Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch PDF Free Download

Name: Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch PDF
Author: Danielle M. Phillips

1 / 12

3 views•12 pages

Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch PDF Free Download

Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch PDF free Download. Think more deeply and widely.

Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch

Stand: September 2025

Urmas Nõmmik

The Hebrew Book of Job has a history of at least two hundred years of literary emergence in

the 4th–2nd century BCE.

Besides a linear idea of development, the central premise of my

approach is that of parallel literary processes during the emergence of the so-called Job

literature, the nearly simultaneous development of several writings on Job, a legendary figure

popular among literary circles in Jerusalem and its surroundings. The literary history of Job

has not only numerous layers but also represents three types of literary activities: independent

sources, which were used to compile the book; redactions, which wanted to shift the focus of

the book; and a huge number of smaller and larger Fortschreibungen, together with glosses,

which are mainly unsystematic. They are summarised in the following table (in approximate

relative chronological order):

Sources

Redactions

Fortschreibungen

Poem/Dialogue*

Prose story*

Book editor = majesty/fear-of-God redactions >

Prose story* + Poem/Dialogue* + additions in 9*

and 12* + criticism towards friends

Single, smaller

texts*

Righteousness redactions (starting in 27*)

Early Fortschreibungen

Poem of a noble

ruler* >

> Reworking of Job’s final monologue 23–31*

Elihu’s

teaching* >

> Elihu’s speeches 32–33*+36–37*

Single, smaller

texts*

Transience redactions (primarily in 7* and 14*)

Late Fortschreibungen

Lowliness redaction (in 4*, 15 and 25)

Last editor (in 1–2, 40 and 42*)

Greek extra material

Masoretic extra material

Glosses

helpful discussions, I acknowledge Amar Annus, Christoph Berner, Walter Bührer, Claude Cox, Marieke Dhont,

Juliane Eckstein, Sirli Ellermäe, Amir Vasheghanifarahani, Stefan Fischer, Maximilian Häberlein, Jonas

Jakobson, Andreas Johandi, Kristin Klaus, Mait Kõiv, Ingo Kottsieper, Jaan Lahe, Christo J.S. Lombaard,

Reinhard Müller, Ergo Naab, Martti Nissinen, Kadri Novikov, Jürgen van Oorschot, Doris Diana Orr, Juha

Pakkala, Agne Pilvisto, Anu Põldsam, Reettakaisa Sofia Salo, Bernd U. Schipper, Stefan Schreiner, Diana

Tomingas, Rahel Toomik, Anna-Katariina Traks, Markus Witte, and Anna Elise Zernecke. Above all, I want to

thank my teacher, Otto Kaiser (1924–2017), whose overall scholarly contribution made the study of the Book

of Job what it is today.

Cf. Dell 1991, 162; Kaiser 1994, 74; Witte 1994; 2021; Nõmmik 2010; 2013.

1. Sources

Similarly to Daniel and Noah (Ezek. 14:14, 20) or Enoch and Abraham, the legendary figure

of Job was, for some reason, famous in the literary circles of the second temple period,

including a.) the elite open to Hellenistic, Mesopotamian and Egyptian influences, b.) the

movement increasingly focusing on creation theology (and Torah), c.) radical religious-

political groups, which designated themselves as the righteous, the poor and needy, and d.) late

scribes exposed to apocalyptic influences.

1.1. The Poem/Dialogue of Job was significantly shorter than in the received Masoretic text,

including primary layers in chapters 3–31* + 38–39*.

It discussed the ambivalent human

experience – the suffering growing out of Job’s specific experience and the retribution theology

of friends originating in the contemporary wisdom based on life experience, teachings of the

fathers, and general knowledge.

By listing his creation acts, God declares in the final speech

the inconceivability and superiority of divine creation, the limits of educative wisdom.

The

poem draws on the Ancient Near Eastern tradition that casts human existential reflections in

words

and on younger trends in Near Eastern and Egyptian tradition on cosmotheistic

knowledge

, and is, in some respects, an answer to the intensive expansion of information and

knowledge since the 4th century.

Thereby, a considerable and open question is whether two

dialogues on suffering (3* + 38–39*) and retribution (4–31*) represent different literary

layers

, i.e., whether the poem is subject to literary growth prior to the book editor.

1.2. The Prose Story of Job was a didactic story of a man with steadfast morals who did not

abandon his God despite his utmost suffering. The first layer of the story was rather thin; it

contained only the first episode and the turn of Job’s destiny (1:1a + 2–3 + 13–19 + 20a +

21a+bα + 42:9b + 11aα+b + 12b–13).

Before combining the Story with the Poem, it already

started to grow by adding clauses underlining Job’s piety, such as 1:1b, 4–5, 20b, 21bβ, and

42:10b, 11aβ, 12a, 16–17.

To be exact: 3:3, 7–8, 10–15, 17–22, 24–26; 4:2–11 + 5:1–8*, 18–21, 23–27; 6:2–13*, 21–26, 28–30 + 7:19,

20b–c, 21c–d; 8:2–8*, 10–14, 16–22; 9:15–16, 19–20, 27–28, 30–35 + 10:1b–c, 3a–b, 6–15b, 18–21(?); 11:2–

5, 7, 10–18, 19b–20; 12:2–3b + 13:5–8, 13–16, 18–27b + 14:13a–b, 15–17; 15:2–10, 17, 20–24b, 25–28b, 29,

30b–c, 32–35; 16:2–4, 7–9, 12–16, 18–19, 21–22 + 17:1–3, 6–7, 13–15; 18:2–3, 4b–21; 19:2–9, 13–24; 20:2–

9, 12–15, 18–22, 23b–26b*, 27–29; 21:2–15, 17a–b, 18, 27–33b, 34; 22:2–11, 13–16, 19–23, 26–30; 23:2, 4–7,

10, 13, 15, 17 + 27:2–4 + 30:20–23* + 31:35b–37*; 38:2–9, 12–13a, 14b, 16–18, 21–22, 24–25, 28–33, 35 +

39:1–2, 5, 7, 9–10, 19–20, 26–27 (maybe the ending missing, cf. 41:26). Cf. Witte 1994, and 2021; Syring 2004;

Kaiser 2006; van Oorschot 1987, and 2007; Nõmmik 2010, 2013, 2014b, and 2021.

Nõmmik 2010.

Cf. Schipper 2025.

Cf. Nõmmik 2025.

Cf. Schipper 2025.

Nõmmik 2024, 117.

Thus, Ingo Kottsieper in a paper given 2023 in Tartu.

According to Syring 2004, the original story included 1:1a, 2–3, 13–19, 20a, 21a; 42:11aα, b, 12b–13. The

second episode and both heavenly episodes as well as bridging texts have been added later.

See Syring 2004 and cf. Bührer 2022.

1.3. The poem about the innocent suffering of a noble ruler was a short alternative poetic

version of the case of Job, particularly representing the viewpoint of the pious elite. Fragments

of the original poem can be found in 29–30*.

1.4. Elihu’s teaching was a separate composition

, which claimed that suffering had a

pedagogical purpose (32:18–22 + 33:1–3, 5–14, 16–18) and substantiated the idea of the

mightiest teacher (God) by describing his universal creation acts (36:22–28, 31–33 + 37:6–

14)

, thus providing another, younger branch of cosmotheistic knowledge. The composition

likely emerged not far from the circles handing down the Book of Job. Already before its

inclusion in the Book of Job, the speech was complemented by further additions

, e.g., in areas

34:16–19b, 21–24 (the elite will not be saved) or 36:5–6, 7b–12, 15 (the suffering poor will be

saved at the end).

1.5. Single, smaller texts are poems or their fragments adopted by editors of Job during the

whole process of literary growth. Hence, they can appear among early and late

Fortschreibungen. Their number and volume are topics open for discussion, but some kind of

prototypes, such as 26:5–13*

and 28*

can be suspected.

2. Redactions

2.1. Book editor (= the majesty/fear-of-God redactions) initiated the redaction history of Job.

Firstly, two significant extensions underlining God’s majesty and might in 9:2–14 and 12:7–

8, 10–25 + 13:1–2 were designed to frame Job’s initial critical question, why God is willing to

destroy his own creation, i.e., Job (10:1b–c, 3a–b, 6–15, 18–21), and start to include the ideas

of the divine speech into Job’s speeches

. The claims of the might of God by moving

mountains and stars and ruling over all mighty people and nations try to soften Job’s brusque

words towards God and controversial talk about justice. The additions presuppose the Priestly

creation account.

Nõmmik 2014a; without absolute certainty, the following verses can be suspected of originating in the

alternative poem: 29:2–11, 21–25b; 30:1a–b, 9–19*, 24–31. By reworking Job’s final speech (23* + 27*) in the

Poem/Dialogue, the original poem 29–30* was complemented and reworked into the new final monologue.

According to Lauber 2013, a composition of a number of autonomous poems; cf. Witte 2021.

Cf. Pilger 2010: 130–134: 32:1, 6–10, 18–22; 33:1–14, 15aα, b, 16–25, 29–33; 36:22–23, 27–33; 37:6–14;

according to Lauber 2013, at least 32:6–22; 34:1, 29–33; 35:1, 14–15; 36:1, 6(?), 22–23; 36:24–37:13*; 37:23

are added later.

Cf. Witte 2021, 493–494, who counts only a few glosses in Elihu’s speeches.

The exact volume of the additions remains a difficult question.

Cf. Salo 2023, who for 26:5–14, claims a Fortschreibung in several steps (+ v. 12–13, 14b + 5–6, 11 + 7–10 +

14a).

The basic layer is in 28:1–3b, 4a–b, 5–14, 20–23, 25–27.

Van Oorschot 2007; Nõmmik 2013, 2014b. With “fear-of-God redactions”, van Oorschot revises Witte’s thesis

of the “majesty redactions” (1994; cf. Kaiser 2006).

Cf., e.g., 9:9–10 < 38:31–32.

Secondly, the editor is responsible for creating the Book of Job in the sense we know it

today, with a dialogue part in the middle and the narrative part framing it, with parallels in the

Ancient Near East, e.g., Ahiqar composition. The editor introduced friends in 2:11–13 and

extrapolated speeches with prose introductions formally in 3:1–2; 4:1; 6:1; 8:1; 9:1; 11:1; 12:1;

15:1; 16:1; 18:1; 19:1; 20:1; 21:1; 22:1; 23:1; 38:1.

Job’s critical attitude towards friends

might have been deepened by the same editor

; extrapolations, such as 6:15–20; 13:9–12;

16:4c–6; 16:9c–11

; 27:5–6 and 27:11–12 always respond to Eliphaz’ speeches (and together

with 9:2–14 additionally to Bildad and Zophar in the first round).

Job becomes the one who

“fathoms” the inscrutability of divine creation and, hence, wiser (= more pious) than his friends.

2.2. The righteousness redactions start a series of extrapolations and Fortschreibungen

focusing on the divine order, which is superior to Job and his friends and guarantees both the

downfall of the wicked and the deliverance of the righteous and the poor.

Some additions

repeat the theoretical thesis, and some – probably younger – extensions fiercely concentrate on

the downfall of the elite. The redaction layer is connected to other similar redactions in the

Hebrew Bible (particularly in the Psalms) and flows into an unsystematical series of

Fortschreibungen.

The process might have started with 27:13–23 in the final speech of Job

before it was drastically reworked, but may also include the crucial framing of the divine speech

38–39*, which until then, existed in its original form and was now framed with additions in

38:13b–14a, 15, and 40:10–14.

2.3. Reworking of Job’s final monologue (23–31*) reacts to the critical social and political

sentiment of the righteousness redactions (see 2.2 above)

and revises the original final speech

of Job, fragments of which can be found in 23*; 27:2–4; 30:20–23* and 31:35b–37*.

The

basic text for editors has been the initially independent Poem about the innocent suffering of a

noble ruler (fragments in 29–30*; see 1.3 above), now reworked by reusing 30:20–23* and

31:35b–37* and complementing with a series of four self-curses in 31:5–6, 7a–b+8, 9–10,

16+22

. The process includes the organisation of the last, now very long speech of Job into

Cf. Syring 2004; Kaiser 2006.

According to Syring, binding together the Story and the Poem has been a rather significant editorial process.

If the passage is not a product of the righteousness redactor.

Cf. Nõmmik 2013; 2021.

Witte 1994; 2021; Kaiser 2006; van Oorschot 2007; Nõmmik 2010; 2013; 2014b.

The additions partly reflect a fierce opposition of the righteous to the wicked but, on the other hand, do not offer

any solution of eternal life (cf. The Epistle of Enoch in Enoch 91–105), which allows to date many of the

additions to the second half of the 3rd century and indeed before 170 (the Epistle is dated before 170 by Collins

1998, 66; Nickelsburg 2005, 114; VanderKam 2022, 123). According to Schunck (1994: 502), the high priest

Onias II (according to him, ca 260 – ca 220) was confronted with the polarization of the society and stood on

the side of the poor/pious, which also would date the problem of the poor to the second half of the 3rd century.

Job 40:1–9 has been added much later, see 2.7 below; the same is true for Behemoth and Leviathan, and further

Fortschreibungen, see 3.1 and 3.2 below. Additions in 38 have been discussed by Nõmmik 2024, 118.

If reminiscences to the Torah piety (in the context of the elite) are true, the final speech or its Fortschreibungen

(see 3.2.5 below) might be close to Ben Sira at the beginning of the 2nd century BC; Opel (2010: 275–325)

suggests parallels to Ben Sira but sees the final speech as part of the original poem. Remember that Ben Sira

mentions Job.

Those fragments are maintained by Witte 1994; 2021; Kaiser 2006; Nõmmik 2013; 2014a.

Four because strictly speaking, only v. 6, 8, 10 and 22 qualify; the rest of the literary process cannot be

reconstructed properly anymore, including the fifth, slightly different curse in v. 38–40. Nõmmik 2024, 117–

three (23–24*, 27* and 29–31*) by adding two new introductions ( ויסף אי וב שֺ את משׁל ו ו יאמר

‘and Job continued his teaching, and said’ in 27:1; 29:1), which mark the advanced idea of Job

as a teacher with authority, cf. keyword משׁ ל ‘teaching’. And lastly, the final remark in 31:40c

likely originates from this editor.

2.4. Including Elihu’s speech in the Book of Job also means its reworking. However, the

volume of editing is open for discussion, and it is difficult to strictly separate the process from

the wave of advanced righteousness redactions (cf. 2.2. above). But as for now, Elihu’s

speech was already grown in the meanwhile (perhaps 32:18–22 + 33:1–3, 5–14, 16–18; 34:16–

19b, 21–24; 36:5–6, 7b–12, 15, 22–28, 31–33 + 37:6–14; see 1.4 above) and needed at least an

introduction and legitimation in the book: 32:1, 4, 6–7, 9–10 (Elihu has waited since he is

younger).

Someone inspired by the righteousness redactions is probably responsible for, firstly, adding

32:11–17 (friends do not manage to oppose Job’s false claim of righteousness) and, secondly,

by the example of three final speeches of Job, increasing the number of Elihu’s speeches by

adding following passages: 33:31–33 + 34:1–6, 10b–15, 29–33*, 36–37* (the second speech

comes into being: God is not guilty, Job adds rebellion to his sins) and 36:1–4 (the beginning

of the fourth speech). Then, the third speech was introduced in 35:1–7, 13–15 (rebellious Job

must wait for his judgment), probably 37:19, 23–24* belonging to the same hand (new ending

of the speeches).

2.5. The transience redactions and a chain of respective Fortschreibungen develop the

Ancient Near Eastern lamenting tradition with an existential touch.

They are partly inspired

by the middle strophes of Job’s opening lament (3:13–15, 17–19) and further develop the idea

of the earthly suffering of the poor and needy by linking together all speeches of Job. Key texts

seem to be 7:11–18; 14:1–2+5–10* and 21:23–26

, perhaps borrowed from somewhere else.

In contrast to all older sections of Job, the transience additions apply for the first time the

keyword אנ ושׁ (7:17).

2.6. The lowliness redaction belongs together with the last editor to the two decisive

redactions in the Book of Job.

The extrapolations draw on the transience idea (cf., once again,

the keyword אנ ושׁ ) and underline the fundamental incomparability of human beings with God

and their inability to be righteous – a nightly revelation legitimises the perception.

The key

118, must be slightly emended.

Nõmmik 2014b; 2021; 2025a; 2025b. Connections to the transience ideas in the Book of Qohelet from the 3rd

century BCE are obvious (cf. Kottsieper); the topic of transience belongs originally to the royal tradition (cf.

among others, The Standard Babylonian Epic of Gilgamesh), but social and political controversies in the second

temple Israel gradually shift the focus from transience to the aimless suffering of lower social strata.

Cf. borrowing from the original Poem 7:11c < 10:1b–c and 21:26 < 7:21c; cf. further from righteousness

redactions 21:24 < 20:11a and 21:26a < 20:11b.

Witte 1994; 2021; Kaiser 2006; van Oorschot 2007; Nõmmik 2010; 2013; 2014b; 2025b. The redaction is dated

by Witte and Kaiser to the beginning and by van Oorschot (cf. Syring 2004) to the end phase of the literary

history of Job.

The dating depends on the only example of creational sinfulness in a vision context known beside Job, in Enoch

81:5 (Witte 1994, 198, but cf. the broader context in vv. 5b–9); the Astronomical Book of Enoch (72–82) is

dated to an earlier time than 200 BCE (VanderKam 2022, 90), however, Nickelsburg (2005, 114) underlines

text appears in the strategic position close to the beginning of the dialogue, in the middle of the

first speech of Eliphaz (4:12–20b, 21), followed by the next in the middle of his second speech

(15:11–16). The third is designed as the whole third speech of Bildad (25) inserted between the

first two of the three “final” speeches of Job (23–24*, 26–27*, 29–31*) by additionally

complementing the beginning of 26* with a new introduction 26:1.

2.7. The last editor of the book is the author of at least five texts, the two heavenly scenes in

the Prose story 1:6–12 and 1:22–2:10 (including the dialogue between Job and his wife), the

dialogue between Yahweh and Job in 40:1–5, the second short answer to God in 42:1, 4–5, and

the conclusion of the confrontation with three friends 42:7–9a+10a.

The editor divides the

one long divine speech into two speeches (by adding also 40:6–8

) with two short reactions

by Job, similarly to the two heavenly scenes, two rounds of suffering, and two short reactions

by Job in the prologue. The editor is related to the apocalyptic milieu because of the heavenly

court and the elevated position of Job, being the only human who directly communicates with

God. The additions purify Job (and God) from all possible faults and rationalise his case since

Satan’s bet explains Job’s over-dimensioned suffering. By letting Job declare that he has seen

and heard everything (42:4–5), the editor also tries to reinterpret the divine speeches as Job’s

heavenly travels, as a counterpart to the two heavenly scenes in 1–2. The edited book, thus,

understands the divine speeches being part of the frame story, not the dialogue.

It is likely also the last editor who ascribes a far more ambitious role to Elihu.

He is not

assessed negatively; vice versa, his speeches become an organic part of the book’s solution

since through the reworking of his introduction (by adding v. 2–3, 5 to 32:1–6*), Elihu now

participates in the divine wrath (cf. חרה אף also in 42:7) and opens towards apocalyptic

elements. The poem about the angel saving from the pit 33:23–30 is very close to the last editor,

if not belonging to him (see 3.2.7b below).

3. Fortschreibungen

The Book of Job has many smaller and larger additions, which cannot be attributed to any

redaction layer with any certainty, or which emerged – often unsystematically – during the long

that 81:1–82:3 are redactional but close to earlier material in The Book of Watchers (Enoch 1–36) and the Epistle

of Enoch (see footnote 26, above).

Note that 26:2–14 has already been added (cf. 3.1.1 below). Job’s two short answers to God in 40:3–5 and 42:1–

6 have also been attributed to the lowliness redaction by Witte 1994; 2021; Kaiser 2006; Syring 1994, and van

Oorschot 2007. However, the situation is more complex (Bührer 2022), and better to solve together with the last

editor of the book, i.e. additions in the Prose story (see 2.7 below).

Nõmmik 2025b and Nõmmik (forthcoming) as well as in a paper presented 2025 at the IOSOT conference in

Berlin. Three of the mentioned texts are the only texts in Job where the construction NN את ־ N ויען occurs (1:7,

9; 2:2, 4; 38:1; 40:1, 3, 6) followed by a short, direct speech. The form of 40:1–6 fits the dialogue form in the

heavenly scenes perfectly. The introduction 42:1 might have suffered through an attempt to extrapolate it later

(quotes from 38:2–3 and different shapes in versions, cf. 3.2.7d below). Additionally, the introduction of the

first divine speech (38:1) was probably reworked.

Cf. 40:7b < 38:3b.

Cf. Grunert 2024, 318–361, who sees Elihu in a positive light, but does not argue with any redactions.

Nõmmik 2025b.

literary and transmission process. The most accurate notion for the whole process is

Fortschreibungen, which does not exclude that some of the additions still belong to a particular

redaction layer. It is extremely difficult to distinguish early Fortschreibungen from late ones.

However, I will make a few suggestions. A little more confidently, it can be argued that the

literary development of the Hebrew proto-Masoretic tradition took a slightly different path

compared to the Old Greek translation (OGJob).

3.1. Early Fortschreibungen have the most potential to belong to some redaction layer (see

2.1–2.6 above), but they do not belong to the core of those redactions. In its stead, they seem

to be slightly younger texts provoked by the main editors mentioned above.

3.1.1. Creation Hymn 26:1–14 praises the universal might of God, who helps the weak

human. The text might be related to the book editor (see 2.1 above), and its symmetric position

as a counterpart to 9:2–14 and 12:7–25* seems to confirm it. However, it is also possible that

the text reacts to 23–24* (weak people)

and that older fragments in verses 5–13 have been

reworked into this new hymn (cf. 1.5 above). The current form is close to the cosmotheistic

approach, like in the Poem/Dialogue* or Elihu’s teaching.

3.1.2. Wisdom Hymn 28:1–3b + 4a–b + 5–14 + 20–23 + 25–27 (see 1.5 above) describes

the relationship between God and wisdom and is related to late wisdom texts in Proverbs, which

are influenced by Hellenistic thought. Similar to 26, the Wisdom Hymn might have some

connection to the book editor (consider also a similar position in the book), but the specific

topic of wisdom is different, and its inclusion after the righteousness redaction in 27:13–23,

formally connected through the keyword כסף ‘silver’, is likely (27:16–17 > 28:1).

3.2. Late Fortschreibungen can be grouped according to their tendency and relation to the

redaction layers described above. However, it is impossible to determine the relative

chronology of these additions.

3.2.1. Fortschreibungen relying on the book editor (cf. 2.1 above) can be found in 5:9–

; 22:12, 24–25 and 23:3, 8–9. The whole first speech of God has been edited by adding a

series of remarks on wild nature: 38:10–11, 19–20

, 23, 26–27, 34

, 36–41

; 39:3–4, 6, 8,

11–12, 28–30 (some of them are perhaps later glosses).

3.2.2. The strophes on thunder and clouds 37:1–5 and 37:15–18 demonstrate the skill of

learned poets who, besides divine speeches, wanted to extrapolate the weather depictions in

the last speech of Elihu.

Job 26 seems not to react to the lowliness text in 25 since it relates to the issues of righteousness and transience.

Hence, 26:1 is a younger addition of the lowliness redactor.

See footnote 17 above.

In contrast to the beginning of Job 27:1 and 29:1, Job 28 misses an extra prose introduction, hence, a

Fortschreibung of Job 27 is logical.

Cf. 5:9–10 < 9:10.

Cf. 38:19–20 < 28:12, 20, 24.

Cf. 38:34 < 22:11b.

Cf. 38:39 < 4:10.

Cf. Pilger 2010, who ascribes 37:1–5, 15–19, 23–24 to the Elihu’s third editor; differently Mende 1990, who

sees 37:14–22* as part of the basic layer, and v. 1–13* as part of the third editor.

3.2.3. Fortschreibungen reflecting the idea of (social) justice (cf. 2.2. above) is the most

complicated set of additions. They include 5:11–17; 9:23–24(?); 10:3c; 11:8–9(?); 17:8–10;

20:10–11

; 21:19–22; 22:17–18; 24:1–11*, 21–25* (likely in several steps); 27:7–10;

29:12+13b–20; 34:7–10a; 34:25a+26*+28*; 34:34–35; 35:16.

3.2.5. The reworking of Job’s final monologue in 29–31* is particularly prominent since

the quality of Job’s piety regarding social justice and cultic purity was deepened intensively.

Here, Torah piousness may be suspected in the backdrop. To this chain of additions belong

30:1c–d + 5–8; 31:17, 19, 21, 24–27, 29–34

, 38–40b.

3.2.6. Fortschreibungen relying on the transience idea include 7:1–3+6–10; 9:21–

22+25–26(?); 10:4–5; 14:18–22

; 19:10–12(?); 34:19c–20 and perhaps in some passages of

chapters 23–24 (see 3.5 below).

3.2.7. Fortschreibungen, being eschatological and/or close to the apocalyptic milieu in

the Hellenistic period (cf. 2.7 above), do not come from one and the same scribal hand;

however, they often have the opposition of darkness and light in common and are relatively

young.

a) The Poem about the enemies of light 24:12–16+18+20(?) is perhaps related to the

righteousness redactions and the idea of social justice, but has a specific poetic profile of tricola

and shifts towards an apocalyptic mindset.

b) The reworking of Job’s opening curse 3:4–6+9 means an extrapolation of four

tricola

, which leaves the impression that they could come from a separate poem.

c) The Poem about the angel saving from the pit 33:23–30 attests to the faith in angels,

comes from the same milieu as heavenly scenes in the Prose story, if not belonging to the last

editor.

d) Late addition about Job’s unique ability to see God in 19:25–27; Job approximates

the heavenly travellers of the apocalyptic literature.

e) Late eschatological glosses in 19:28–29 and 31:11–15, 23, 28, attesting to the idea of

otherworldly judgement.

3.2.8. The Poems on Behemoth 40:15–18+21–24 and Leviathan 40:25–41:8+41:10–25*

convince the reader that the God capable of contesting enormous monsters must also be capable

of destroying wicked people, especially the most powerful rulers. The two poems are younger

than the righteousness text in 40:7–14 and, in a way, commenting on it. Both poems also seem

to be younger than the last editor’s work and connect to the phenomenon of visionary monsters

in the apocalyptic literature. It is not excluded that particular rulers from the Hellenistic period

have been targeted.

Cf. 20:11b < 7:21c.

Cf. 31:31b < 19:22b.

Cf. 14:19c < 8:13b.

Nõmmik (forthcoming).

Loretz 2000; cf. slightly differently Mende 1990, 245–247.

Nõmmik 2025b.

Feldmar 2019; however, she lists 19:28–29 and 31:11–12, 14, 23, 28 among eschatological glosses.

3.2.9. The strophe about the horse 39:21–24a + 25 deserves special mention since it is a

longer, highly pretentious poem on the horse’s might, added to the older verses 19–20, and

represents at least the same poetic profile as previous poems on Behemoth and Leviathan.

3.2.10. Latest Fortschreibungen in Elihu’s speeches include material which cannot be

dated and ascribed precisely, e.g., 33:15+19–22.

3.2.11. The addition of Job’s daughters in 42:14–15 is one of the latest additions to the

frame story. Its origin is unknown.

3.3. Greek extra material means texts that the translator of OGJob or someone at a slightly

later time added to the Greek Book of Job. The two major additions are:

3.3.1. The monologue of Job’s wife 2:9a–d raises the issue of the wife suffering alongside

Job and justifies the wife’s original words in the Hebrew text (2:9e).

3.3.2. The alternative, historicising book ending in 42:16b–17e, perhaps grown in several

steps, seeks to date and locate Job and his friends in accordance with Pentateuchal tradition.

3.4. Masoretic extra material regards several passages missing in OGJob, which were also

likely missing in its Vorlage. Apart from 30:2–4(?) and 31:1–4(?)

, two texts reflect on a

specific topic, such as:

3.4.1. A strophe on precious stones and metals 28:15–19 introduces another perspective

to deepen the extraordinary quality of wisdom.

3.4.2. The poem on the ostrich 39:13–18 reflects on its unfathomable behaviour,

underlining the sovereignty of divine creation. The addition is likely inspired by the addition

on the horse in 39:21–25*.

3.5. Further glosses in the Masoretic text are impossible to date precisely: 3:16; 3:23; 4:20b;

5:(3)4–5; 5:22; 6:4b; 6:10c; 6:14; 6:27 (cf. 3.2.3 above); 7:4–5; 7:20a (Job takes the blame)

;

7:21a–b (see the latter); 8:6b; 8:9 (cf. 3.2.6 above); 8:15; 9:17–18; 9:29 (cf. 7:20a); 10:1a; 10:3;

10:15c–17 (related to 31 together with its extrapolations); 10:22; 11:6 (cf. 3.2.1 above); 11:19a;

12:3c–6* (text corrupt, grown in several steps); 12:9 (the only mention of Yahweh in Poem’s

speeches); 13:3–4 (perhaps in two steps, cf. 2.1 above); 13:17; 13:27c; 13:28 (comments on

the addition in 14:1ff); 14:3

; 14:4; 14:11–12* in two steps (11+12b and 12a+c, cf. 3.2.7

above); 14:13c; 14:14 (cf. 3.2.7 above); 15:18–19; 15:24c; 15:28c; 15:30a; 15:31; 16:17; 16:20;

17:4–5; 17:11–12 (cf. 3.2.3 above); 17:16; 18:4a; 20:16–17; 20:23a; 20:25bβ; 20:26c; 21:16

(cf. 3.2.3 above); 21:17c; 21:33c; 23:11–12; 23:14; 23:16; 24:17; 24:19; 28:3c; 28:4c; 28:24;

28:28; 29:13a; 29:25c; 30:3c; 31:7c; 31:18; 31:20; 31:35a; 32:8; 33:4; 34:25b+26aα; 34:27;

35:8–12 (unintelligible content); 36:7a; 36:13–14; 36:16; 36:17–21 (unintelligible content);

36:29–30; 37:20–22; 39:24b; 40:19–20; 41:9(?); 41:26(?); 42:2–4

(an attempt to start a new

speech, variation in versions).

Nõmmik 2025b; cf. esp. 41:13, 18–21.

Cf. 33:15 < 4:13.

Cf. 31:4 < 14:16.

Cf. 7:20a < 35:6.

Cf. 14:3 < 22:4b.

Cf. 42:3, 4b < 38:2, 3b.

Bibliography

Boskamp Ulloa, Karl Günther (2013). “El libro de Job y el apocalipsis.” DavarLogos 12: 5–

19.

Brown, Ken (2015). The Vision in Job 4 and Its Role in the Book: Reframing the Development

of the Joban Dialogues. FAT 2/75. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Budde, Karl (1913). Das Buch Hiob. 2. rev. ed. HKAT 2/1. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck &

Ruprecht.

Bührer, Walter (2022). “Anmerkungen zum chronologischen Verhältnis von Hiob erzählung

und Hiobdichtung.” ZAW 134: 68–84.

Clines, David J. A. (1989). Job 1–20. WBC 17. Nashville: Nelson.

Clines, David J. A. (2011). Job 38–42. WBC 18B. Nashville: Nelson.

Collins, John J. (1998). The Apocalyptic Imagination: An Introduction to Jewish Apocalyptic

Literature. 2nd ed. The Biblical Resources Series. Grand Rapids, Mich., Cambridge, U.K.:

Eerdmans.

Duhm, Bernhard (1897). Das Buch Hiob. KHC 16. Freiburg im Breisgau: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul

Siebeck).

Feldmar, Sonja (2019). Eschatologische Fortschreibungen im Buch Hiob. FAT 2/111.

Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Fohrer, Georg (1963). Das Buch Hiob. KAT 16. Gütersloh: Gütersloher Verlagshaus.

Grunert, Volker (2024). Hiobs Kosmos. Eine Kontextualisierung im Rahmen spätzeitlicher

Krisen- und Leidensbewältigung. ORA 60. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Hesse, Franz (1978). Hiob. ZBK 14. Zürich: TVZ.

Hölscher, Gustav (1952). Das Buch Hiob. 2nd rev. ed. HAT 17. Tübingen: J. C. B. Mohr (Paul

Siebeck).

Horst, Friedrich (1983). Hiob. 1. Teilband: Hiob 1–19. 4th ed. BKAT 16/1. Neukirchen-Vluyn:

Neukirchener Verlag.

Johnson, Timothy Jay (2009). Now My Eye Sees You: Unveiling an Apocalyptic Job. HBM 24.

Sheffield: Sheffield Phoenix Press.

Kaiser, Otto (2006). Das Buch Hiob. Stuttgart: Radius.

Lauber, Stephan (2013). Weisheit im Widerspruch: Studien zu den Elihu-Reden in Ijob 32–37.

BZAW 454. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Loretz, Oswald (2000). “‘Schwarze Magie’ des Tages in Hi 3,8 und KTU 1.6 VI 45b–53; 1.14

I 19–20; 1.4 VII 54–56. Zur Überlieferung der ‘schwarzen Magie’ in Altsyrien-Palästina.”

UF 32: 261–87.

Mende, Theresia (1990). Durch Leiden zur Vollendung: Die Elihureden im Buch Ijob (Ijob 32–

37). TThSt49. Trier: Paulinus-Verlag.

Nickelsburg, George W. E. (2005). Jewish Literature between the Bible and the Mishnah. 2nd

edition. Minneapolis: Fortress Press.

Nõmmik, Urmas (2010). Die Freundesreden des ursprünglichen Hiobdialogs: Eine form- und

traditionsgeschichtliche Studie. BZAW 410. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Nõmmik, Urmas (2013). Iiobi raamat. Piibel kontekstis 1. Tartu: Tartu Ülikooli Kirjastus.

Nõmmik, Urmas (2014a). “Discussion on a Ruler’s Fundamental Corruptness in the Wisdom

Literature, Job 29–31 as an Example.” Usuteaduslik Ajakiri 2 (67): 11–23

Nõmmik, Urmas (2014b). “Thinking of Water in the Book of Job: A Fluvial Introduction to

the Job Literature,” in Thinking of Water in the Early Second Temple Period. Edited by

Ehud Ben Zvi and Christoph Levin. BZAW 461. Berlin: de Gruyter, 279–98.

Nõmmik, Urmas (2021). “Vanaheebrea afektiivse ja reflekteeriva mureluule stroofistruktuurist

Iiobi kõnede näitel.” Keel ja Kirjandus 1–2: 65–82.

Nõmmik, Urmas (2024). “The Righteous, the Wicked and Creation Theology. Changing

Perspectives in Genesis, Isaiah and Job,” in Contact Zones in the Eastern Mediterranean:

Judeans and their neighbours in intercultural contexts: places, middlemen, transcultural

contacts – sixth to second century BCE. Edited by Łukasz Niesiołowski-Spanò and Kacper

Ziemba. MO 5. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 105−122.

Nõmmik, Urmas (2025a). “Aqhat’s Statement on Mortality and Job’s Laments,” in Biblical

Job in the Literary Network of the Ancient Near East. Edited by Andreas Johandi and Urmas

Nõmmik. Kasion 16. Münster: Zaphon (forthcoming).

Nõmmik, Urmas (2025b). “Hebrew Job through the Lens of Diachronic Poetics,” in Job

Unveiled and Reimagined: Essays on Current Issues, New Paradigms, and Future Horizons

in Memory of David J. A. Clines. Edited by JiSeong James Kwon, Tobias Häner, and Janina

M. Hiebel. FAT xxx. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck, 9−26 [forthcoming].

Nõmmik, Urmas (forthcoming). “Job: From Literary History to an Endless Hermeneutical

Space,” in TBA.

Oorschot, Jürgen van (1987). Gott als Grenze: Eine literar- und redaktionsgeschichtliche

Studie zu den Gottesreden des Hiobbuches. BZAW 170. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Oorschot, Jürgen van (2007). “Die Entstehung des Hiobbuches,” in Das Buch Hiob und seine

Interpretation: Beiträge zum Hiob-Symposium auf dem Monte Verità vom 14.–19. August

2005. Edited by Thomas Krüger, Manfred Oeming, Konrad Schmid, and Christoph

Uehlinger. ATANT 88. Zurich: TVZ, 165–84.

Peters, Norbert (1928). Das Buch Job. EHAT 21. Münster: Verlag der Aschendorffschen

Verlagsbuchhandlung.

Pilger, Tanja (2010). Erziehung im Leiden: Komposition und Theologie der Elihureden in Hiob

32–37. FAT 2/49. Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.

Salo, Reettakaisa Sofia (2023). “Chaos und Schöpfung in Hiob,” ZThK 120: 359–375.

Santoso, Agus, Art S. Thomas, Pujiastuti L. Sindoro, and Bobby K. Putrawan (2025). “The

addition of apocalyptic theology in the dialogue section of the Book of Job.” HTS Teologiese

Studies/Theological Studies: 1–10.

Schipper, Bernd U. (2025). “Job 38, Listenweisheit and Cosmotheistic Knowledge in Egypt

and Israel,” in Biblical Job in the Literary Network of the Ancient Near East. Edited by

Andreas Johandi and Urmas Nõmmik. Kasion 16. Münster: Zaphon (forthcoming).

Schunck, Klaus-Dietrich (1994). “Hoherpriester und Politiker? Die Stellung der Hohenpriester

von Jaddua bis Jonatan zur jüdischen Gemeinde und zum hellenistischen Staat,” VT 44:

498–512.

Syring, Wolf-Dieter (2004). Hiob und sein Anwalt: Die Prosatexte des Hiobbuches und ihre

Rolle in seiner Redaktions- und Rezeptionsgeschichte. BZAW 336. Berlin: de Gruyter.

VanderKam, James C. (2022). An Introduction to Early Judaism. 2nd edition. Grand Rapids,

Mich.: Eerdmans.

Vermeylen, Jacques (2015). Métamorphoses: Les rédactions successives du livre de Job.

BETL 276. Leuven: Peeters.

Wahl, Harald-Martin (1993). Der gerechte Schöpfer: Eine redaktions- und

theologiegeschichtliche Untersuchung der Elihureden – Hiob32–37. BZAW 207. Berlin: de

Gruyter.

Wanke, Roger Marcel (2013). Praesentia Dei: Die Vorstellungen von der Gegenwart Gottes im

Hiobbuch. BZAW 421. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Witte, Markus (1994). Vom Leiden zur Lehre: Der dritte Redegang (Hiob 21–27) und die

Redaktionsgeschichte des Hiobbuches. BZAW 230. Berlin: de Gruyter.

Witte, Markus (2018). “Was die Hiobforschung bewegt – Eine historich-kritische Übersicht

über 300 Jahre literaturgeschichtliche Arbeit am Buch Hiob,” in Markus Witte, Hiobs viele

Gesichter. Studien zur Komposition, Tradition und frühen Rezeption des Hiobbuches.

FRLANT 267. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, 13–35.

Witte, Markus (2021). Das Buch Hiob. ATD 13. Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht.

3 views·12 pages

Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch PDF Free Download

Literary History of the Book of Job: A Sketch PDF free Download. Think more deeply and widely.

Uploaded by Danielle M. Phillips on 4/13/2026

/12

100%