytic reforming, a key stage of oil refining. The main attention is paid to the analysis of existing and
prospective automatic control systems used in reforming units . The main principles of constructing control
systems using PI and PID controllers, as well as modern approaches based on fuzzy logic methods are consid-
ered. Examples of successful implementation of fuzzy controllers that provide improved transient processes
and system stability are given. The importance of taking into account a large volume of process information
and the need to integrate both quantitative and qualitative indicators when modeling processes are noted. The
possibilities of increasing the reliability and selectivity of catalysts as a component of an effective control
system are also discussed. A conclusion is made about the need to develop optimized models and control
algorithms that ensure high product quality and reduced energy costs.
Keywords: catalytic reforming , automation of technological process, control systems, fuzzy logic, PI
controller, PID controller, modeling.
Introduction
Today, a significant part of productions operates in such a way that the target object, as well as the
impact of disturbances that cannot be regulated, are unclear. Among such conditions, one can single out the
installation of the catalytic reforming process . During the creation of an optimal control system to control the
technological process, due to its instability, the use of complex mathematical models of the reforming process
is ineffective [1]. Therefore, the overwhelming majority of services for the management of catalytic reforming
installations do not go beyond the use of local automatic control systems.
The reformer has three sections: the reactor section, the recycle gas compression section, and the oper-
ation section. The first section is a combination of a feed system, several heaters/furnaces, a series of reactors,
and a flash separator. Some of the hydrogen gas is recycled as steam and merged with the feedstock. The
temperature is then raised to the reaction temperature by a heat exchanger, which in turn combines the feed-
stock with the reactor outlet stream. This is followed by the first heater. The flash liquid is sent to the fraction-
ation section, where a distillation column functions as a product stabilizer. The light gases are separated from
the liquid by the distillation stream. This produces LPG and off-gas as a fuel. The bottom stream is the domi-
nant product, also called the reformate . It is the feedstock for blending gasoline. To maintain conditions such
as reaction temperature within 400-500° C and pressure of 10-35 atmospheres in the presence of catalysts to
enhance the reaction, several heater-reactor pairs are used [2].
During the reforming process , two types of reactions occur, which can produce RON values of different
sizes: - preferred (dehydrogenation, dehydrocyclization , isomerization). These reactions give a higher octane
number and the production of hydrogen of higher purity;
- unprofitable (hydrocracking, coking, hydrogenolysis , hydroalkylation ). These reactions contribute to
the reduction of the octane number and purity of hydrogen.
Reaction temperature, space velocity, reaction pressure, H2 / HC ratio and feedstock characteristics are
variables that affect the quality and yield of reformed products [3].
Materials and methods.
are fundamental in catalytic reforming : dehydrogenation of naphthenes, isomerization of paraf-
fins/naphthenes, dehydrocyclization of paraffins, and hydrocracking of paraffins. It is important to consider
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that many catalytic reforming reactions promote the reorganization of the hydrocarbon skeleton, i.e. within the
same carbon group. Therefore, they are called "skeletal reactions".
Dehydrogenation is the primary reforming reaction that produces high-octane aromatics . in the Figure
1 presented typical example - dehydrogenation methylcyclohexane to toluene .
Figure 1 - Dehydrogenation of methylcyclohexane to toluene
The conversion of naphthene into an aromatic substance is accompanied by an increase in the octane
number and a decrease in its volume. Of all the reactions, this one is instantaneous and quickly reaches equi-
librium. Due to this reaction, the temperature decreases, since it is endothermic.
According to Figure 2, paraffin isomerization occurs under reforming conditions . The volume does not
change when the molecule is rearranged during paraffin isomerization. At the same time, octane increases
significantly, since branched paraffins are high-octane. Equilibrium remains unchanged, since temperature and
pressure do not affect due to the exothermic nature of these reactions. Paraffin isomerization is second only to
naphthene dehydrogenation in speed, but is faster than the others, so it can be called a moderately fast reaction
on a reforming catalyst . Because paraffins participate in some other reactions, the thermodynamic equilibrium
that paraffin isomerization achieves during reforming is very dynamic.
Figure 2 - Paraffin isomerization reaction
Naphthenic hydrocarbons are also isomerized in reactors. In most cases, five-carbon ring naphthenes
are naphthenes that form during the closure of the paraffin ring. When they are isomerized, six-carbon ring
naphthenes are formed, as shown in Figure 3.
Figure 3. Isomerization to form 6-carbon ring naphthenes
If this happens, they are instantly dehydrogenated to aromatic components. Compared to the dehydro-
genation of naphthenes, the isomerization of alkylcyclopentanes occurs slowly, so it has greater activation
energy.
For the purpose of promotion, the reaction of dehydrocyclization of paraffins is used, forming naph-
thenes. It is the most complex and at the same time favorable for the reforming process . It is also called the
ring closure reaction. This reaction is used to achieve a sufficient yield of high-octane reforming product . A
large number of low-octane paraffins make up a significant part of the feedstock used in reforming . To obtain
a high-octane (85 and more) reforming product , aromatic substances are needed. However, the use of dehy-
drogenation and isomerization alone does not allow obtaining their satisfactory amount. Reaction
dehydrocyclization leaks according to Figure 4 .
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Figure 4. Dehydrocyclization reaction
Since the temperature is higher and the hydrogen pressure is lower in these reactions, they can be called
endothermic. For cyclization, paraffin with at least a six-carbon straight chain is required. It is necessary to
use at least a paraffin with a six-carbon straight chain to start the cyclization reaction. It follows that n-pentane
is not subject to cyclization. At the same time, benzene is obtained by cyclization of n- hexane . There is a
direct relationship here: dehydrocyclization proceeds without difficulty if the paraffin has a longer straight
chain. For reforming under normal conditions, dehydrocyclization hexane occurs in small volumes. Compared
to the conversion of heptane, which, by the way, is high, the conversion of octanes and nonanes predominates
almost twice.
Hydrocracking during reforming is the breaking of a single covalent chemical bond. During this reac-
tion, a paraffin molecule is broken into two molecules with low molecular weight. The paraffin molecule is
broken at approximately the middle position during hydrocracking by the action of a reforming catalyst . One
from options hydrocracking demonstrated on in the drawing 5 .
Figure 5 - Hydrocracking reaction
Regardless of the temperature and pressure indicators, aromatic components that are in the feedstock or
formed during the reaction are not subject to opening the cycle. The acceleration of the hydrocracking reaction
is facilitated by such a condition as high temperature and pressure. This reaction is considered to be the only
one that is completely irreversible. The reaction rate in this case is equal to the ring closure rate. In this case,
the hydrocracking reaction has greater activation energy compared to the ring-closing reaction. Therefore, the
gas yield is significantly lost during this reaction when changing the rigidity of the reforming unit in order to
increase the octane number. At the same time, excluding low-octane paraffins from the reforming product ,
this reaction allows increasing the octane number. At the same time, lighter hydrocarbons located outside the
boiling limit of gasoline are produced.
This reaction proceeds by consuming hydrogen. Thus, it is called exothermic. The speed parameters of
hydrocracking are similar to dehydrocyclization . Therefore, they occur almost simultaneously, mainly in the
2 outer reactor layers.
Having studied the characteristics of the reactions mentioned above, we summarize:
- the octane number increases as a result of each reaction;
- thermodynamic equilibrium is achieved in the fastest reactions, in the rest it is achieved kinetically;
- high temperature and low pressure are considered desirable, although deactivation of the catalyst oc-
curs, so these conditions are accepted as a compromise;
- as a result of the process, pure hydrogen is obtained at the output.
Catalytic reforming reactions naphthas include dehydrogenation, dehydrocyclization , isomerization,
and hydrocracking reactions. They occur on both the metal and acidic parts of the catalyst. A simple chain of
reactions is shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Reforming reaction network
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M represents a metal catalytic site and K is an acid catalytic site. The main reactions involved in reform-
ing processes are mainly catalyzed by either an acidic support or a metal function (Figure 8).
Reforming catalyst naphtha is bifunctional, i.e. it is represented by platinum, which exhibits a metallic
function, and aluminum chloride oxide, which performs an acid function. If the first function is necessary to
accelerate hydrogenation and dehydrogenation, then the second is required to start isomerization and cycliza-
tion [4]. Here, the correct balance between them is necessary to ensure optimal characteristics of the reforming
catalyst naphtha . Achieving greater efficiency and yield in the process is an important task in order to improve
such characteristics catalyst , both its stability and selectivity, and to reduce its deactivation.
Monometallic platinum supported on aluminum oxide chloride was the original reforming catalyst com-
position. naphtha . Due to high hydrogen pressures, which are thermodynamically undesirable, coking of this
type of catalyst was suspended. By developing bimetallic catalysts, this excess hydrogen was significantly
reduced, and the catalytic efficiency of the metal was increased [5].
By adding the second component to the metal function, the following effects were achieved, such as
changing:
- electronic state of the metal;
- geometry of neighboring clusters of platinum atoms;
- the final size of platinum particles.
In turn, this affects the kinetics of hydrogenation and dehydrogenation reactions and regulates the effec-
tive size of platinum clusters, which contributes to better selectivity, stability and activity of the catalyst.
Later, in order to improve the performance of the catalysts, a third component was included in the bi-
metallic catalyst. The first attempt was made when germanium was added as a third metal component. It affects
the properties of the metal and acid functions of the bimetallic catalysts. Some of it is deposited on the carrier,
which changes the acidity.
Results and discussion
Simultaneous occurrence of exothermic and endothermic reactions in one reactor is an interesting idea
to use the thermal energy of the exothermic reaction as a heat source for the endothermic reaction [6]. Effective
combination of exothermic and endothermic reactions contributes to energy saving, respectively, reducing
capital and operating costs, which are in great demand at present [7].
The system of equations to determine the mass and heat balance is a model of catalytic reforming using
a moving granular bed of catalyst [8]:
Where - volume of raw materials processed, G - raw material consumption, u - linear flow velocity, l
- length of reactor catalyst layer, - catalyst movement speed, - overall reaction rate, , - density of
the mixture and catalyst, - heat capacity of the mixture and catalyst, - thermal effect of the chemical
reaction, T – temperature.
Methods for improving the control systems of the catalytic reforming process are explained in existing
research works on its modeling and control. Finding the optimal technological mode is the main issue presented
in the work [9]. Optimization consisted of a significant increase in the technical and economic indicators of
the process when the operational period of the catalyst is set. Temperature changes the ratio of aromatic com-
ponents in the mixture, affecting it in the first reactor inlet [10].
Industrial reforming management has two primary and equally important objectives. One objective is to
maintain safe operation of the process, and the other objective is to operate the process in a manner that satisfies
the overall processing requirements of the facility. The processing objective is to operate at the planned con-
version of the feedstock and to comply with government requirements such as environmental protection. To
achieve the primary and other additional production objectives, the catalytic reformer is managed by a contin-
uum of controls.
Control systems take into account measurements of process conditions. Primary instrumentation in com-
mercial catalytic reformers includes basic temperature, pressure, and flow sensors that are integrated with
single-loop PI and PID controllers. Some units employ more sophisticated on-line analyzers.
Many scientific studies are devoted to the issue of creating process control systems based on fuzzy logic.
In [11], the issue of constructing a fuzzy control system for cooling injection in a supercritical pressure power
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unit is outlined. An algorithm for controlling the cooling injection system is presented and implemented. In
[12], the problem of reducing the speed of a servo electric drive within the limits of acceptable values under
conditions of different control actions is discussed. The solution to this problem is presented in the form of a
state control system with a fuzzy controller. The effect of adjusting these fuzzy controllers and fuzzy control
systems shows that standard general control methods (PI, PID) should be completely or partially replaced by
fuzzy control, which promotes high-quality transient processes with a minimum duration.
Figure 41 shows the transient processes of a system controlled by digital PID and fuzzy controllers.
Figure 7. Transient processes in systems with digital PID and fuzzy controllers.
Conclusion
Catalytic reforming process control is a complex task for a number of reasons. The introduction of
optimal control systems for catalytic reforming units is accompanied by some difficulties. The main problem
is the presence of a significant amount of information about the process. The analysis of works on mathematical
models of the catalytic reforming process, carried out in the course of the study, showed the importance of
taking into account both quantitative and qualitative information about the process. The main goal in
developing a system that takes these indicators into account is to improve the efficiency of catalytic reforming
process control.
This research was funded grant from the Science Committee of the Ministry of Science and Higher
Education of the Republic of Kazakhstan, grant number AP23489120
References
1. Petrov P.A. Modeling of the catalytic reforming process // Fundamental research. 2007. No. 12-2. P.
308-309.
2. Amand T, Heyen G, Kalitventzeff B. Plant monitoring and fault detection: Synergy between data
reconciliation and principal component analysis. Computers and Chemical Engineering. 2001;25:501-507.
DOI: 10.1016/S0098-1354(01)00630-5.
3. Mohan, L., 2011. Catalytic Reforming Process. Indian Institute of Petroleum Management Gurgaon,
Volume Catalysts and Reactors 6th summer School of Petroleum & Petrochemicals.
4. Mazzieri VA, Pieck CL, Vera CR, Yori JC, Grau JM. Effect of Ge content on the metal and acid
properties of Pt–Re–Ge/Al2O3–Cl catalysts for naphtha reforming. Appl Catal A 2009;353:93–100.
5. Benitez VM, Vera CR, Rangel MC, Yori JC, Grau JM, Pieck CL. Modification of multimetallic
naphtha-reforming catalysts by indium addition. Ind Eng Chem Res 2008;48:671–6.
6. Crane, J. Model of the catalytic reforming process. Proceedings of the IV International Petroleum
Congress / J. Crane. Moscow: Gostoptekhizdat, 1961. 34 p.
7. Zhorov Yu.M. Modeling of physical and chemical processes of oil refining and petrochemistry.
Moscow: Chemistry, 1978. 213 p.
8. Rahimpour MR, Vakili R, Pourazadi E, Bahmanpour AM, Iranshahi D. Enhancement of hydrogen
production via coupling of MCH dehydrogenation reaction and methanol synthesis process by using thermally
coupled heat exchanger reactor. Int J Hydrogen Energy 2011;36:3371–83.
9. Rahimpour MR, Iranshahi D, Pourazadi E, Paymooni K. Enhancement in research octane number
and hydrogen production via dynamic optimization of a novel spherical axial-flow membrane naphtha
reformer. Ind Eng Chem Res 2012;51:398–409.
10. Bell L. Worldwide refining. Oil Gas J 2001:46.
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11. Krasnikov AL Fuzzy control system cooling injection unit SKD 300 MW // Materialy
Mezhdunarodnoi scientific conference. Kiev: KPI, 2012. P. 219-225.
12. Langraf SV, Sapozhnikov AI, Glazyrin AS, Kozlova LE, Glazyrina TA, Timoshkin VV, Afanas'ev
KS The dynamics of the electric drive with fuzzy controller // News of Tomsk Politekhnicheskogo
Universiteta. 2010. Vol. 316, No. 4. P. 168-173.
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MODELING THE SCHEDULING OF MAGNETIC DISK OPERATIONS USING A VN NETWORK
Gachechiladze Lia
PhD, Associate Professor,
Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi
Samkharadze Roman
PhD, Professor,
Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi
Giorgi Giorgadze
Student, Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi
Anri Abdushelishvili
Student, Georgian Technical University, Tbilisi
Abstract
As is known, the operating system kernel performs many functions. Teaching these functions to students
at the appropriate level is a pressing issue. Of these functions, the article discusses the processes of planning
work with magnetic disks. Their visualization and display on the monitor screen increase the quality of
teaching and facilitate a good understanding of the issues being studied. At this time, the main problem is the
student's difficulty in representing and perceiving the processes taking place on the computer. The problem
can be solved by visualizing the functions performed by the operating system kernel.
The article discusses the issue of modeling the planning of magnetic disks using a VN network. It
provides the ability to effectively model magnetic disks planning principles: FCFS, SSTF, SCAN, N-Step
SCAN, and C-SCAN. The article presents a specific example of the implementation of the FCFS principle of
planning work with magnetic disks using a VN network in the case of requests with equal priority.
Keywords: VN network, magnetic disks, magnetic heads, planning principles, visualization.
There are the following principles for scheduling work with magnetic disks [1,2]:
- FCFS. Requests are served in the order in which they enter.
- SSTF. The request that requires the least amount of magnetic heads movement is selected.
- SCAN. The magnetic heads moves in the selected direction and serves all requests in sequence. It
changes direction when there are no more requests or until the head reaches the outer cylinder.
- N-Step SCAN. The magnetic heads move in the same way as in the SCAN principle, with the
difference that requests arriving in one direction are grouped so that they can be served efficiently during the
heads’ reverse movement.
- C-SCAN. The magnetic heads move in only one direction - from the outer track to the inner track. It
serves all requests in sequence. If there are no requests, then the magnetic heads return to the beginning and
begin moving towards the inner track.
Definition. A VN network is a triple [3],
VN = (P, D, F)
P is the set of information positions, P = {p1, p2, p3, p4}; D is the set of transitions, D = {d1, d2, d3}; F is
the set of functions assigned to transitions, F = {f1, f2, f3}.
Each request is associated with m markers, m M. Each marker is accompanied by four attributes: the
request identifier, the request state: pending or in the process of being served, the time unit during which the
request is pending or being served, and the request priority. These attributes are the arguments of the transitions
f functions:
f(Request identifier, State, Duration, Priority)
Here, the Request Identifier is the designation of the request; the State is the state of waiting or servicing
the request; the Duration is the time it takes to wait or serve the request; and the Priority is the priority of the
request.
To model the scheduling of work with magnetic disks, we must make the following assumptions [4,5]:
▪ Suppose we know the sequence of requests to the disk, that is, the track numbers that must be served.
▪ Suppose we know the time of arrival of each request.
▪ Suppose we know the time of service of the request.
▪ Suppose we know the initial position of the magnetic head, that is, the track number from which the
system starts working.
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Taking into account these assumptions, the sequence of requests can be represented as the following
sequence [6]:
R1(t1, c1)
R2(t2, c2)
R2(t3, c3)
. . .
R2(ti, ci)
*
Each element of the sequence contains the following information:
▪ R - Request identifier.
▪ t - Time t elapsed since the arrival of the previous request, which represents the time interval between
two neighboring requests.
▪ c - Track number.
The first element of the sequence contains R1(t1, c1). R1 is the identifier of the first request. t1 is the time
of the first request entering the system, and c1 is the track number requesting the service. The second element
of the sequence contains R2(t2, c2). R2 is the identifier of the second request. t2 is the time of the second request
entering the system, and c2 is the track number requesting the service, and so on. Let's model the FCFS
scheduling principle work with magnetic disks using a VN network. Consider the case when all requests have
equal priority. Consider an example. Suppose we have the following sequence of requests to a magnetic disk:
R1(0, 410)
R2(0, 281)
R3(1, 73)
R4(0, 220)
R5(3, 11)
*
This corresponds to the initial state of the system (Pic. 1).
The first element of the sequence contains R1(0, 410), i.e., t1=0 and c1=410. This means that the request
for the 410th track enters immediately. Since t2 = 0 and t3 = 0, therefore, requests R1(0, 410) and R2(0, 281)
will enter the system at the same time and will be placed in the request sequence according to priority (Pic. 2).
Suppose that one request requires one unit of time to be serviced. Request R1 will be serviced (Pic. 3). After
one unit of time has elapsed, request R1 will be placed in the list of served requests. Request R2 will be serviced
and requests R3(3, 73), and R4(0, 220) will enter the system (Pic. 4). After one unit of time has elapsed, the
request R2 will be placed in the list of served requests. Request R3 will be serviced (Pic. 5). After one unit of
time has elapsed, request R3 will be placed in the list of served requests. The request R4 service begins (Pic.
6). After one unit of time has elapsed, request R4 will be placed in the list of served requests, and request R5
enter the system (Pic. 7). Its service begins (Pic. 8). After one unit of time has elapsed, request R5 will be
placed in the list of served requests (Pic. 9). This ends the entry of requests into the system.
The first type of transition (d1) runs the f1 function, which checks the enter times of the requests in the
set of requests. The request with the shortest time or several requests if they have the same time is entered into
the system. The second type of transition (d2) runs the f2 function, which checks the requests that have entered
the system and starts serving them according to priority. The third type of transition (d3) runs the f3 function,
which places the request identifier in the list of served requests if its service is completed.
R1
A set of requests
p2
p3
d1
d3
f1
f2
f3
Service
Enter in system
Pic. 1. Initial state.
R2
R3
R4
R5
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p1
p2
p4
d1
d2
f1
f2
f3
Pic
. 2.
R3
R4
R5
Ent
er
in
Ser
vic
p1
p2
p3
p4
d1
d2
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic
. 3.
R3
R4
R5
R
1
R
2
Ser
ve
d
A
set
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p1
p2
p3
p4
d1
d2
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic. 4. R2 request servicing begins.
R3
R4
R5
R
1
Served requests
Service
A set of requests
Enter in system
R2
p1
p2
p3
d1
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic
. 5.
R3
R4
R5
R
1
R
2
Ser
ve
d
A
set
A set of requests
Enter in system
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p1
p2
p3
d1
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic
. 6.
R4
R5
R
1
R
2
R
3
Ser
ve
d
A
set
p1
p2
p3
p4
d1
d2
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic. 7. Request R5 enters the system.
R4
R5
R
1
R
2
R
3
Served requests
Service
A set of requests
Enter in system
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Conclusion
The approach proposed in the article is a step toward computer pedagogy. It is shown that the VN
network provides the ability to effectively visualize the functions performed by the operating system kernel,
particularly the scheduling of the work of magnetic disks. On its basis, visualization models of scheduling the
work of magnetic disks have been developed, based on which it is possible to implement appropriate
p1
p2
p3
p4
d1
d2
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic. 8. R5 request service begins.
R4
R5
R
1
R
2
R
3
Served requests
Service
A set of requests
Enter in system
p1
p2
p3
p4
d1
d2
d3
f1
f2
f3
Pic. 9. All requests have been serviced.
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
Served requests
Service
A set of requests
Enter in system
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algorithms and training software.
References
1. Deitel H. Introduction to Operating Systems: 2 Vols. T. 1. Tran. fro English – M.: Mir, 1987. - 359
p., ill. (In Russian)
2. Tanenbaum A. modern operating systems. – St.Pet.: Piter, 2002. - 1040 p., ill. (In Russian)
3. Samkharadze R. VN-network. Tbilisi, "Georgian Technical University", Proceedings. Automated
Control Systems. N 2 (3), 2007. p. 40-45. ISSN 1512-3979. P. 40-45. (In Georgian)
4. Samkharadze R. The Petry nets in computer learning (The monograph). Tbilisi, “Technical
University”, 2007 ISBN 978-99940-57-93-1. 156 p. (In Georgian)
5. Samkharadze R, Gachechiladze L. Imitation models in computer learning. Tbilisi, “Technical
University”. 2008. ISBN 978-9941-14-057-0. 124 p. (In Georgian)
6. Samkharadze R, Gachechiladze L, Kurdadze M. Queue theory in computer learning (The mono-
graph). Tbilisi, GTU’s “IT-consulting Scientific Center”, 2017. ISBN 978-9941-0-9643-3. 93 p. (In Georgian)
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APPLICATION OF SQL AND DATA ANALYSIS IN INFORMATION SECURITY
Scientific Supervisor: Sevinj R. Mustafayeva
Assoc.Prof.
Konul A. Nabiyeva
Master's Student
Scientific Supervisor: Bahar H. Asgarova
Assoc.Prof.
Sefiqe M. Memmedova
Master's Student
Scientific Supervisor: Bahar H. Asgarova
Assoc.Prof.
Lale I. Sadigli
Master's Student
Scientific Supervisor: Vugar H. Abdullayev
Assoc.Prof.
Arzu S. Mammadova
Master's Student
İNFORMASİYA TƏHLÜKƏSİZLİYİNDƏ SQL VƏ MƏLUMATLARIN ANALİZİNİN TƏTBİQİ
Elmi rəhbər: Sevinc R. Mustafayeva
Dos.Prof.
Könül A. Nəbiyeva
Magistr tələbəsi
Elmi rəhbər: Bahar H. Əsgərova
Dos.Prof.
Sefiqe M. Memmedova
Magistr tələbəsi
Elmi rəhbər: Bahar H. Əsgərova
Dos.Prof.
Lalə İ.Sadıqlı
Magistr tələbəsi
Elmi rəhbər: Vüqar H. Abdullayev
Dos.Prof.
Arzu S. Məmmədova
Magistr tələbəsi
Abstract
This article examines the application of SQL and data analysis in information security. Information
security is an important issue for every organization and individual in modern times. Data protection, its
analysis, and the correct use of analysis results are the basis of security measures. The article examines the role
of SQL in database management and analysis, as well as how data analysis is used in the field of security.
Aspects such as the application of SQL in security systems, anomaly detection, user activity tracking, and
event analysis are considered.
Xülasə
Bu məqalədə informasiya təhlükəsizliyində SQL və məlumatların analizinin tətbiqi geniş şəkildə
araşdırılır. İnformasiya təhlükəsizliyi müasir dövrdə hər bir təşkilat və fərd üçün əhəmiyyətli məsələdir.
Məlumatların mühafizəsi, onların təhlili və analiz nəticələrinin düzgün şəkildə istifadə olunması təhlükəsizlik
tədbirlərinin əsasını təşkil edir. Məqalədə SQL dilinin məlumat bazalarının idarə olunmasında və təhlilində
oynadığı rol, eləcə də məlumatların analizinin təhlükəsizlik sahəsində necə istifadə olunduğu araşdırılır. SQL-
in təhlükəsizlik sistemlərində tətbiqi, anomaliyaların aşkarlanması, istifadəçi fəaliyyətlərinin izlənməsi və
hadisələrin analizi kimi aspektlər nəzərdən keçirilmişdir.
Keywords: SQL injection, data analysis, threat detection, database security, anomaly detection,
machine learning, data integrity, cyber security.
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Açar sözlər: SQL inyeksiyası, məlumatların təhlili, təhdidlərin aşkarlanması, verilənlər bazası
təhlükəsizliyi, anomaliyaların aşkarlanması, maşın öyrənməsi, məlumatların bütövlüyü, kiber təhlükəsizlik.
Giriş. Günümüzdə informasiya texnologiyalarının geniş vüsət alması ilə yanaşı, informasiya
təhlükəsizliyi məsələləri də cəmiyyət və təşkilatlar üçün strateji əhəmiyyət kəsb edən sahəyə çevrilmişdir.
Müxtəlif müəssisə və qurumların fəaliyyətləri getdikcə daha çox rəqəmsal aləmdə həyata keçirildiyindən,
məlumatların qorunması, sistemlərə qeyri-qanuni müdaxilələrin qarşısının alınması və istifadəçi
fəaliyyətlərinin nəzarətdə saxlanılması vacib məsələlər sırasındadır. Bu sahədə təhlükəsizlik tədbirləri yalnız
texniki mühafizə vasitələri ilə məhdudlaşmır, eyni zamanda məlumatların sistemli şəkildə toplanması, təhlil
edilməsi və onlardan düzgün nəticələrin çıxarılması da mühüm rol oynayır [1].
İnformasiya təhlükəsizliyi sahəsində iki əsas vasitə ön plana çıxır: SQL (Structured Query Language)
və məlumatların analizi. SQL məlumat bazalarına müraciət və onların idarə olunması üçün istifadə olunan əsas
dildir və bu vasitə ilə müxtəlif təhlükəsizlik hadisələri ilə bağlı məlumatlar əldə edilə, analiz edilə və təhlükə
siqnalları vaxtında müəyyən edilə bilər. Digər tərəfdən, məlumat analizi texnikaları bu məlumatların
strukturlaşdırılması və təhlili üçün tətbiq olunur və nəticədə təhdidlərin və risklərin proqnozlaşdırılması daha
effektiv şəkildə həyata keçirilir [2].
İnformasiya texnologiyalarının sürətli inkişafı ilə yanaşı, bu texnologiyaların təhlükəsizliyi məsələləri
də daha aktual və kompleks bir problemə çevrilmişdir. Bu kontekstdə informasiya təhlükəsizliyi anlayışı yalnız
kompüterlərin və şəbəkələrin qorunması ilə məhdudlaşmır, eyni zamanda məlumatların düzgün şəkildə idarə
olunması, analiz edilməsi və potensial təhdidlərin vaxtında aşkar olunması kimi sahələri də əhatə edir. Məhz
bu mərhələdə SQL (Structured Query Language) və məlumatların analizi üsulları informasiya təhlükəsizliyinin
təmin olunmasında mühüm rol oynayır.
1. Sql Və Elektron Sistemlər Təhlükəsizliyi
Müasir dövrdə informasiya texnologiyalarının sürətli inkişafı nəticəsində bir çox xidmətlər
elektronlaşdırılmış və məlumatların saxlanması, emalı və ötürülməsi elektron sistemlər vasitəsilə həyata
keçirilir. Bu dəyişikliklər informasiya təhlükəsizliyinin yeni müstəvidə dəyərləndirilməsini zəruri edir.
Elektron sistemlərin əsas tərkib hissələrindən biri olan verilənlər bazaları isə bu sistemlərin təhlükəsizliyində
mühüm rol oynayır. SQL dili, yəni Strukturlaşdırılmış Sorğu Dili, bu verilənlər bazaları ilə qarşılıqlı əlaqənin
təmin olunması üçün istifadə olunan əsas vasitədir. Elektron sistemlərin təhlükəsizliyi isə yalnız fiziki və ya
şəbəkə səviyyəsində deyil, həm də məlumatların idarəetmə səviyyəsində qorunmasını tələb edir.
SQL-in elektron sistemlərdə təhlükəsizlik məqsədilə tətbiqi müxtəlif istiqamətlərdə özünü göstərir. Ən
vacib istiqamətlərdən biri sistemə daxil olan sorğuların təhlilidir. SQL vasitəsilə verilən sorğular düzgün
şəkildə idarə olunmazsa, sistem SQL inyeksiya kimi təhlükəli hücumlara məruz qala bilər. Bu səbəbdən
elektron sistemlərdə SQL sorğularının strukturlaşdırılması və təhlükəsiz kod yazılması mütləq şərtdir.
Məsələn, istifadəçidən alınan məlumat birbaşa SQL sorğusuna daxil edildikdə, aşağıdakı kimi bir kod parçası
hücuma açıq olur [3]:
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = '" + username + "'");
Əgər istifadəçi zərərli kod daxil edərsə, məsələn: ' OR '1'='1 bu zaman bütün istifadəçi məlumatlarına
giriş əldə edilə bilər. Belə halların qarşısını almaq üçün parametrik sorğulardan istifadə olunmalıdır:
cursor.execute("SELECT * FROM users WHERE username = ?", (username,))
Bu yanaşma sorğuların strukturunu sabit saxlayır və istifadəçi məlumatlarının kod kimi işlənməsinin
qarşısını alır.
Elektron sistemlərdə SQL-in digər təhlükəsizlik funksiyası giriş nəzarətidir. Burada istifadəçilərə fərqli
rollar verilərək onların məlumatlara və əməliyyatlara çıxışı məhdudlaşdırılır. Bu, həm məlumatların
məxfiliyini təmin edir, həm də sistemə qarşı hücumların təsirini azaldır. SQL-də bu, GRANT və REVOKE
əmrləri ilə yerinə yetirilir. Eyni zamanda, istifadəçi fəaliyyəti qeydə alınmalı və monitorinq edilməlidir ki,
şübhəli davranışlar erkən mərhələdə aşkarlansın. SQL-in elektron sistemlərdə təhlükəsizliyin təmin
edilməsində rolu həm də məlumatların bütövlüyü ilə bağlıdır. Sistem daxilində baş verən dəyişikliklərin
izlənməsi üçün TRIGGER və AUDIT mexanizmləri vasitəsilə nəzarət tədbirləri həyata keçirilir. Hər bir
dəyişiklik qeydiyyata alınaraq sonradan təhlil edilə bilər. Bu, həm daxili, həm də xarici təhlükələrə qarşı cavab
tədbirlərinin operativliyini artırır [4].
Beləliklə, SQL dili elektron sistemlərdə məlumatların idarə olunması ilə yanaşı, təhlükəsizlik
tədbirlərinin də təməlini təşkil edir. Təhlükəsiz SQL kodlaşdırma, giriş nəzarəti, audit mexanizmləri və
məlumatların bütövlüyünün təmin edilməsi kimi tədbirlər elektron sistemlərin davamlı və dayanıqlı
fəaliyyətini təmin etmək üçün zəruridir. Elektron sistemlərin effektiv müdafiəsi yalnız texniki biliklərlə deyil,
həm də təhlükəsizlik mədəniyyətinin inkişaf etdirilməsi ilə mümkün olur. Bu yanaşma, gələcəkdə yaranacaq
təhlükəsizlik risklərinə qarşı çevik və davamlı cavab strategiyalarının formalaşdırılmasına imkan yaradır.
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2. SQL İnjeksiya Hücumları və Müdafiə Strategiyaları
SQL injeksiya (SQL Injection) hücumları informasiya təhlükəsizliyində ən geniş yayılmış və zərərli
növlərdən biridir. Bu hücumlar vasitəsilə hücumçular zəifliyə malik veb tətbiqlərə zərərli SQL kodları
yeritməklə verilənlər bazasına icazəsiz giriş əldə edə və ya məlumatları manipulyasiya edə bilərlər. Hücumlar
əsasən istifadəçi tərəfindən daxil edilən məlumatların düzgün yoxlanılmaması səbəbindən baş verir.
Hücumçular bu boşluqlardan istifadə edərək məlumatların sızdırılması, dəyişdirilməsi və ya tamamilə məhv
edilməsinə səbəb ola bilərlər.
SQL injeksiyası hücumlarının növləri müxtəlifdir. Ən çox rast gəlinənləri aşağıdakılardır: klassik (in-
band) SQL injeksiyası, vaxt əsaslı (time-based) və səhv əsaslı (error-based) injeksiyalar. Klassik SQL
injeksiyasında hücumçu həm sorğunu göndərir, həm də nəticəni alır. Vaxt əsaslı hücumlarda isə sistemin cavab
vaxtı hücumun nəticəsi kimi qiymətləndirilir. Səhv əsaslı injeksiyalarda isə verilənlər bazasının verdiyi
səhvlərdən istifadə olunur.
Müdafiə strategiyalarının əsas məqsədi istifadəçi daxil edilən məlumatların düzgün yoxlanılması və
təmizlənməsidir. Birinci və ən effektiv üsullardan biri parametrizə edilmiş sorğulardan istifadədir. Bu
yanaşmada SQL sorğuları və istifadəçi məlumatları ayrılır və sorğunun məntiqi hissəsi kodlaşdırılır, beləliklə,
istifadəçi məlumatları sadəcə dəyər kimi qəbul edilir. Məsələn, PHP-də PDO və ya Python-da parametrizə
edilmiş sorğular geniş istifadə olunur.
Başqa bir mühüm metod ORM (Object-Relational Mapping) texnologiyalarının tətbiqidir. ORM
vasitəsilə SQL sorğuları avtomatik şəkildə düzgün formatda yaradılır və bu da injeksiya riskini azaldır. Bundan
başqa, giriş məlumatlarının whitelist (icazə verilənlər siyahısı) ilə yoxlanılması, xüsusi simvolların
məhdudlaşdırılması və ya çıxarılması, həmçinin verilənlər bazasında lazımsız icazələrin qadağan olunması
kimi tədbirlər müdafiəni gücləndirir.
Web tətbiqlərdə WAF (Web Application Firewall) istifadə etmək də SQL injeksiyası hücumlarına qarşı
əlavə müdafiə qatıdır. WAF müəyyən qaydalar əsasında gələn sorğuları analiz edir və şübhəli sorğuları
bloklayır. Eyni zamanda, verilənlər bazasında düzgün konfiqurasiya, məsələn, minimum zəruri hüquqların
verilməsi, serverlərin və proqram təminatının müntəzəm yenilənməsi də hücum riskini azaldır.
Nəticədə, SQL injeksiyası hücumlarından qorunmaq üçün çoxsəviyyəli müdafiə strategiyalarının tətbiqi
vacibdir. Parametrizə edilmiş sorğuların istifadəsi, inputların doğrulanması, WAF-ların tətbiqi və sistemlərin
müntəzəm yenilənməsi hücumların qarşısını almaqda əsas rol oynayır. Təşkilatlar bu sahədə təhlükəsizlik
mədəniyyətini inkişaf etdirməli və proqram təminatı hazırlanması zamanı təhlükəsiz kod yazma qaydalarına
ciddi riayət etməlidirlər. Bu yolla informasiya sistemlərinin etibarlılığı və məlumatların təhlükəsizliyi təmin
oluna bilər.
3. Məlumatların Analizi İlə Anomaliyaların Və Təhlükələrin Aşkarlanması
Məlumatların analizi müasir informasiya təhlükəsizliyində əvəzolunmaz vasitəyə çevrilmişdir.
Texnoloji sistemlərdə hər saniyə böyük həcmdə məlumat toplanır və bu məlumatların içində həm normal
fəaliyyət izləri, həm də mümkün təhlükələrin siqnalları yer ala bilər. Bu siqnalların vaxtında və düzgün şəkildə
aşkar olunması üçün analitik yanaşmaların tətbiqi vacibdir. Anomaliyaların və təhlükələrin identifikasiyası
məhz bu analitik proseslərin nəticəsində baş verir. SQL və digər məlumat analiz vasitələri bu prosesin
mərkəzində dayanır [5].
Anomaliya anlayışı, normaldan kənar davranış və ya hadisənin mövcudluğunu ifadə edir. Bu, istifadəçi
davranışında, sistem fəaliyyətində və ya verilənlər axınında baş verə bilər. Məsələn, bir istifadəçinin adi
hallarda gündə maksimum 5 dəfə sistemə daxil olduğu halda, bir gün ərzində 100 dəfə giriş cəhdi qeydə
alınarsa, bu artıq anomaliya hesab olunur və təhlükə siqnalı kimi qiymətləndirilə bilər.
Məlumatların analizinə əsaslanan yanaşmalar statistik metodlar, zaman sıralarının təhlili və maşın
öyrənməsi modelləri kimi müxtəlif texnikaları əhatə edir. SQL bu prosesdə ilkin verilənlərin süzgəcdən
keçirilməsi və strukturlaşdırılması üçün istifadə olunur. Məsələn, aşağıdakı SQL sorğusu son bir ay ərzində
istifadəçi fəaliyyətlərini təhlil edərək normadan kənar girişləri müəyyən edə bilər [6]:
SELECT user_id, COUNT(*) AS login_count FROM login_logs
WHERE login_time > NOW() - INTERVAL 30 DAY GROUP BY user_id
HAVING COUNT(*) > 100;
Bu cür sorğular administratorlara xəbərdarlıq siqnalları yaratmağa imkan verir. Daha mürəkkəb hallarda
isə SQL digər analiz vasitələri ilə birlikdə istifadə olunur. Məsələn, məlumatlar əvvəlcə SQL vasitəsilə
süzgəcdən keçirilir və təmizlənir, sonra isə Python, R və ya xüsusi analiz proqramlarında təhlil edilərək
anomaliyalar aşkarlanır.
Təhlükələrin aşkar olunmasında məntiqi qaydaların tətbiqi də geniş yayılıb. SQL-də müəyyən
nümunələrə əsaslanan qaydalar yaradılaraq sistemin avtomatik xəbərdarlıq verməsi təmin olunur. Məsələn,
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ardıcıl 3 uğursuz giriş cəhdi olduqda istifadəçinin müvəqqəti bloklanması kimi tədbirlər sistem tərəfindən
həyata keçirilə bilər [7]:
SELECT user_id FROM login_attempts WHERE success = FALSE
AND attempt_time > NOW() - INTERVAL 5 MINUTE GROUP BY user_id
HAVING COUNT(*) >= 3;
Bu yanaşmalarla bərabər, audit jurnalları və loq fayllarının da daimi təhlili mühüm rol oynayır. Burada
yığılan məlumatlar vasitəsilə sistem fəaliyyətinin zamanla necə dəyişdiyi müşahidə olunur və qeyri-adi hallar
erkən mərhələdə aşkarlanır.
Beləliklə, məlumatların analizi vasitəsilə anomaliyaların və təhlükələrin aşkarlanması informasiya
təhlükəsizliyinin proaktiv komponentini təşkil edir. Bu metodlar sayəsində təhlükələr baş verməmişdən əvvəl
onlara qarşı tədbir görülə bilər. Sistemlərin davamlı monitorinqi və analitik modellərin tətbiqi, informasiya
infrastrukturunun daha dayanıqlı və təhlükəsiz olmasına şərait yaradır. Eyni zamanda, bu proseslər mütərəqqi
texnologiyalar və avtomatlaşdırma alətləri ilə dəstəkləndikdə, daha effektiv və çevik müdafiə mexanizmləri
qurmaq mümkün olur [8].
4. Təhlükəsizlik Loqları üzərində SQL Tətbiqləri və Real Vaxt Monitorinqi
Müasir informasiya sistemlərində təhlükəsizlik loqları (security logs) kritik əhəmiyyət daşıyır, çünki
onlar sistemlərdə baş verən bütün fəaliyyətləri, o cümlədən istifadəçi girişləri, proqramların iş rejimi, şəbəkə
trafiki və potensial təhlükəsizlik hadisələrini qeyd edir. Təhlükəsizlik loqlarının effektiv təhlili informasiya
təhlükəsizliyinin təmin olunmasında əsas vasitələrdən biridir. Bu sahədə SQL tətbiqləri geniş istifadə olunur,
çünki SQL məlumatların idarə olunması və sorğulanması üçün güclü, çevik və intuitiv alətdir.
Təhlükəsizlik loqları böyük həcmdə və müxtəlif formatlarda ola bilər. Onların strukturlaşdırılmış
şəkildə saxlanılması və təhlili üçün verilənlər bazaları idealdır. SQL sorğuları vasitəsilə müxtəlif kriteriyalara
əsaslanan məlumatların filtrasiyası, qruplaşdırılması və təhlili həyata keçirilir. Məsələn, müəyyən bir IP
ünvanından gələn uğursuz giriş cəhdlərini müəyyən etmək üçün SQL sorğuları yazmaq mümkündür. Belə
sorğular sayəsində şübhəli fəaliyyətlər vaxtında aşkar edilə və lazımi tədbirlər görülə bilər.
Real vaxt monitorinqi isə təhlükəsizlik loqlarının anında emalını nəzərdə tutur. Bu, mümkün olan ən
qısa zamanda təhlükə və ya anomaliyanın aşkarlanmasını təmin edir. SQL əsaslı sorğular real vaxtda işləyən
SIEM (Security Information and Event Management) sistemlərində istifadə olunur. Bu sistemlər loq
məlumatlarını toplayır, analiz edir və təhlükəsizlik komandalarına xəbərdarlıqlar göndərir. Məsələn, aşağıdakı
SQL sorğusu son 10 dəqiqədə eyni IP-dən 5-dən çox uğursuz giriş cəhdi olub-olmadığını yoxlaya bilər:
pgsql
CopyEdit
SELECT source_ip, COUNT(*) AS fail_count
FROM security_logs
WHERE event_type = 'LOGIN_FAILURE'
AND timestamp > NOW() - INTERVAL 10 MINUTE
GROUP BY source_ip
HAVING COUNT(*) > 5;
Bu sorğu vasitəsilə administratorlar dərhal müdaxilə edə bilərlər.
Bundan əlavə, SQL ilə təhlükəsizlik loqlarının təhlili zamanı müxtəlif zaman aralıqları, istifadəçi
identifikatorları, hadisə növləri və digər parametrlər əsasında kompleks təhlillər aparılır. Bu, yalnız
anomaliyaların aşkarlanmasını asanlaşdırmır, həm də təhlükəsizlik insidentlərinin mənbəyini və təsir dairəsini
müəyyən etməyə kömək edir.
SQL sorğularının real vaxt monitorinqində tətbiqi eyni zamanda avtomatlaşdırılmış hadisə cavablarının
qurulmasına şərait yaradır. SIEM sistemləri müəyyən edilmiş qaydalara uyğun olaraq SQL sorğuları əsasında
yaranan nəticələrə əsasən avtomatik olaraq təhlükəsizlik tədbirləri görə bilir. Bu, məsələn, hücum mənbəyini
bloklamaq, istifadəçini müvəqqəti dayandırmaq və ya təhlükəsizlik komandalarına bildiriş göndərmək kimi
tədbirləri əhatə edir.
Nəticədə, təhlükəsizlik loqları üzərində SQL tətbiqləri və real vaxt monitorinqi informasiya
təhlükəsizliyinin təminatında əsas elementlərdən biridir. Onların tətbiqi sistemdə baş verən təhlükəsizlik
hadisələrinin vaxtında aşkarlanmasını, təhlilini və operativ müdaxiləsini mümkün edir. Bu da informasiya
sistemlərinin etibarlılığını artırır və kiberhücumların qarşısını almaqda mühüm rol oynayır.
5. Siem Sistemlərində Sql-İn Rolu Və Təhlükəsizlik Hadisələrinin İdarə Olunmasi
SIEM (Security Information and Event Management) sistemləri informasiya təhlükəsizliyinin idarə
edilməsində mühüm rol oynayan texnoloji həllərdir. Bu sistemlər müxtəlif mənbələrdən toplanmış
təhlükəsizlik məlumatlarını bir araya gətirərək onların mərkəzləşdirilmiş şəkildə təhlilini və idarəsini təmin
edir. SIEM sistemlərinin əsas məqsədi informasiya təhlükəsizliyi ilə bağlı hadisələri vaxtında aşkar etmək,
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onların mənşəyini təhlil etmək və cavab tədbirlərini avtomatlaşdırmaqdır. Bu prosesin səmərəli aparılması
üçün məlumatların strukturlaşdırılması və idarə olunması vacibdir ki, burada SQL dili əvəzsiz vasitə kimi çıxış
edir [9].
SQL dili, SIEM sistemlərində toplanmış məlumatların filtrasiyası, qruplaşdırılması və təhlili üçün
istifadə olunur. Məsələn, müxtəlif loq mənbələrindən gələn məlumatların içərisindən yalnız şübhəli
fəaliyyətləri seçmək üçün SQL əsaslı sorğulardan istifadə edilir. Bu yanaşma həm performans, həm də təhlilin
dəqiqliyi baxımından əhəmiyyətlidir. Aşağıdakı nümunə SQL sorğusu sistemdə ardıcıl uğursuz giriş cəhdlərini
aşkar etmək üçün istifadə oluna bilər:
SELECT source_ip, COUNT(*) AS failed_attempts FROM security_logs
WHERE event_type = 'LOGIN_FAILURE'
AND timestamp > NOW() - INTERVAL 1 HOUR
GROUP BY source_ip HAVING COUNT(*) > 10;
Bu sorğu, son bir saat ərzində ondan çox uğursuz giriş cəhdi qeydə alınmış IP ünvanlarını
müəyyənləşdirir və administratorlara xəbərdarlıq siqnalı göndərmək üçün baza kimi xidmət edir. SIEM
sistemlərində bu tip sorğular real vaxt rejimində işləyərək təhlükələrin vaxtında aşkarlanmasına şərait yaradır.
SIEM platformalarında SQL yalnız hadisələrin aşkar olunması üçün deyil, həm də onların kontekstual
təhlili və vizualizasiyası üçün istifadə olunur. Verilən məlumatların müxtəlif kriteriyalara görə təhlili —
məsələn, region, zaman aralığı, istifadəçi tipi üzrə — hadisələrin mənşəyini və təsir dairəsini müəyyən etməyə
imkan verir. Bu təhlillər nəticəsində təhlükəsizlik komandası hansı komponentlərin risk altında olduğunu
müəyyənləşdirə bilir və daha hədəfli tədbirlər görür [10].
Bundan əlavə, SIEM sistemlərində SIEM qaydaları adlanan mexanizmlər vasitəsilə SQL sorğuları
əsasında avtomatlaşdırılmış hadisə cavabları təyin olunur. Məsələn, müəyyən bir davranış nümunəsi müşahidə
edildikdə sistem avtomatik şəkildə şəbəkə bağlantısını kəsə, istifadəçini bloklaya və ya insident haqqında
təhlükəsizlik komandasına bildiriş göndərə bilər. Bu tip avtomatlaşdırma SIEM sistemlərinin effektivliyini
əhəmiyyətli dərəcədə artırır.
Nəticə etibarilə, SQL dili SIEM sistemlərində təhlükəsizlik hadisələrinin aşkarlanması, təhlili və idarə
olunmasında əsas texnologiyalardan biridir. Onun struktura uyğun, sadə və eyni zamanda güclü sintaksisi
vasitəsilə böyük həcmli təhlükəsizlik məlumatları üzərində operativ təhlil aparmaq mümkündür. SQL
sorğularının düzgün qurulması sayəsində insidentlərin vaxtında və dəqiq aşkarlanması təmin edilir, bu da
bütövlükdə informasiya sistemlərinin müdafiə qabiliyyətini artırır. Beləliklə, SIEM və SQL-in sinerjisi müasir
təhlükəsizlik strategiyalarının əsas sütunlarından birini təşkil edir [11].
6. İnformasiya Təhlükəsizliyində Analitik Yanaşma: Sql Və Big Data Sintezləri
İnformasiya təhlükəsizliyi sahəsində baş verən inkişaflar nəticəsində klassik metodların təkbaşına
kifayət etmədiyi aydın şəkildə müşahidə olunur. Genişmiqyaslı, mürəkkəb və dinamik məlumat axınına
malik müasir informasiya sistemləri artıq daha çevik və analitik yanaşmalar tələb edir. Bu konteksdə SQL və
Big Data texnologiyalarının sintezi informasiya təhlükəsizliyində güclü bir analiz və müdafiə mexanizmi
formalaşdırır. Bu sintez məlumatların daha geniş miqyasda təhlilinə, real vaxt monitorinqinə və risklərin
erkən mərhələdə aşkarlanmasına imkan verir.
Big Data anlayışı böyük həcmli, yüksək sürətli və müxtəliflik göstərən məlumat dəstlərinin
saxlanması, idarə edilməsi və təhlili üçün nəzərdə tutulmuş texnologiyalar kompleksini əhatə edir. Bu
məlumatlar strukturlu, yarı-strukturlu və struktursuz ola bilər. SQL isə əsasən strukturlu məlumatlarla işləyən
dil olaraq Big Data mühitində fərqli texnologiyalarla inteqrasiya formasında tətbiq olunur. Məsələn, Apache
Hive, Presto, Google BigQuery kimi sistemlər SQL sintaksisinə əsaslanan sorğu mühərrikləridir və bu
vasitələr Big Data analitikası üçün geniş imkanlar təqdim edir [12].
İnformasiya təhlükəsizliyi baxımından bu inteqrasiya aşağıdakı sahələrdə özünü göstərir: loq
analizləri, davranış modellərinin qurulması, anomaliya aşkarlanması və risk proqnozlaşdırılması. Milyonlarla
hadisənin qeydə alındığı loq fayllarının təhlili klassik metodlarla mümkün deyilsə də, Big Data platformaları
bu məlumatların saxlanması və işlənməsi üçün optimal mühit yaradır. SQL isə bu məlumatlar üzərində təhlil
aparmaq üçün əlverişli alətdir. Məsələn, aşağıdakı Hive SQL sorğusu böyük həcmdə giriş loqları içərisində
müəyyən bir IP ünvanından qeyri-adi davranışları müəyyən etmək üçün istifadə oluna bilər [13]:
SELECT ip_address, COUNT(*) AS access_count FROM access_logs
WHERE timestamp BETWEEN '2025-05-01' AND '2025-05-21'
GROUP BY ip_address
HAVING COUNT(*) > 10000;
Bu cür analizlər nəticəsində kiberhücum əlamətləri daşıyan IP ünvanlar müəyyən edilə bilər. Digər
tərəfdən, maşın öyrənməsi modellərinin qurulması üçün məlumatların əvvəlcədən təmizlənməsi və
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strukturlaşdırılması da SQL sorğuları ilə həyata keçirilir. Bu, analitik sistemlərin effektivliyini artırır və
təhlükəsizlik risklərinin daha dərin təhlilini mümkün edir.
Big Data mühitində real vaxtda çalışan axın analiz sistemləri (stream processing) ilə SQL-in birgə
istifadəsi də təhlükəsizlik üçün əhəmiyyətlidir. Apache Flink və Spark Streaming kimi platformalarda SQL
istifadə olunaraq axın məlumatları anında təhlil edilir. Məsələn, sistemə daxil olan hər yeni loq qeydi avtomatik
şəkildə işlənərək şübhəli fəaliyyətlər dərhal aşkar oluna bilər [14].
Beləliklə, informasiya təhlükəsizliyində analitik yanaşmaların inkişafında SQL və Big Data
texnologiyalarının sintezi yeni imkanlar yaradır. Bu yanaşma böyük məlumatların idarəsi, təhlükələrin
aşkarlanması və proaktiv müdafiə tədbirlərinin həyata keçirilməsi üçün dayanıqlı və çevik əsaslar təmin edir.
Analitik imkanların genişlənməsi, informasiya sistemlərinin təhlükəsizlik səviyyəsini daha yüksək mərhələyə
çatdırmaq üçün strateji əhəmiyyət daşıyır [15].
Nəticə. İnformasiya təhlükəsizliyi sahəsində SQL və məlumatların analizi müasir dövrdə əsas
vasitələrdən birinə çevrilmişdir. Verilənlər bazalarının təhlükəsizliyi, elektron sistemlərin müdafiəsi və
təhlükəsizlik hadisələrinin idarə olunması kimi sahələrdə SQL-in tətbiqi geniş imkanlar yaradır. Məlumatların
analizi isə anomaliyaların və potensial təhlükələrin vaxtında aşkar edilməsinə, risklərin azaldılmasına yönəlmiş
effektiv üsulları təmin edir. SIEM sistemlərində SQL-in rolu təhlükəsizlik məlumatlarının toplanması, təhlili
və avtomatlaşdırılmış cavabların verilməsi baxımından olduqca vacibdir. Eyni zamanda, Big Data
texnologiyaları ilə SQL-in sintezi informasiya təhlükəsizliyində analitik yanaşmaları daha da inkişaf etdirir və
real vaxtda yüksək həcmli məlumatların emalına imkan verir.
Nəticə olaraq, SQL və məlumatların analizi informasiya təhlükəsizliyində proaktiv müdafiə
strategiyalarının formalaşmasında həlledici rol oynayır. Bu yanaşmaların tətbiqi yalnız texniki imkanların
artırılması ilə deyil, həm də təhlükəsizlik mədəniyyətinin yüksəldilməsi ilə mümkün olur. Gələcəkdə
informasiya təhlükəsizliyi sahəsində daha effektiv və adaptiv sistemlərin qurulması üçün SQL və analitik
vasitələrin istifadəsi daha da genişlənəcəkdir. İnformasiya təhlükəsizliyində SQL və məlumatların analizi
sahəsində davamlı təkmilləşmə, sistemlərin dayanıqlılığını və məlumatların məxfiliyini təmin etmək üçün
vacibdir. Bu da nəticədə təşkilatların təhlükəsizlik risklərini minimuma endirərək onların etibarlılığını və
fəaliyyətinin sabitliyini artırır.
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ANALYSIS OF DYNAMIC TOE ANGLE ADJUSTMENT METHODS AND ASSESSMENT OF
THEIR IMPACT ON PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS OF M1 CATEGORY VEHICLES
Lipskyi Sergii
PhD student National University "Zaporizhzhia Polytechnic"
Abstract
This study analyzes dynamic toe angle adjustment methods for steered wheels and their impact on M1
category vehicles' performance. The research examines mechatronic systems' design features and their influ-
ence on vehicle efficiency indicators. Results show that these systems can reduce tire wear by 12-30%, improve
fuel/energy efficiency by 1.5-5.0%, and enhance handling by 8-20%. Three main system types are identified:
electromechanical, hydraulic with electronic control, and integrated with active suspension. Advanced systems
using predictive algorithms demonstrate the most promising results, particularly for electric vehicles where
energy efficiency directly impacts range. The findings confirm the significant potential of mechatronic toe
angle adjustment systems for improving vehicle performance, safety, and operational economy.
Keywords: toe angle, wheel alignment, mechatronic systems, vehicle dynamics, tire wear, M1 category
vehicles
The geometry of the chassis, particularly the parameters of steered wheel alignment, plays a crucial role
in ensuring optimal performance characteristics of vehicles. Among these parameters, toe angles deserve spe-
cial attention as they directly affect stability, handling, tire wear, and fuel economy [1]. Traditionally, toe
angles are set statically during vehicle maintenance and remain unchanged until the next adjustment. However,
this approach does not provide optimal parameters across all driving modes and operating conditions [2].
Research [3] shows that toe angle deviations of 0.5° from optimal values can lead to increased tire wear
by 15-20% and higher fuel consumption by 2-3%. This substantiates the relevance of developing and imple-
menting mechatronic systems capable of dynamically adjusting toe angles depending on driving mode, road
conditions, speed, and other factors [4]. Such systems are an important element in the development of modern
intelligent vehicles and ensuring their high performance indicators.
The purpose of this work is to systematize existing knowledge about the influence of mechatronic sys-
tems for toe angle adjustment of steered wheels on the performance indicators of M1 category vehicles, analyze
the design features of such systems, and evaluate the prospects for their further development. The research
aims to identify quantitative relationships between toe angle adjustment parameters and vehicle efficiency
indicators, such as handling, stability, energy efficiency, and tire life.
To achieve this goal, a comprehensive analysis of scientific publications over the past 10 years presented
in international databases including Scopus, Web of Science, and SAE International was conducted. Methods
of system analysis, comparative research, and statistical data processing were applied to process the infor-
mation. Experimental data was obtained from published test results conducted by research organizations such
as TÜV Rheinland, ADAC (Allgemeiner Deutscher Automobil-Club), and NHTSA (National Highway Traffic
Safety Administration) [5, 6, 7]. Additionally, technical solutions presented in the patent documentation of
leading car manufacturers and automotive component suppliers were analyzed [8, 9].
Modern mechatronic toe angle adjustment systems represent a complex combination of mechanical,
electronic, and software components designed to optimize vehicle performance in real-time. These systems
continuously monitor driving conditions and adjust the toe angles of steered wheels accordingly, providing
significant improvements in handling dynamics, tire longevity, and energy efficiency.
Analysis of design solutions has shown that these systems can be classified by several key characteris-
tics. By type of adjustment drive, three main categories emerge: electromechanical systems utilizing servomo-
tors and reducers to modify steering geometry; hydraulic systems with electronic control offering superior
speed and adjustment force; and pneumatic systems often integrated with air suspension. Research indicates
that while electromechanical systems dominate the market due to their compact design, precision, and energy
efficiency, hydraulic systems provide faster response times crucial for active safety applications [10, 11, 12].
The control algorithms employed in these systems have evolved significantly, progressing from simple
reactive systems responding to current motion parameters toward sophisticated proactive and adaptive sys-
tems. The latter employ predictive models and artificial intelligence to anticipate optimal settings based on
road conditions, driving style, and vehicle dynamics [13, 14]. This evolution represents a paradigm shift from
corrective to preventive approaches in vehicle dynamics management.
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The integration of toe angle adjustment systems with other electronic vehicle systems such as ESP, ABS,
and adaptive cruise control creates a synergistic effect that enhances overall vehicle safety and performance
[15]. This integration allows for coordinated responses to dynamic driving situations, where multiple systems
work in concert to maintain vehicle stability and control.
The impact of dynamic toe angle adjustment on vehicle performance is multifaceted and substantial.
Regarding tire wear, experimental studies demonstrate that adaptive toe angle adjustment can reduce uneven
tire wear by 18-27% compared to static settings [16]. This effect is particularly pronounced in mixed driving
conditions, such as alternating between urban and highway environments or traversing varied road surfaces.
For the average M1 category vehicle, optimizing toe angles across different driving modes can extend tire life
by 10-15 thousand kilometers, representing a significant economic and environmental benefit [17].
Energy efficiency improvements are equally impressive, with dynamic toe angle adjustment reducing
rolling resistance by 3-7% depending on speed and road surface conditions [18]. This translates directly to fuel
economy and electric vehicle range. Test results from electric vehicles show that optimized toe angles can
increase driving range by 4-6% without modifications to other vehicle parameters [6]. For conventional inter-
nal combustion engines, the fuel savings amount to 2-4% on highways and 1-2% in urban driving cycles. These
improvements, while seemingly modest in percentage terms, accumulate to substantial savings over a vehicle's
operational lifetime.
Perhaps the most critical impact of dynamic toe angle adjustment relates to vehicle stability and han-
dling. Comprehensive dynamic studies reveal that adaptive systems significantly enhance stability during high-
speed maneuvers [19]. During standardized tests such as the "moose test" at speeds of 70-80 km/h, vehicles
equipped with adaptive systems demonstrated 12-15% better stability compared to those with static settings.
The ability to optimize toe angles in cornering situations reduces both understeer and oversteer tendencies,
providing more predictable handling characteristics and improved driver confidence [20].
The technological landscape of toe angle adjustment systems continues to evolve rapidly. Analysis of
patent documentation reveals several promising development directions [8, 9]. Integration with autonomous
driving systems represents a particularly significant trend, where adaptive suspension geometry becomes inte-
gral to ensuring safety and comfort in self-driving vehicles [21]. Machine learning technologies are increas-
ingly applied to optimize adjustment algorithms based on individual vehicle characteristics and driver behavior
patterns, creating personalized dynamic profiles that enhance both performance and comfort [22].
Systems with extended adjustment ranges are also emerging, capable not only of optimizing routine
driving dynamics but also of enhancing traction and control in challenging road conditions [23]. This versatility
extends the practical utility of such systems beyond performance optimization to include safety enhancement
in adverse conditions.
Energy efficiency in the adjustment mechanisms themselves has become a focus area, particularly for
electric vehicles where parasitic energy losses directly impact range [24]. The development of low-power ac-
tuators and smart power management systems ensures that the energy invested in toe angle adjustment delivers
a net positive return in overall vehicle efficiency.
Comparative analysis of different types of mechatronic toe angle adjustment systems reveals a clear
progression in performance capabilities [5]. While basic electromechanical systems offer tire wear reductions
of 12-18% and fuel savings of 1.5-2.5%, the most advanced integrated systems with active suspension can
achieve tire wear reductions of 22-30% and energy savings of 3.5-5.0%. The performance difference extends
to handling improvements and system response times, with integrated systems offering handling enhancements
of 15-20% and response times as low as 80-150 milliseconds, compared to 8-10% improvements and 300-500
millisecond response times for basic systems.
These performance differentials highlight the value proposition of more sophisticated systems, particu-
larly for premium vehicles where the additional cost can be justified by tangible improvements in performance,
comfort, and long-term operational economy. For electric vehicles, where range anxiety remains a consumer
concern, the energy efficiency benefits of advanced toe angle management systems offer a compelling tech-
nological advantage.
Based on the analysis conducted, mechatronic toe angle adjustment systems for steered wheels are an
effective means of improving the performance indicators of M1 category vehicles, providing tire wear reduc-
tion by 12-30%, fuel/energy savings by 1.5-5.0%, and handling improvement by 8-20% depending on the
system type and operating conditions. The most effective are integrated systems that combine dynamic toe
angle adjustment with active suspension and electronic stabilization systems, providing a synergistic effect for
all performance indicators.
Promising directions for development are the creation of adaptive systems with machine learning ele-
ments that optimize adjustment parameters depending on individual vehicle characteristics and driving style.
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Implementation of such systems is particularly relevant for electric vehicles, where energy efficiency optimi-
zation is critically important for increasing range. Further research should be directed towards developing
comprehensive models of tire-road interaction during dynamic toe angle changes and creating optimization
algorithms for various operating conditions.
The results obtained indicate the high efficiency of mechatronic toe angle adjustment systems and the
promise of their further improvement to enhance the performance indicators of M1 category vehicles.
References
1. Gillespie T. D. Fundamentals of Vehicle Dynamics. Society of Automotive Engineers, Inc.,
Warrendale, PA, 2021. 495 p.
2. Jazar R. N. Vehicle Dynamics: Theory and Application. 3rd edition. Springer, 2019. 1022 p.
3. Wong J. Y. Theory of Ground Vehicles. 4th edition. John Wiley & Sons, 2008. 592 p.
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Report TR-ACS-2023-01, 2023. 87 p.
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8. Patent US10843565B2. Adaptive wheel alignment system with predictive control. ZF Friedrichshafen
AG, 2020.
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2022. 10. Klets D. M. Controlled suspensions and their influence on vehicle performance properties.
Automobile Transport. 2021. № 2. pp. 37-45.
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Mechanical Engineering. 2020. № 3. pp. 78-89.
12. Sakhno V. P., Bilichenko V. V., Polyakov V. M., Omelnytskyi O. E. Vehicles with adaptive
suspension systems. Monograph. Vinnytsia: VNTU, 2019. 184 p.
13. Heissing B., Ersoy M. Chassis Handbook: Fundamentals, Driving Dynamics, Components,
Mechatronics, Perspectives. Springer, 2011. 591 p.
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adaptive control of vehicle driving modes. Kharkiv: KhNADU, 2022. 246 p.
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Butterworth-Heinemann, 2001. 444 p.
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Technical Report MTRC-22-018, 2022. 52 p.
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Warrendale, PA, 1995. 890 p.
22. Rajamani R. Vehicle Dynamics and Control. 2nd edition. Springer, 2012. 498 p.
23. Troyanovska I. P., Bazhynov O. V. Application of machine learning methods for optimizing
dynamic parameters of a vehicle. Automobile and Electronics. Modern Technologies. 2023. № 23. pp. 54-63.
24. Litvinov A. S., Farobin Y. E. Automobile: Theory of Performance Properties. Mechanical
Engineering, 1989. 240 p.
25. Kovalev S. M., Dubinin E. O. Design features of electric vehicles and their performance properties.
Problems and Prospects of Automotive Transport Development. 2021. № 2. pp. 25-36.
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CONCEPT OF VISIBILITY ANALYSIS, COMPUTER METHODS AND CONTROL METHOD
Ganiyeva Sachli Abdulkhag1
Jabiyeva Telli Elshad2
Azerbaijan Architecture and Construction University, Department of Geomatics
Baku city, A. Sultanova 11
Orcid ID: 0000-0001-7495-27581
Orcid ID: 0009-0006-5423-10922
Abstract
Visibility analysis can be done along a line between two determined points and cover a certain area from
a certain point of view. To determine the visibility of the target cell, each cell extending to the line connecting
the observer and the target must be examined by the line of sight. The result of the visibility analysis consists
of a raster map. Because raster maps are connected to a cellular expression structure, what is visible is ex-
pressed by the value received by the cell. At this point, each cell consists of two values, if it is visible from the
point of view, the value (1) is given, if it is not visible, the value (0) is given.
Keywords: visibility analyses, ArcGIS, DEM, line of sight analysis, viewshed method
Visibility analyses can be performed along a line between two specified points and also from a specific
viewing point to cover a specific area. According to the determinations and observations of some people, the
location of the watchtower, width and length, are determined on the visible surface by taking into account the
areas that the eye can see using the numerical length model. The height, width and diameter of the watchtower
are expressed in metric terms, and the region requested to be questioned is expressed in angular units. North
is expressed as 90°, east as 0°, south as 270°, and west as 180°. The beginning and end of regional angles are
presented in the desired values. The values of the locations are given between different locations and the region
between these two areas is requested to be investigated (Figure 1.). The result of the Visibility Analysis consists
of a raster map, each cell can consist of two values, if it is visible from the viewing point, 1 value (Green) is
given, if it is not visible, 0 value (Red) is given (Figure 1.) [6].
Figure 1. How visibility analysis works.
Visibility analysis is designed for visual line scanning to environmental obstacle points surrounding a
specific observation point or viewshed visibility analysis (especially the analysis of 3D urban mass or land-
scape form where urban built environment and land landscape are integrated and modeled in TIN or raster
data) [7].
Visibility analysis determines the parts of the landscape that can be seen. Therefore, visibility studies
play a central role in most urban analyses.
Visibility analyses in ArcGIS application are frequently used to identify valuable visual resources and
potential threats to visual resources. In the preparation of spatial planning guidelines, information visibility is
used to improve positive visual features or reduce the negative effects of landscape features [8]. Visibility
analysis is widely used in landscape planning. This analysis is not only in landscape planning but also relates
to the aspects of view and perception [2]. Although this analysis is more widely applied in academic research,
it has not been widely applied in spatial planning practice. Visibility analysis has been developed as one of the
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features of some spatial analysis programs, one of which belongs to ArcGIS. This analysis allows us to deter-
mine the areas that can be seen from a certain point at a certain distance. In order to obtain the necessary
information, a digital elevation model (DEM) of the contour map from the sample area is required. Then, by
checking the observation point height position, observation radius and a wide observation angle in the analysis,
the visible and invisible data area is obtained [4].
Visibility Analysis Computer Methods
GIS environment offers computer visibility analysis in several methods. In this study, ArcGIS function-
ality and terms are used.
1. Line of Sight Analysis Method
Line of Sight analysis determines whether two points in space are visible to each other [3]. It shows
which areas of the surface are visible during the viewing period between the viewer and the viewed point. It
can be used as a tool in marking the viewing ranges and obstacles towards a specific route, open area and
greenery, coastline or historical artifact (Figure 2 a). Observer and target points are determined and the height
of the observer is also determined. Some applications combine this method with the terrain profile, providing
not only the line display but also the color differentiation of the curve representing this profile (Figure 2. b).
Figure 2. Viewshed analysis shows the line of sight
2. Viewshed Method
The viewshed analysis shows all the visible areas from the point of view. It displays all visible and
invisible areas. It is useful in matters such as correcting the areas between buildings from any visual point of
view or placing and arranging landmarks. As a result of the results stated in Figure 3, the visible areas are
marked with green and the invisible areas are marked with red [1].
Figure 3. shows the visible area analysis
In the visible area analysis, it is created over a DEM using an algorithm that estimates the height differ-
ence in the observer's cell and the target cell. In order to determine the visibility of the target cell, each cell
extending to the line connecting the observer and the target must be examined by the Viewing Line. If there is
a cell with a higher value between the observer and the target cell, it is blocked. In such a case, the target cell
is marked as "Not Visible".
3.Visibility Analysis Method
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Visibility analysis is the method offered by ArcGIS. In other applications, this tool can be called multi-
view. The visibility analysis function answers two basic questions: "Which places can be seen from a given
observation location?" and "How many observation locations can a given object / place be seen?" We can
illustrate this functionality with an example: Several important buildings are analyzed (e.g. mosques) and the
places where the maximum number of these buildings in the specified area can be seen at the same time are
examined. The visibility command also provides a visibility analysis using a line theme [5].
If the visibility analysis method assumes that there are two viewpoints, four possible results are obtained
when points A and B are defined. Figure 4.
1. Visible from A and B
2. Visible only from A
3. Invisible from A and B
4 Visible only from B
Figure 4. Assuming that there are two viewpoints, 4 possible results are obtained by defining points A
and B.
Visibility Analysis Control Method
There are a total of nine elements to control the visibility analysis of any region: SPOT, OFFSETA,
OFFSETB, AZIMUTH1, AZIMUTH2, VERT1, VERT2, RADIUS1 and RADIUS2. (Figure 5.)
As seen below, it is graphically shown how to control a visibility analysis. The observation point is to
the left of the mountain. The direction of the view is in the cone looking to the right. You can control how
much the observation point will be offset (for example, the height of the tower), the direction of looking, and
how high and low you will look at the horizon.
Figure 5. Visibility analysis control elements
Visibility Analysis Control Elements
• SPOT
SPOT element is used to define the surface height of the observation point.
• OFFSET
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OFFSET element is the vertical distance to be added to the z value of a place on the surface (in surface
units).
There are two OFFSET elements, OFFSET A Specifies the height to be added to the observer's position
OFFSET B Specifies what to add to each cell to be considered as visibility. Figure 6.
Figure 6. Shows two OFFSET elements of visibility analysis
• AZIMUTH
AZIMUTH Defines the horizontal angle limits for scanning. Scanning proceeds clockwise from the first
AZIMUTH to the second. Values for the angle are given from 0 to 360 degrees, 0 is due north. The AZI-
MUTH1 element defines the starting angle of the scanning range. The AZIMUTH2 element defines the ending
angle of the scanning range. The AZIMUTH2 value must be greater than the AZIMUTH1 value.
• VERTICAL ANGLE
Vertical angle defines the vertical angle limits for scanning. Angles are expressed in terms of between
90 and -90 degrees, with positive values representing angles above the horizontal plane and negative values
representing angles below the horizontal plane. The horizontal plane (0 degrees) is defined by the z value of
the observation point plus the OFFSETA value. Both vertical angles can be negative
The VERT1 element defines the upper horizontal angle limit of the raster. The VERT2 element defines
the lower horizontal angle limit of the raster. The VERT2 value must be less than the VERT1 value (Figure 7)
Figure 7. Shows two VERTICAL ANGLE elements of the visibility analysis
• RADIUS
The Radius element limits the search distance while defining the areas visible from each observation
point. RADIUS1 RADIUS2 element Cells beyond a certain distance can be excluded from the analysis (Figure
8). RADIUS1 defines the starting distance at which visibility is determined. The value for RADIUS2 must be
greater than RADIUS1. (Figure 8)
Figure 8. Shows two RADIUS elements of visibility analysis
The following table (Table 1.) shows the default settings of the options that control visibility analysis.
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Table 1.
Default settings of the options controlling visibility analysis
Field Name
Definition
Default Value
SPOT
Surface elevation for an observation point
Estimated using bilinear interpolation
OFFSETA
Vertical length to be added to the observer position
1
OFFSETB
Vertical length to be added to the evaluated surface
0
AZIMUTH1
Starting angle of scanning range
0
AZİMUTH2
End angle of scanning range
360
VERT1
Upper horizontal angle limit
90
VERT2
Lower horizontal angle limit
-90
RADIUS1
Initial distance for specified visibility
0
RADIUS2
End distance for specified visibility
Infinity
In conclusion. Visibility analysis is an important analysis tool in many fields. For example, it is used in
urban planning, urban design, real estate, construction and military applications. In landscape architecture,
visibility analysis investigates the visual organization of features in the landscape. Visibility is very important
as people relate to and interpret the landscape. People often define a place based on visibility. Therefore,
visibility analysis is an important element in interpreting the landscape to understand past societies. Visibility
analyses can help analyze the spatial distribution of features in the landscape or help answer the question of
why a certain area is in a certain place.
Literature
1. Akdağ, S. G., 2011, Yüksek Binaların Kent Silüetine Etkisinin Değerlendirlimesi İçin Cbs Tabanlı
Bir Yöntem: Zincirlikuyu-maslak Hattıörneği, Fen Bilimleri Enstitüsü.
2. Chamberlain, B. C. ve Meitner, M. J., 2013, A route-based visibility analysis for landscape manage-
ment, Landscape and Urban Planning, 111, 13-24.
3. Germino, M. J., Reiners, W. A., Blasko, B. J., McLeod, D. ve Bastian, C. T., 2001, Estimating visual
properties of Rocky Mountain landscapes using GIS, Landscape and urban planning, 53 (1-4), 71-83.
4. Poerwoningsih, D., Leksono, A. S. ve Hasyim, A. W., 2016, Integrating visibility analysis in rural
spatial planning, Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 227, 838-844.
5. Popelka, S. ve Vozenilek, V., 2010, Landscape visibility analysis and their visualisation, ISPRS Arch,
38 (4).
6. Smardon, R. C., Palmer, J. F. ve Felleman, J. P., 1986, Foundations for visual project analysis, Wiley
New York, p.
7. Yang, P. P.-J., Putra, S. Y. ve Li, W., 2007, Viewsphere: a GIS-based 3D visibility analysis for urban
design evaluation, Environment and Planning B: Planning and Design, 34 (6), 971-992.
8. Wu Bishop, H., & Sposito, 2006, Using GIS in landscape visual quality assessment, Applied Gis.
II international scientific conference. Seoul. South Korea. 22-23.05.2025
159
DEVELOPMENT AND ENHANCEMENT OF CONTROL SYSTEMS FOR INDUSTRIAL
AUTONOMOUS ROBOTIC PLATFORMS
N.N. Fazylov
master’s degree, Almaty technological university, Almaty, Kazakhstan
D.M. Yeskendirova
PhD of Engineering and Technology
Almaty Technological University, Almaty, Kazakhstan
Abstract
The article discusses modern approaches to the development and optimization of autonomous robotic
systems (APC) control systems in an industrial environment. Special attention is paid to the integration of
Internet of Things (IoT) technologies, machine learning and wireless networks to ensure high autonomy, effi-
ciency and safety of robots. The analysis of existing methods of route planning, predictive management and
adaptive algorithms based on artificial intelligence is carried out. Experimental studies confirm the improve-
ment of APC performance and reliability when implementing the proposed solutions. The prospects for further
development are discussed, taking into account modern communication technologies and security require-
ments.
Keywords: autonomous robotic systems, industry, management, optimization, Internet of Things, ma-
chine learning, wireless networks, predictive control, 5G, security.
Introduction
Modern industrial enterprises are constantly looking for ways to improve the efficiency and quality of
production. Autonomous robotic systems (APC) are becoming a key tool for achieving these goals, allowing
complex and repetitive processes to be automated without constant human involvement. The introduction of
APC reduces the influence of the human factor, improves the accuracy of operations and ensures the stability
of the production process. APC is characterized by the ability to make decisions independently, adapt to
changes in the environment, and interact with other systems. To implement such functions, complex control
systems are needed that take into account dynamic production conditions, security requirements, and the
capabilities of modern computing technologies.
Literature review
Scientific research in recent years has shown the active development of autonomous robotic systems,
especially in the context of their integration with Internet of Things (IoT) technologies and next-generation
networks such as 5G. The work of Brown J. and Smith L. (2022) demonstrates the advantages of using cloud
platforms for real-time data processing and control of distributed robots. Zhao Y.'s research and Liu X. (2023)
are focusing on methods to optimize the work of multitasking robots using machine learning algorithms that
allow systems to learn independently and improve their efficiency. Security is also an important aspect, which
is discussed in detail in the works of Kozlov V.V. (2024), which describes protocols for protecting and resisting
systems against cyber attacks.
Methods
The development of control systems for autonomous robotic systems includes an integrated approach
combining various modern methods. Route planning optimization: A variety of algorithms are used to
minimize time and resources, from classical A* to modern genetic and particle swarm algorithms. They allow
you to choose the most effective ways, taking into account dynamic obstacles and equipment load.
Predictive control: Using models that predict the state of the system, allows you to adjust the actions of
robots in advance, avoiding failures and downtime. This significantly increases the reliability of real-time
operation. Machine learning and artificial intelligence: The introduction of neural networks and reinforcement
learning algorithms contributes to the development of adaptive and self-learning systems capable of taking
into account changes in the production environment and optimizing their own behavior. Integration with IoT
and wireless technologies: Connecting multiple sensors and devices allows you to collect detailed data on the
state of robots and the environment, which is important for timely analysis and control adjustments.
Security: Implementation of cybersecurity and fault tolerance protocols helps protect systems from
unauthorized access and accidental failures.
Experiments
To evaluate the effectiveness of the developed control methods for autonomous robotic systems (APC),
comprehensive experimental studies were conducted in conditions as close as possible to real industrial
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processes. The experimental setup was an integrated platform that included several robotic manipulators with
the ability to navigate autonomously, as well as an Internet of Things (IoT)-based data collection and
processing system.
Objectives of the experiments
The main objectives of the experiments were: Performance testing of algorithms for route optimization
and predictive control in real time. Assessment of the adaptability of the control system under changing
operating conditions. Analysis of the effectiveness of the integration of IoT sensors for monitoring the
condition of robots. Investigation of the system's resistance to failures and external interference. Assessment
of the impact of wireless networks (including 5G) on data transmission quality and system response.
Description of the experimental platform
The platform consisted of three main components: Robotic arms: equipped with sensors for position,
force, vibration and temperature, which allowed to obtain complete information about the state of mechanics
and the working environment. IoT monitoring system: a network of sensors and communication devices that
transmit data to a cloud processing center for real-time analysis and decision-making. Management system:
implementing algorithms for machine learning, predictive control and route optimization, interacting with the
IoT network and robots.
The experiments included several scenarios reflecting typical and extreme industrial production
situations.: Standard task execution: robots performed preset routes and operations, while algorithms optimized
movements in order to reduce time and energy consumption.
Results
The data obtained indicate a significant improvement in the parameters of the APC: a reduction in task
execution time by 15-20%, an increase in positioning accuracy by 10%, as well as a reduction in the number
of failures and emergency stops. Integration with iOS and the use of wireless networks ensured high speed and
reliability of data transmission, which allowed for effective monitoring and management in real time. The
economic effect was manifested in a reduction in operating costs and an increase in equipment productivity.
Conclusion
The development and optimization of control systems for autonomous robotic systems is a key area of
increasing the efficiency of industrial production. Modern IoT, machine learning, and wireless communication
technologies create a solid foundation for the development of highly autonomous, adaptive, and reliable
systems capable of meeting the growing demands of modern manufacturing.
References
1. Ivanov I.I., Petrov P.P. Robot control systems, Moscow: Mashinostroenie Publ., 2023, 276 p.
2. Smirnov A.A. Wireless technologies in industry. — St. Petersburg: Peter, 2022. — 310 p.
3. Kozlov V.V. The Internet of Things in industrial automation. Moscow: Technosphere, 2024. 224 p.
4. Brown J., Smith L. Automatic systems in industry. — Springer, 2022. — 198 p.
5. Zhao Yu, Liu H. Optimization of multi-agent robotic systems. — IEEE Transactions on
Automation Science, 2023.
