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Table of Contents
RESEARCH ARTICLES
Faith Corbin and Angelenia Semegon
“State and Trait Mindfulness in Undergraduate Yoga Classes”
McKenna Hazel
“Ecopsychology and the Franciscan Approach: The Path to Solving the Ecological Crisis”
Jake Van Clief
“Rise of the Virtual Vanguard: A Treatise on Post-Digital Governance”
LITERATURE AND ART REVIEWS
Emily DuSold
“Covid-19 and Autism Spectrum Disorder: A Literature Review”
Helena Rodriguez
“Corrective Narratives in Exhibits I’m and Cut to the Quick”
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RESEARCH
ARTICLES
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State and Trait Mindfulness in Undergraduate Yoga Classes
Faith Corbin and Angelenia Semegon
ursuing an undergraduate degree can often be challenging and necessitate many
life skills in order to balance all that is required to finish. Alongside personal and
professional growth, the literature shows that many undergraduate students
experience hardships as a side effect of their studies, such as increased stressors and
loneliness, as well as heavy substance use (Arnett et al., 2014). Along with mental health
issues such as anxiety and depression (Grineski et al., 2021), undergraduate students
have been found to be prone to improper sleep habits (Hershner & Chervin, 2014;
Moreton et al., 2022; Pal et al., 2022), excessive smartphone and technology use (Dinis
& Bragança, 2018; Liu et al., 2022; Pal et al., 2022), and unhealthy eating habits
(Jordan et al., 2014; Silliman et al., 2004; Sogari et al., 2018), among others. Moreover,
to explore effective supportive interventions for college students, the current study will
investigate whether a semester-long yoga class will increase various aspects of
mindfulness in a population of undergraduate participants.
Furthermore, in order to look into possible solutions for mental, emotional,
behavioral, and spiritual health issues in individuals, especially undergraduate students,
researchers have been studying the definitions, applications, and effects of mindfulness
(Bortolla et al., 2022; Bravo et al., 2018; Brown et al., 2007; Brown & Ryan, 2003;
Jordan et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2022; Moreton et al., 2022; Nardi et al., 2022; Scavone et
al., 2020). Mindfulness has been defined as the ability to be aware and pay attention to
present moment occurrences, in an open and receptive manner (Brown & Ryan, 2003).
According to Brown and Ryan (2003), mindfulness has three main components:
awareness, attention, and emotional intelligence. Awareness describes the monitoring of
internal and external stimuli as they arrive and pass through each moment. Attention
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describes focused awareness of a particular or limited number of stimuli. Emotional
intelligence describes an individual’s ability to have a transparent understanding of their
inner emotional states, especially with receptiveness (Brown & Ryan, 2003). A mindful
state of consciousness supports individuals to be non-judgemental “witnesses” in their
lives, where they can be fully aware of the passing internal and external phenomena that
occur without judgment, attachment, identification, or rumination (Brown et al., 2007).
This openness and receptivity then causes a more flexible psychological stance in
navigating through life in general. Mindfulness influences individuals to have more
space between stimulus and response, and therefore, more ability to choose a response
that could be more beneficial rather than unhelpful in their lives (Brown et al., 2007).
The benefits of mindfulness are supported by a large body of research,
demonstrating the salutary effects of this state of consciousness in many different life
domains. Mindfulness has been found to have positive effects on physical and mental
health, behavioral regulation, and relationships with the self and others (Bortolla et al.,
2022; Bravo et al., 2018; Brown et al., 2007; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Jordan et al., 2014;
Liu et al., 2022; Moreton et al., 2022; Nardi et al., 2022; Scavone et al., 2020). In
multiple mindfulness-based interventions, increased mindfulness has been found to
significantly decrease negative responses to stressors (Moreton et al., 2022; Nardi et al.,
2022; Scavone et al., 2020) as well as increase resilience (Nardi et al., 2022; Scavone et
al., 2020). Liu et al. (2022) showed that a single mindfulness-based intervention can
lessen the excessive use of smartphones in college students, mediated by self-control
due to the intervention. Jordan et al. (2014) found that mindfulness increases an
individual’s likelihood of making healthy eating choices. Moreton et al. (2022)
demonstrate that mindfulness promotes better sleep hygiene, which can lead to better
coping in the face of distress.
There are generally two types of mindfulness that are described and measured,
state and trait, and both have been found to have different effects (Bravo et al., 2018;
Brown et al. 2007; Brown & Ryan, 2003; Jordan et al., 2014; Scavone et al., 2020). State
mindfulness categorizes an individual’s ability to be present and aware during a specific
activity, such as yoga or meditation (Brown and Ryan, 2003). Trait mindfulness refers
to an individual’s more enduring mindful personality, in that they have more
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dispositional characteristics of receptive awareness and attention in their life moment-
to-moment (Brown and Ryan, 2003). Brown and Ryan (2003) described state
mindfulness as usually associated with more frequent and intense pleasant affect, less
frequent and less intense unpleasant affect, and increased levels of autonomy, while
trait mindfulness is usually associated with lower levels of unpleasant affect in general,
along with higher levels of autonomy in daily life. Additionally, high levels of trait
mindfulness have been found to be a predictor of less uncontrolled eating, a greater
likelihood of choosing fruits over sweets, and less calorie consumption, and those with
high levels of state mindfulness were shown to consume less calories as well (Jordan et
al., 2014). Along with other positive effects, state mindfulness is linked with higher
instances of ethical behavior (Orazi et al., 2021) and fewer instances of cheating
(Götmann et al., 2021).
In addition to mindfulness, yoga has become a more popular topic of study in the
literature, especially regarding its effects on mental health and well-being (Caldarella &
Lulla 2022; Dagar et al., 2022; Pal et al., 2022; Sanjaykumar & Rajkumar, 2022). Yoga
is a spiritual discipline that includes breathing exercises (pranayama), physical
postures (asanas), as well as meditation (dhyana) and has its roots in Indian and Hindu
philosophy (National Center for Complementary and Integrative Health, 2021). The
etymology of the word yoga is derived from the Sanskrit word yuj, or yoke, and the
intention of the practice is to create a full alignment of mind, body, and spirit within the
practitioner (Caldarella & Lulla 2022).
Research has demonstrated the benefits of yoga in many different areas of life,
such as mental health (Caldarella & Lulla, 2022; Dagar et al., 2022), healthy habits (Pal
et al., 2022), interpersonal relationships (Dagar et al, 2022), and academic performance
(Caldarella & Lulla, 2022), among others. Pal et al. (2022) noted that university
students who practiced yoga six days a week were more likely to have uninterrupted
sleep and to use their smartphones without excess compared to a no-yoga control group.
Sanjaykumar and Rajkumar (2022) examined the effects of yoga and aerobic exercise on
primary dysmenorrhea, or menstrual cramps, in college students. It was found that yoga
and breathing exercises significantly mediated the level of menstrual pain in
participants (Sanjay & Rajkumar, 2022). Dagar et al. (2022) investigated how yoga
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affected altruistic behavior and discovered that yoga-based practices both increased
subjective vitality and self-transcendence in their participants, mediated by
psychological capital, effectively encouraging more altruistic behavior among college
students.
Furthermore, yoga can be utilized as a tool to increase mindfulness. In an
investigation of the differences in mindfulness and stress levels in advanced and non-
advanced Hatha yoga practitioners, advanced practitioners were found to have
significantly higher levels of mindfulness, and mindfulness was negatively correlated
with stress levels (Brisbon & Lowery, 2009). Mindfulness practices are centered around
bringing awareness to the present moment, through intentional breathing exercises,
“coming to the senses,” body scans, among other practices. Yoga utilizes both breathing
and physical postures in order to bring the practitioner into a full awareness of the
phenomena occurring within the body and the mind. The intention of the yogic practice
is to gradually withdraw from the senses (pratyahara), to eventually prepare for the
highest state of consciousness (samadhi). The yogic philosophy describes this state as a
complete disidentification from ego-generated emotion and thought and an absolute
absorption in the present moment (Austin, 1998). Furthermore, as the yogic practice
intends to bring more conscious awareness to moment-to-moment phenomena within
the practitioner, this practice can be effective in increasing mindfulness (Brisbon &
Lowery, 2009).
It is relevant to note a study that explores the effects of various movement classes
on levels of mindfulness, among other variables. Caldwell et al. (2010) examined the
effects of three different types of semester-long somatic-movement classes (Pilates,
Taiji, and GYROKINESIS) on mindfulness, self-regulation and efficacy, mood, perceived
stress, and sleep quality. Pilates is a floor-based practice that focuses on strengthening
the core and aligning the body to its correct posture. Taiji is a Chinese martial art
primarily focusing on moving bodily energy in circular motions. GYROKINESIS is a
workout incorporating aspects of yoga, dance, gymnastics, and taiji for a well-rounded
practice (Caldwell et al., 2010). Among the three groups, each participant was measured
in the beginning, middle, and end of the semester on multiple scales regarding mood,
stress, and sleep, and results showed various benefits of mindfulness (Caldwell et al.,
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2010). Analyses demonstrated that increased mindfulness was associated with greater
positive energy, greater relaxation, lower levels of negative arousal, greater self-
regulatory efficacy, reduced perception of stress, and better sleep quality (Caldwell et al.,
2010). This study displays the potential benefits of a semester-long movement class on
college students; however, studies have yet to look at the effects of a semester-long yoga
class on state and trait mindfulness.
The current study aims to consider whether a 15-week yoga class will increase
different forms of mindfulness in undergraduate college students. The study will work
with the participants of three different sections of yoga classes: Asana I, Asana II, and
Yoga for Stress Relief. Asana I focuses on basic yogic postures and mindfulness
principles, breathwork, bodily alignment, various meditations, and an introduction to
Patanjali’s Eight Limbs of Yoga philosophy. Asana II utilizes these techniques as well as
practicing more intermediate postures, learning about mudras (hand postures) and the
chakra system, and studying the yogic philosophy more in depth. Both sections require
students to complete reflective assignments, encouraging them to explore how these
practices and theories applied to their lives. It is important to note that Asana I is not a
prerequisite to Asana II therefore, Asana II students are not necessarily more advanced
than Asana I students, and both classes hold a spectrum of participant competencies. In
addition, the two sections of Yoga for Stress Relief focus primarily on postures, breath
work, and techniques that help alleviate and prevent stress. Most of the physical practice
is floor-based, with fewer standing postures. In this class, students must also complete
reflective assignments promoting self-evaluation and self-awareness. Each class meets
two days a week for a semester of 15 weeks.
Within the current study, the participants of each yoga class will consistently
train in mindfulness principles and techniques, and it is theorized that they will increase
their level of state mindfulness as they deepen their yoga practices. Additionally, it is
postulated that as time increases and state mindfulness develops, mindful qualities will
become more integrated into the participant’s everyday life. As these qualities
strengthen, trait mindfulness will increase. The research questions of this study include:
Will a semester-long yoga class focused on mindfulness practices increase state
mindfulness? Will an increase of state mindfulness increase trait mindfulness in
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individuals during a relatively short amount of time (four months during the semester)?
Will there be a difference in the effect of mindfulness among the various types of yoga
classes used in this study?
Method
Participants
The participants of this study were undergraduate students at a small liberal arts
college in northeast Florida. Each participant was above 18 years of age, enrolled in an
undergraduate program, and was taking a semester-long yoga class offered by the
college: Yoga for Stress Relief, Asana I, or Asana II. There were a total of 146
participants who completed some aspect of the study. However, of the 146 participants,
83 completed at least two surveys measuring state mindfulness, while 48 completed
both trait mindfulness surveys. One participant was removed due to taking two yoga
sections simultaneously. There was no compensation for participating in the study,
except for one instance where students of Asana I and Asana II were offered extra credit
for completing the survey during the first data collection.
Materials
The materials used in this study were two online surveys made available through
Qualtrics. One survey included general demographic questions and measured trait
mindfulness using the Five-Facet Mindfulness Questionnaire (FFMQ). The other survey
measured state mindfulness using the Toronto Mindfulness Scale (TMS).
The participants were asked multiple demographic questions such as age and
gender. They were also asked whether they had practiced yoga or meditation before
their induction into the course, and whether they were practicing mindfulness exercises
during the semester-long yoga class.
The FFMQ is a 39-item scale which measures the participant’s level of
dispositional mindfulness, or trait mindfulness, which is generally experienced during
their every-day lives (Baer et al., 2006). The survey measures five categories of
mindfulness: observing, describing, acting with awareness, non-judging, and
nonreactivity (Baer et al., 2006). As an example, the survey asks: “When I have
distressing thoughts or images, I am able just to notice them without reacting,” and this
falls into the category of nonreactivity (Baer et al., 2006). The participant is asked to
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rate how much each question is generally true to them on a 5-point Likert scale from 1
(never or rarely true) to 5 (very often or always true) (Baer et al., 2006).
The TMS is a 13-item survey which measures an individual's state mindfulness
during a specific activity, such as meditation (Lau et al., 2006). Questions are scored in
two categories: curiosity and decentering, and each item investigates the participant’s
subjective experience during that specific activity (Lau et al., 2006). For example, the
survey asks: “I was aware of my thoughts and feelings without overidentifying with
them” (Lau et al., 2006). Participants are asked to rate their level of agreement with
each question on a 5-point Likert scale from 1 (not at all) to 5 (very much) (Lau et al.,
2006).
Procedure
Before the data collection began, the researcher went into each yoga selection and
briefed students about the study, where they were offered the opportunity to participate
by their own volition. During data collection, the participants were given the survey
through links to Qualtrics, which their professors posted to Canvas, the school’s online
learning and grading database.
There were three data collection times: once in the beginning of the semester that
included both state and trait mindfulness surveys (T1), once in the middle of the
semester, 8 weeks in, which included the state mindfulness survey (T2), and once at the
end of the semester which included both state and trait mindfulness surveys (T3). In the
first data collection T1, the participants completed the TMS at the end of their class,
after they had just finished their yoga/mindfulness practice, measuring state
mindfulness. The participants then completed the FFMQ, measuring trait mindfulness.
In the middle of the semester, during the second data collection T2, participants' levels
of state mindfulness were measured through the TMS, which was completed directly
after a yoga practice. In the last data collection T3, participants then took both surveys,
the TMS and the FFMQ after their yoga practice, measuring both state and trait
mindfulness.
Results
A series of paired samples t-tests were used to compare the levels of state
mindfulness among three time intervals: T1, T2, T3, and trait mindfulness among two
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different time intervals: T1 and T3. All the data from each class was combined to create
the respective variables of state and trait mindfulness. There was not enough data for
each class to compare state and trait mindfulness between the class sections across time.
Therefore, the variable of state mindfulness included all global data for each time
interval, as well as trait mindfulness. By using paired samples t-tests, state mindfulness
was then compared between T1 and T2, T2 and T3, and T1 and T3. Trait mindfulness
was compared between T1 and T3.
Additionally, independent samples t-tests were used to investigate any significant
differences between state and trait mindfulness levels between classes within each data
collection time. Asana I and Asana II were taught by the same instructor and both
generally contained similar practices, and, therefore, have been grouped together as the
variable “Asana.” Asana and Yoga for Stress Relief were then compared in their levels of
state mindfulness for T1 and T3, and trait mindfulness for T1 and T3, to see if there was
any significant difference in degree of mindfulness between the classes during each
specific time.
A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare changes of state mindfulness
between T1 and T2. A significant difference in the levels of state mindfulness between T1
and T2 was not found (t(1,27) = 1.733, p = .094). T1 scores included: (M = 40.10, SD =
10.75), and T2 scores included: (M = 42.66, SD = 10.82). A paired-samples t-test was
conducted to compare changes of state mindfulness between T2 and T3. A significant
difference in the levels of state mindfulness between T2 and T3 was not found (t(1,41) =
1.628, p = .111). T2 scores included: (M = 44.980, SD = 7.39), and T3 scores included:
(M = 46.42, SD = 7.28). A paired-samples t-test was conducted to compare changes of
state mindfulness between T1 and T3. A significant difference in the levels of state
mindfulness between T1 and T3 was found (t(1,25) = 3.106, p = .005). Participants
scored higher on state mindfulness during T3 (M = 41.64, SD = 10.88) than T1 (M =
35.33, SD = 19.17).
An independent samples t-test was conducted to investigate the difference of
levels of state mindfulness changes between Yoga for Stress Relief and Asana within T1.
No significant difference was found between the two groups within this time interval
(t(1,6) = .628, p = .285). Furthermore, an independent samples t-test was conducted to
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investigate the difference of levels of state mindfulness changes between the two groups
within T3. No significant difference was found between the Yoga for Stress Relief and
Asana during this time (t(1,21) = .1.86, p = .078).
A paired samples t-test was conducted to compare the differences in trait
mindfulness changes between T1 and T3. Analyses revealed no significant difference in
trait mindfulness scores among T1 and T3, however, the result was approaching the
significance level used in the study: α = .05 (t(1,26) = 1.98, p = .058). T1 scores included:
(M = 123.61, SD = 16.00), and T3 scores included: (M = 131.39, SD = 16.98).
An independent samples t-test was conducted to investigate the difference of
levels of trait mindfulness changes between Yoga for Stress Relief and Asana I and
Asana II. No significant difference was found between the two groups within T1(t(1,25)
= 1.28, p = .72). Additionally, there was no significant difference between Asana and
Yoga for Stress Relief within T3 (t(1,25) = .547, p = .211).
Discussion
The current study was conducted to investigate whether a 15-week yoga class—
Asana I, Asana II, or Yoga for Stress Relief (two sections)—would increase state and trait
mindfulness in undergraduate students. It was hypothesized that as participants
deepened their yoga practice throughout the semester and became more trained in
mindfulness techniques, their state mindfulness during their practices would increase.
As state mindfulness increased, it was hypothesized that the participants would become
more dispositionally mindful in their daily lives, and, therefore, levels of trait
mindfulness would increase. Additionally, it was questioned whether there would be
differences between Asana (I and II) and Yoga for Stress Relief in mindfulness within
each data collection time. Results showed that between the beginning and end of the
semester, state mindfulness for all four combined sections significantly increased. There
was no significant difference found in trait mindfulness between the beginning and end
of the semester for the combined classes, although the result was approaching
significance. There was no difference in levels of state or trait mindfulness between each
individual section within T1 and T3, therefore, each class varied in levels of mindfulness
among participants at each time interval.
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Furthermore, inferences can be drawn from these results. Within each yoga class
attended, the teachers guided their students in mindfulness practices, which
intentionally brought attention to moment-to-moment awareness. The participants
consistently practiced yogic postures, breathwork, and meditation, which all promoted
the individual to become more attuned to present moment occurrences. This resulted in
the increase of state mindfulness within the students, in that they became more
mindfully aware within the led practices in class. This means that the exercises given in
the yoga classes had a significant impact on the participants’ level of awareness during
said exercises. Du et al. (2019) found that an increase of state mindfulness in university
students led to an upward spiral of positive emotions. Students who scored high on state
mindfulness were more likely to experience positive emotions, and when they
experienced positive emotions during the first data collection, they were likely to
experience increased positive emotions during the second data collection; this
relationship was found in trait mindfulness, as well (Du et al., 2019). This demonstrates
that state mindfulness and positive emotions have a positive reciprocal relationship,
which is impactful in the reality where many college students suffer from mental health
issues (Arnett et al., 2014; Du et al., 2019; Grineski et al., 2021). Other studies show that
participants who scored higher in state mindfulness were less likely to cheat on a group
performance task (Götmann et al., 2021) and their likelihood of participating in ethical
behaviors increased (Orazi et al., 2021). The current study demonstrates how a
consistent yoga and mindfulness practice increases state mindfulness, and the research
exhibits that this may assist in increasing the health and well-being of undergraduate
practitioners, as well as promoting honest and ethical behavior.
Although the changes in trait mindfulness were not shown to have significantly
increased between T1 and T3, the result was approaching significance. Trait mindfulness
describes a dispositional sense of awareness that is integrated into personality, which
means that an individual who scores high on trait mindfulness tends to have a high level
of awareness in their everyday life. Although state mindfulness increased, it could be
inferred that students did not transfer these mindfulness techniques to a high degree
out of the yoga classroom, which may have contributed to the lack of significance during
analysis. However, for undergraduate students, the ability to increase moment-to-
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moment awareness during intentional activities may be more advantageous for specific
tasks rather than being dispositionally mindful. Savone et al. (2020) examined skin
conductance in response to stress, and they found that participants who had high levels
of state mindfulness had lower skin conductance and a greater decrease in sympathetic
activity when faced with a stressful task, compared to those with lower state
mindfulness. However, there was no difference in skin conductance and sympathetic
activity found between individuals who scored higher and lower on trait mindfulness
(Savone et al., 2020). Due to the high levels of stress that undergraduate students face
as well as demanding tasks and activities, students who can increase their moment-to-
moment awareness may be more able to decrease their negative response to stress,
along with feeling more prepared and resilient when presented with challenges.
The results of this study imply that a 15-week yoga intervention significantly
increases undergraduate students’ state mindfulness. It is important to note that each
section—Asana I, II, and Yoga for Stress Relief—all utilized various topics, exercises,
lessons, homeworks, and training, however, they all cause participants to increase in
moment-to-moment awareness during these specific mindfulness activities. This shows
the potential influence on mindfulness practices in general, in that there are multiple
modes and methods that support connecting to the present moment more substantially.
These results encourage potential opportunities for colleges and universities to offer
more semester-long yoga classes, which may support students through the challenges
and trials which coincide with pursuing a degree. In addition, it is important to highlight
the weight of a 15-week intervention, since 8 weeks was not found to make a significant
impact.
Furthermore, there were limitations to this study. Firstly, it is important to note
difficulties with conducting a longitudinal study of this nature. Out of all the students
that participated, many participants were removed from the study because of absences
or lack of completion of surveys on the data collection days. If participants did not
complete at least the first and last data collections, they were removed. There were many
more participants removed from the Asana group versus the Yoga for Stress Relief
group, and this may be due to variations in the data collection process. For all instances
of data collection for Yoga for Stress Relief, the researcher came into each class and was
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present for survey distribution, and the students took the surveys at the end of class.
The researcher was also present for most collections for the Asana group, but at the first
collection the students were instructed by the teacher to take the survey online after
class for extra credit, and the researcher was not physically present for the last data
collection of the group. This inconsistency is most likely the reason for the large number
of participants removed from the Asana group. There were not many participants who
took the surveys during the first collection, but many who took them in the following
collections. This is why the data for each section was combined for analyses, and it is
relevant to note that most consistent data was from the Yoga for Stress Relief group. In
the analyses of trait mindfulness, since the result was approaching significance (p =
.058), the result would likely have been significant with the data of more participants. In
addition, the demographic questions were not factored into the data used for analyses,
for this was beyond the scope of the study. Whether participants had practiced yoga/
mediation before and/or were practicing on their own, may have factored into results.
Further, there were inconsistencies in the distribution of the demographic questions, so
they were not used.
The results of this study can be generalized to American small liberal arts
undergraduate colleges, but it would be worthwhile to recreate this study at colleges and
universities of varied sizes in multiple countries, along with other states in the United
States. With more participants, researchers could continue to refine and clarify these
results. It may be valuable to look at potential differences in participants within the
study, specifically whether they are practicing yoga/mindfulness practices on their own,
outside of class. In addition, the use of a control group would further create validity and
support for results.
Due to the fact that undergraduate students face many challenges in the process
of pursuing their degrees, it is important to discover techniques, practices, and
interventions that support students’ positive physical health, mental fitness, and well-
being. The current study demonstrates that a 15-week yoga class significantly increases
state mindfulness in participants, which has many positive implications such as more
preparedness to handle stressful situations as well as increased positive affect (Brown &
Ryan, 2003; Savone et al., 2020). Furthermore, this study gives credence to yoga as a
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valuable practice in the lives of college students, and provides more clarity on which
modalities of yoga are most effective for becoming more aware and attentive in everyday
life.
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intervention for college students’ problematic smartphone use: The mediating
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Moreton, A., Wahesh, E., & Schmidt, C. D. (2022). Indirect effect of mindfulness on
psychological distress via sleep hygiene in division I college student athletes.
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Nardi, W. R., Elshabassi, N., Spas, J., Zima, A., Saadeh, F., & Loucks, E. B. (2022).
Students experiences of an 8-week mindfulness-based intervention at a college of
opportunity: a qualitative investigation of the mindfulness-based college
program. BMC Public Health, 22(1), 1–18. https://doi.org/10.1186/
s12889-022-14775-5
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need to know. https://www.nccih.nih.gov/health/ yoga-what-you-need-to-know
Orazi, D. C., Chen, J., & Chan, E. Y. (2021). To erect temples to virtue: Effects of state
mindfulness on other-focused ethical behaviors. Journal of Business Ethics,
169(4), 785–798. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10551-019-04296-4
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Pal, S., Sharma, S. K., Singhal, A., & Telles, S. (2022). Smartphone excessive use, sleep,
and beliefs about well-being in university students who practice yoga compared
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47(2), 292–295. https://doi.org/10.4103/ijcm.ijcm_601_21
Sanjaykumar, S., & Rajkumar, N. C. J. (2022). Effect of combined yogic and aerobic
exercise practices on primary dysmenorrhea among college students. Special
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Faith Corbin, from Bowie, MD, is a Flagler College alumna (’23) with a Bachelor of Arts degree in
Psychology and a minor in Creative Writing. She graduated Summa Cum Laude from the Flagler
College Honors Program. She uses her knowledge of mindfulness, mental health, and embodied living to
empower others in their healing journeys. During the pandemic, her passion for yoga transformed her
life. As a result, she sought to combine what she was learning in the scientific discipline of psychology
with the spiritual experience of yoga. In her free time, she enjoys ecstatic dance, improvisational music,
reading, hiking, slacklining, and cooking.
Dr. Angelenia Semegon, associate professor of psychology at Flagler College, advised this project and
appears as co-author.
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Ecopsychology and the Franciscan Approach:
The Path to Solving the Ecological Crisis
McKenna Hazel
The Path to Solving the Ecological Crisis
he ecological crisis our planet faces today is one of the most pressing and
complex issues of our time. I begin this paper by addressing and acknowledging
some of the ways that this crisis is evident in the natural world and the ways
that the human population is contributing to that crisis. Sources show that the rate at
which we are contributing to the deterioration of the Earth will catch up to us, as we
continue to lose species of plants and animals, increase greenhouse gasses, and
overpopulate the Earth (Brown 1995, xv). Furthermore, “if everyone in the world
consumed as much as Americans do, we would need four additional planets full of
resources to supply us” (Delio 2008, 160). The United States National Academy of
Science, in agreement with nine other countries, confirmed that climate change is not
only real, but brings along severe consequences that are already taking place and will
take major change to reverse (Delio 2008, 120). The Earth is finite and limited in its
resources, and if society continues in the ways it has been, there will be a point where
those resources run out.
The ecological crisis requires a solution that is both comprehensive and
interdisciplinary in its approach to encompass both scientific and humanistic
perspectives. Recently, the ecopsychology approach has grown in popularity through its
endeavor to understand the innate relationship between humans and nature from a
psychological perspective. Ecopsychologists recognize that human well-being is deeply
intertwined with the health of the natural world, and that the ecological crisis has severe
implications for our mental and spiritual health (Hillman 1995). In this paper, I argue
that the best path to solving the ecological crisis is by combining ecopsychology with
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insights from the Franciscan perspective of the human-nature relationship. Rooted in
the teachings of Saint Francis, the Franciscan perspective emphasizes the
interconnectedness and sacredness of all creation, and encourages humans to live in
total harmony with nature (Delio 2008). By integrating the spiritual and ethical
dimensions of the Franciscan approach with the psychological and scientific insights of
ecopsychology, we can develop a more complete and whole perspective of the human-
nature relationship and develop a path to solving the ecological crisis.
In my argument, I explore how ecopsychology is already a naturally spiritual and
religious endeavor, and how the field can benefit significantly from incorporating a
theistic perspective. The Franciscan approach cultivates a mindset of gratitude,
selflessness, and love of all creation. It provides a unique framework for addressing the
ecological crisis (Delio 2008). This mindset shift can motivate humans to act on behalf
of the Earth and future generations that will also call Earth home. I will address Lynn
White’s (1967) article “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis” to argue that the
cause of our ecological crisis is largely due to religion, however, I disagree with White
when it comes to the best path for healing. White argues that we must do away with
religion altogether, however, I propose that by integrating the ecopsychology
perspective and the Franciscan approach, we can develop a more comprehensive,
holistic, and effective solution to the ecological crisis without needing to throw away
religion. This solution requires a substantial amount of work in order to truly change the
way we interact with the world, and it is not only a worthy pursuit, but a necessary one
to ensure healing for ourselves and the Earth. As we continue to confront the challenges
of the ecological crisis, the teachings and legacy of Saint Francis entwined with the
science of ecopsychology offers us a hopeful solution to creating a more sustainable and
harmonious world. We must protect our world and learn to understand our connection
with it, because as James Hillman (1995) writes, “In this world soul the human soul has
always had its home” (xxiii). Therefore, this paper will primarily argue for a path to
healing for the ecological crisis by combining the ecopsychology and Franciscan
perspectives on the relationship between humans and nature.
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The Ecopsychology Perspective
Ecopsychology is the synthesis of both psyche and ecology, a study that is
concerned with human behavior and nature within the wider scope of the environment
(Hillman 1995, xx). It assumes at the most intimate, innate level that the psyche is
deeply interconnected to the environment and cannot be studied outside of that
connection. The ecopsychology movement was a significant culture shift beginning in
the mid-twentieth century, and it is gaining continued popularity today. Most
Americans are currently aware of the damage and destruction that has been done and is
continuing to be done to the planet, while simultaneously feeling the weight of a
significant mental health crisis (Fisher 2013). Likewise, too many Americans are
neglectful to recognize their connection with the Earth and their need to care about the
state of the Earth (Fisher 2013). Lester Brown (1995), founder of the Worldwatch
Institute and the Earth Policy Institute, states “we live on a planet that is deteriorating
ecologically and inhabited by people who are psychologically troubled” (xiv). Here, it is
reasonable to assume that there is a significant interconnection between the
deterioration of both human mental states and the state of the Earth. The environment
we reside in has a direct impact on our psychological state, as the Earth is our true and
original home (Hillman 1995, xxiii). However, while studying the environment and
ecology are beneficial to healing the Earth, it’s going to take something deeper and more
philosophical to bring true healing.
Ecopsychology aims to rediscover the innate relationship between humans and
nature, and learn how our understanding of the soul has a deep impact on the
environment around us and how we treat it (Roszak 1995, 4). For so long, psychology
has continued to narrow its focus on the individual, neglecting the influence and impact
that the home, birthplace, and origin of the human individual- the world, has on the
individual as well (Fisher 2013). The field of psychology cannot limit itself to merely
what’s inside the human; it must take into account and consider the environment
surrounding the human. It is impossible to heal the world without healing the soul,
because we cannot confine ourselves to what is “in'' us (Fisher 2013, 9). The belief of
separation between humans and their environment must dissolve for reconnection and
true understanding to occur. I refer to this separation as a kind of dualism in this paper.
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James Hillman writes on the blurred line between “myself” and “other,” saying that
“every sophisticated theory of personality has to admit that whatever I claim to be ‘me’
has at least a portion of its roots beyond my agency and my awareness” (Hillman 1995,
xviii). This is in reference to our deep ties with nature, and the need to view our
personalities and selves as deeply interconnected with the world around us.
Theodore Roszak (1995), who was a scholar and professor of history, provides
language to describe the ecopsychology movement, writing that:
Ecopsychology suggests that we can read our transactions with the natural
environment- the way we use or abuse the planet- as projections of unconscious
needs and desires, in much the same way we can read dreams and hallucinations
to learn about our deep motivations, fears, and hatreds. In fact, our wishful,
willful imprint upon the natural environment may reveal our collective state of
soul more tellingly than the dreams we wake from and shake off, knowing them
to be unreal (5).
Furthermore, the state of the world and the state of humanity reflect on each other, and
display a causally connected relationship. This relationship is termed biophilia, which is
“‘the innately emotional affiliation of human beings to other living organisms’” (Roszak
1995, 4). Biophilia is being used by ecologists and psychologists alike to study the bond
between humans and nature. This bond is evidenced by the positive effects that nature
has on the well-being and mental health of human beings. Studies have shown that
being in nature and experiencing all it has to offer can increase positive affect, overall
happiness, a sense of meaning, cognitive functions, and memory (Bratman et al. 2019).
Experience with nature and interactions with green spaces has also been shown to
reduce anxiety, depression, and ADHD symptoms (Bratman et al. 2019). While the size
of this paper does not allow me to go into depth over all of the many ways nature
experience positively affects human well-being from a research perspective, there are
other studies cited in the bibliography that further address the research. This research
1
See Bratman et al 2019, Jimenez et al 2021, Brymer et al 2019 for more information.
1
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supports the ecopsychology approach in evidencing that the negative state of the world
may have a direct impact on the state of the human psyche.
Suffering and destruction are an inevitable aspect of what it means to exist on
planet Earth, for plants, animals, and humans alike. Every living being feels the weight
of what it means to suffer in unique ways. The healing process begins by defining where
the “me” ends and where the “other” begins (Hillman 1995). Determining the boundary
lines between self and other or self and nature help us to define the nature of the soul
and how it leads to certain behaviors. As humans have climbed up skyscrapers, sprinted
to suburbs, and neglected to treasure the Earth, the gap between self and nature has
grown exponentially and humans have lost touch with their innate connection to the
natural world (Fisher 2013). We have developed a system of dualism, a separation
between nature and humans, where the most focused growth and progress happen
within the walls of buildings and not within nature. This is a problem because nature is
the original home of humanity and the birthplace of creativity and development that led
us to where we are today. Fisher (2013) calls humans to “utterly dispel the illusion that
we are somehow exempt from membership in the natural world and to overcome the
delusion that we could ever be sane while alienated from our own earthiness, from the
bodily ground we share with the twigs and mice” (24). The problem that ecopsychology
is addressing is that the path to healing does not arise from separating the domains of
humans and nature- it arises from viewing the human-nature relationship as deeply
interconnected.
It is important to note that moving away from intense dualism does not mean we
abandon our individuality or perform a self-betrayal and neglect our own needs,
dreams, and desires. It is important that we take into account our own individuality
within the context of the larger, interconnected non-human aspects of the world.
Rejecting duality does not deny the differences and distinction between humans and
others, but rather acknowledges that the inner and outer life are both equally important
to have a meaningful and complete picture of life. Limiting ourselves by keeping
humans and nature separate limits the expansiveness of our experience and our ability
to have an accurate understanding of our world.
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Most of the discussion thus far has involved earlier readings in ecopsychology,
and much has continued to change and adjust in the field. Developments have been
made in recent years, and Andy Fisher, author of Radical Ecopsychology, provides a
newer perspective on the field and a call to action for future work and study. Fisher
(2013) calls ecopsychology “an effort to understand the social links between these two
areas of violence, between the violation we recognize as the ecological crisis and the
violation we recognize in human suffering” (xiv). Like previous authors, Fisher sees the
need for the reconnection between humans and the Earth in order to discover the path
to healing for both parties. We must include the world around us as essential to human
identity (Fisher 2013, 4).
Fisher sees the task of ecopsychology as a project, a significant and historical
undertaking with four specific tasks: psychological, philosophical, practical, and critical.
Of these tasks, I will emphasize the psychological and the philosophical tasks as they
pertain most to the subject at hand. The psychological task involves acknowledging and
seeking more understanding of the human-nature relationship, and viewing, “all
psychological and spiritual matters in the light of our participation within the larger
natural order. Ecopsychology is still concerned with our suffering and happiness… our
search for meaning… our states of consciousness… it just frames these concerns within
the fuller, more-than-human scope of human existence” (Fisher 2013, 7). The
philosophical task is then concerned with repairing the division between psyche and
nature, using phenomenology to study our lived-in, actual experience to make
reflections and conclusions about the state of the psyche and the world. Fisher (2013)
writes that, “By pressing all of the soul into the human being, we have deanimated the
world and simultaneously inflated the significance of the human person” (10). All of our
thoughts, emotions, images, and even the majority of our behavior stem from our
relation or contact with the outside world (Fisher 2013). In order to discover the path to
healing the ecological crisis, we must learn to remove our previous biases or
expectations and be open to being changed by our interactions with the world. It
requires us to have deep, emotional experiences with the world, and use these
experiences to shape our perspective. Through self-awareness we can learn to sit in our
thoughts and emotions in the world and allow those to impact our worldview.
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The Ecological Crisis: A Religion Problem?
Perhaps the most famous article on the ecological crisis and its connection to
Christianity is Lynn White’s “The Historical Roots of our Ecological Crisis.” White
(1967) argues that many of our views on the relationship between humans and nature
from a scientific and technological perspective arose from Christian ideals, regardless of
whether or not one has a Christian background (7). White (1967) writes “Since the roots
of our trouble are so largely religious, the remedy must also be essentially religious,
whether we call it that or not. We must rethink and re-feel our nature and destiny. The
profoundly religious, but heretical, sense of the primitive Franciscans for the spiritual
autonomy of all parts of nature may point a direction. I propose Francis as a patron
saint for ecologists” (9). In this article, White argues that the Christian religious ideals
are to blame for the state of the relationship between humans and nature today. These
ideals likely stem from Genesis 1:28, where “God blessed them [Adam and Eve] and said
to them, ‘Be fruitful and increase in number; fill the Earth and subdue it. Rule over the
fish in the sea and the birds in the sky and over every living creature that moves on the
ground.’” (Holy Bible, NIV). This verse has been used in defense of Christians using
behaviors that cause harm to the Earth for the benefit of humanity. Some use this verse
to defend the attitude that humans are supposed to “rule” over the Earth and that
ultimately, their comfort and pleasure is more important than the rest of the creation.
Pope Francis (2015) writes in his Laudato Si’, “We have come to see ourselves as her
[Earth’s] lords and masters, entitled to plunder her at will” (2), showing how we have
taken verses out of context to justify our behavior . White is condemning this
2
perspective and arguing that these kinds of attitudes are what have developed into this
distant and neglected relationship between humans and animals.
Ian Barbour (1997), a premier scholar in the world of science and religion, argues
that a proper theology, when it comes to the human-nature relationship, must include
reason to protect the environment and preserve its resources (102). White’s criticism of
religious ideals being responsible for the ecological crisis is rightly justified in Barbour’s
eyes, and there must be a reconciliation and redefining of what it means to support
See Pope Francis’ Laudato Si’ 65-75 for Biblical evidence of the human-nature relationship
2
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environmentalism from a Christian perspective. There are many biblical themes and
examples that are in clear support of environmentalism. For example, the word
“stewardship” has been used by some Christians to justify human ends at the expense of
the Earth, however, an accurate interpretation of this word views all of nature as
belonging to God first and foremost, because He created it (Barbour 1997, 102). Our job,
according to the Bible, is to be responsible for and take care of the Earth (Genesis 1:28,
NIV). Barbour (1997) also shows how celebrating nature, due to its inherent value, is a
strong biblical theme: God’s affirmation of creation in Genesis, animals and creatures
being saved during the flood, countless themes in the book of psalms, and Jesus’
references to lilies, sparrows, trees, and the seas all demonstrate the emphasis on
nature’s value in the Bible (103). Jesus' teachings also often emphasize the care and
concern that God has for his creation, including both humans and the natural world,
which should motivate humans to care for creation. By incorporating these biblical
3
themes of stewardship, celebration, and care for creation, it is possible to offset the
damaging views that have stemmed from inaccurate depictions of Christian
environmentalist ethics. However, “this requires us to rethink our understanding of the
relation of humanity to nonhuman nature and to develop a more adequate theology of
nature for representing God’s relation to the created order” (Barbour 1997, 280).
As this paper transitions to discussing the Franciscan perspective on the human-
nature relationship, it is important to first address claims that Fisher and other
ecopsychologists have made in regards to spirituality and community. Many
ecopsychologists believe that the path to healing involves healthy connection with
spirituality and community. Fisher (2013) highlights this in his book: “‘Unless you have
some roots in a spiritual practice that holds life sacred and encourages joyful
communion with all your fellow beings, facing the enormous challenges ahead becomes
nearly impossible.’” (15). Here, Fisher is claiming that in seeking connection both
spiritually and communally to those around us, we can better shift our focus to the
natural world and towards a path to healing. This connection is found not only within
the individual’s own dreams and identity, but also through aligning with others and the
Luke 12:6, Luke 12:24, Matthew 6:26
3
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larger world around them. This is done by embracing both the duality between “self”
and “other” and the non-duality of the interconnectedness with every being that resides
on Earth. The Franciscan approach and the ecopsychology approach to the human-
nature relationship posit similarities in the recognition of the state of the current
relationship between humans and nature and what is needed to enact change for a
better future. Both perspectives seek a unity between humans and nature, a
reconnection in the innate relationship, and recognize that there is severe loss and
misguidance if this human-nature relationship is neglected. They acknowledge that the
destruction that has resulted in the ecological crisis is caused by a lack of relationship
between humans and nature. Ultimately, both perspectives call for change through the
form of a deep reconnection between humans and nature.
The Franciscan Perspective
The Franciscan perspective of the relationship between humans and nature arose
from the ideals and lifestyle of Saint Francis. It is impossible to discuss a theological
perspective of nature, or Creation in theological language, without addressing the
significant impact that Saint Francis left behind. In fact, Saint Francis was even declared
the patron saint of ecology by Pope John Paul II (Appelbaum 2015). Ilia Delio, a
Franciscan author who obtained two PhDs in Pharmacology and Historical Theology,
writes on Francis’ view and attitude towards Creation, and the overall Franciscan
spirituality of the Earth and its connection to humans and the Divine. First and
foremost, Francis believed that, “Creation flows out of the heart of an infinitely loving
creator. Franciscan theology of Creation without Christ is incomplete” (Delio 2003, 5). A
Franciscan perspective of Creation sees God as the foundation and Creator of all matter,
believes that God’s goodness permeates everything in Creation, and sees nature as a
means to dwell on the nature and power of God. (Delio 2003, 3). Furthermore, the
Franciscan perspective advocates that human beings are created in the image of God,
the Imago Dei, as Saint Francis writes, “after making us in Your own image and likeness,
You placed us in paradise” (FA:ED I, 82). Francis’ understanding of the human person
is deeply intertwined with the human person’s identity within the image of the Divine
and its relation to nature.
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St. Francis’ view of Creation and his role in Creation stemmed directly from his
relationship to God. He believed that everything, from celestial beings to fish, humans to
sunflowers, is directly designed and sourced from the Divine (Johnson 2012, 153).
Furthermore, Francis saw the transcending beauty from nature as an illustration of the
presence of God and a place where God’s goodness is displayed in physical form.
Because he understood that everything stemmed from the same Divine source, St.
Francis recognized every creature and aspect of nature as a brother or sister. This kind
of perspective is called ‘contuition,’ and it’s essentially the “ability to see the reality of
things in relation to God” (Delio 2003, 5). The ecological self, a term used to describe
the potential and ability of humans to connect and identify themselves with the rest of
nature, is used in both ecopsychology and a theology of nature. Delio (2008) writes that
“in modern-day terms Francis lived out of his ecological self, a wider, interconnected
sense of self that is rooted in the fact of our interconnected-ness with all of life” (55).
This clarifies a direct connection between St. Francis’ view of nature and the modern
day perspective of ecopsychology, and the connected understanding over multiple
centuries that we must learn to live out of our own ecological selves. Furthermore, St.
Francis’ theology provided him with a lens through which to view the rest of Creation
and his purpose within that same Creation. Francis believed that the kingdom of God
did not just exist in the future, but is already existing in the here and now and requires
human participation (Delio 2003, 3). By learning to participate with God out of love for
nature, we can discover the path to healing the ecological crisis. To find the justice,
healing, and peace we seek, we must be willing to be transformed in Christ and see our
place in the world as meaningful and connected with the rest of nature.
A Franciscan theology of nature stems directly from the basics of their theology.
Delio (2003) writes that “[t]he fundamental relationship between Incarnation and
creation leads to the central idea that each and every aspect of creation has absolute
dignity because everything is created specifically and uniquely through the Word of
God” (6). Everything in creation has intrinsic value because it not only was created by
God but it reflects the nature and heart of God. The only distinction between humans
and the rest of the created order is that humans have the ability to reason and can have
union with God (Delio 2008, 44). Thus, any sort of environmental crisis should also
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mean a religious crisis for those who identify with the Franciscan tradition, because of
the interconnectedness between humans and nature. Pope Francis (2015), in his
Laudato Si’, writes that “we have forgotten that we ourselves are dust of the Earth… our
very bodies are made up of her elements, we breathe her air and we receive life and
refreshment from her waters” (2) . The foundation of Franciscan theology of the
4
human-nature relationship rests on the belief that humans are deeply interconnected
with the Earth, and we have forgotten this over time. This view mirrors that of
ecopsychology, but with a theistic lens.
The way that St. Francis treated animals and nature reflects a deep love not just
for Creation, but the Creator. Many accounts of St. Francis’ life include a story of him
preaching to the birds, flowers, and trees “as if they were capable of reason” (Dalarun
2016, 24). This demonstrated his ability to see Creation as equals in the kingdom of God
and his sincere love for the divine and Creation. Accounts of his life explain:
“the man of God gushed with the spirit of charity and bore a visceral piety not
only toward men, but also even toward mute and brute animals and all other
creatures. With what degree of affection do you think he loved the little sheep and
lambs, due to the grace of a simpler nature and a likeness to the Lord Jesus
represented in Sacred Scripture?” (Dalarun, The Rediscovered Life of Saint
Francis of Assisi, 2016, 23).
St. Francis’ entire being was filled with love for Creation, and he treated it with the same
love he extended towards other human beings. This shows that Francis had an
ecopsychological mindset long before the movement ever arose, and saw himself as
interconnected with all of Creation. Francis believed that the rest of Creation was not a
means to be used to achieve human purposes, but fellow subjects in a wide connection
of relationships, and that all living beings deserve equality and life just as humans do
(Johnson 2012, 145). Thus, if humans are truly living from their ecological selves and
have experienced transformation in God, it follows that they will act with kindness and
See Pope Francis’ Laudato Si’ in the Bibliography for more detail on the state of the ecological crisis that
4
could not be addressed in this paper.
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empathy towards nature (Johnson 2012, 151). For Saint Francis, everything in the
natural world was proof of the living presence of God, which drove him to treat nature
with such kindness and empathy (Delio 2003, 125).
A foundational aspect of Franciscan theology is stewardship ethics, which
obligates “people of faith to learn the basic elements of ecological science, for we cannot
discharge this responsibility in ignorance” (Delio 2008, 76). This kind of responsibility
includes learning to live life with less consumption, more understanding of the
ecological crisis, and deeper empathy for all living things. When we discover that our
wholeness is found in our interconnection with all of nature, we are able to tear down
the destructive dualism that has created divisions between us and the rest of Creation.
Franciscan tradition believes that the world is holy, and “we would not desecrate our
chapels and churches; in the same way, the more we nurture this intimate connection to
Earth, the more we will be inspired to protect it at all costs” (Paintner 2020, 3).
Christians tend to place a deep significance on place, particularly places that reflect
Divine significance, such as churches or monasteries. According to the Franciscan
tradition, Christians should be just as eager to protect and place significance on nature,
due to the intimate and deep connection humans have with Earth.
Ultimately, Franciscan theology argues that contemplative living and a theistic
perspective is the way to formulating a more sustainable lifestyle, leading to healing for
humans and the Earth. Contemplation in the Franciscan tradition is living a life of
reflection and prayer, thinking about the self, God, and the Earth through an
introspective and thoughtful lens. It requires giving focus to seeing reality as it is, seeing
the beauty of the world as well as the destruction (Delio 2008, 139). The Franciscan
lifestyle of contemplation shows how global climate change is not just an ecological
issue, it’s a theological issue because it requires humans to challenge their perspective of
identity, purpose, and their relationship with God (Delio 2008, 112). Franciscan
theology shows how deeply interconnected humans are with the rest of Creation,
because of their relationship to the Creator. Delio (2008) writes that, “only a life-giving
relationship with God can sustain a life-giving Earth. Contemplation can strengthen our
hearts, giving us courage to face the fearful effects we humans are having upon the
Earth’s life-support systems” (124). The practice of thinking deeply about oneself,
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spirituality, and the Earth allows humans to remain open and respond to the ecological
crisis with an action-oriented mindset.
A Possible Solution to Solving the Ecological Crisis
Combining a theological perspective with ecopsychology provides the best path to
healing for humans and nature. Although ecopsychologists recognize the need for a
spiritual approach when it comes to the ecopsychology endeavor, they do not take it to
the full extent. Most of the authors dance around the idea of a Creator God without
outright stating it. Since there is already a space generated in the ecopsychology
endeavor for a God and a religious approach, the theory should complete the space and
call it what it is- a theological endeavor. It’s not surprising that ecopsychology is already
a naturally spiritual and religious endeavor, because the ecological crisis is a theological
problem. Thus, it requires a theological solution.
The ecopsychology endeavor is already a natural home for a theistic approach,
thus, supplementation from the Franciscan perspective on the human-nature
relationship may benefit it greatly. However, some argue that ecopsychology can be
explained from only naturalistic terms. While this may be partially true, there’s a
significant benefit to incorporating insights from the Franciscan tradition, because one
cannot account for a deep connection with nature in a non-theistic way. Although
certain religious beliefs are largely to blame for the crisis according to Lynn White, the
solution to the ecological crisis is not throwing out religion altogether. Fixing the
incorrect theological views of God, humans, nature, and the relationships between the
three is a critical part of the solution to the crisis. Combining ecopsychology with the
Franciscan approach strengthens the endeavor to solve the ecological crisis because it
cultivates a mindset of gratitude and selflessness to motivate humans to act on behalf of
the Earth.
The field of ecopsychology already has natural religious and spiritual tendencies.
This is to say that ecopsychology has anti-naturalistic tendencies, and refers to
connections outside of the material realm. Multiple of Andy Fisher’s tasks in his
ecopsychology project include spiritual language. He argues, “by pressing all of the soul
into the human being, we have deanimated the world and simultaneously inflated the
significance of the human person,” (Fisher 2013, 10). Fisher’s (2013) solution to this
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problem is that we need to “turn the psyche inside out” and see the human soul as
interconnected with the rest of the world (9) Traditional psychology techniques insisted
on analyzing the human soul without consulting the environment. The claim is that
observing humans solely through their output of behavior is a simpler, more “safe” way
to conduct psychology. However, it neglects one of the most important aspects of human
development and identity: how humans are shaped by and interact with their
environment.
It is more spiritual to assume the human soul is not confined within the human
being and that there is an interconnection between the human soul and the world soul
(Hillman 1995). It requires a step away from the dualism of “me” and “other.” The “soul
of the world” is an underlying, intangible current of presence that unites all beings,
human and nature, underneath the visible reality (Fisher 2013, 10). Hillman (1995)
writes “In this world soul the human soul has always had its home” (xxiii). Both Fisher’s
explanation of the “soul of the world” and Hillman’s “world soul” are claiming that the
human soul is found not just within humans, but within the world. Much of our
understanding of ourselves comes from experience with the natural world and learning
how we find our place in the world around us. Using this kind of language exemplifies
the anti-naturalistic and spiritual tendencies of ecopsychologists when discussing the
human-nature relationship.
We cannot confine our definition of ourselves to our interior- we cannot be sure
that our deepest selves do not also exist outside of our material body (Hillman 1995,
xix). Fisher (2013) argues that the ecopsychology endeavor is not just a job for normal
science, and that a phenomenological approach will better allow us to address the
endeavor in a way that accurately shapes our actual, lived-in experience (11). This would
require us to have deep, intentional experiences with the world, and use these
experiences to shape our perspective. This method of defining ourselves within our
experience of the world requires an alternative perspective, largely relying on spiritual
and religious terminology. Thus far in the ecopsychology endeavor, the standard
scientific view has failed in achieving lasting change in the way people interact with the
environment, so we must define a different approach that deviates from what has not
been working.
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In “Where Psyche Meets Gaia,” Roszak (1995) explains the new and upcoming
idea of a “religiously based biophilia.” Biophilia is a term used to describe an innate
emotional interconnection between humans and other living beings (Roszak 1995, 4).
Both the ecopsychology and Franciscan perspectives advocate for biophilia, and thus, it
makes sense that we approach biophilia from a religious perspective when thinking
about the relationship between humans and nature while searching for a solution to the
ecological crisis. Skeptics in many branches of psychology continue to hold the
perspective of doing psychology as a “hard” science, rejecting any sort of religious or
spiritual ideals and setting clear boundary lines between the religion and science.
However, this perspective leads to a misunderstood and misguided understanding of
human nature and the relationship between humans and other living beings. Much of
the ecopsychology endeavor is based on data and hard science and it primarily uses
scientific language, however, this science is directly related to theological and spiritual
approaches to the human-nature relationship. Therefore, in addressing the data on
biophilia within the context of a spiritual context, we can strengthen the argument for
the innate connection between humans and nature.
Fisher’s (2013) critical task of ecopsychology even further demonstrates the
importance of addressing the biophilic data through the spiritual and religious aspects
of this field of psychology. He argues that we must develop a transpersonal ecology, with
“the idea being that as one develops a sense of self that is both transpersonal and
ecological, one will care for the Earth without being morally persuaded to do so because
one will identify with it as Self” (Fisher 2013, 18). Identifying oneself with the Earth
implies a more spiritual attitude. When someone identifies their “self” with the Earth,
they will place much higher importance on preserving it and caring about its future, as
one naturally cares for their own future and well-being. Fisher (2013) argues only
through this spiritual and psychological growth will humans be able to make advances
towards ending the ecological crisis as we know it. What we will then find is that
identifying oneself with nature cultivates a mindset that is more likely to take action to
preserve the Earth and take care of it.
Ecopsychology is inherently a naturally spiritual and religious endeavor, and thus
it would benefit from the addition of Franciscan ideals. Viewing humans and the rest of
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nature as equally good under the eyes of a Divine Creator enables people to take
responsibility and action for their behaviors. It will further push people to take care of
the Earth and end the ecological crisis, because they see themselves and nature as
equals, created by an all-knowing Divine being. A perspective that holds that both
humans and nature are created by God, thus sharing this identity as equals, enables a
mindset shift to viewing nature as valuable as humans. Franciscan authors have touched
upon this perspective of ecopsychology, and how, “Ecopsychologists believe that one of
the reasons depression and anxiety have reached epidemic proportions in today’s
society is that many of us are responding to the collective heartache that is inevitable for
conscious creatures whose habitat is being destroyed” (Delio 2008, 148). There is a
collective understanding in these respective fields that our mental health crisis as
humans is largely caused by the destruction of creation. This leads to the understanding
that there is a deep, innate connection between humans and the rest of creation. Then,
through the implementation of Franciscan theology and the contemplation of one’s
identity in relation to God and nature, we are provided a lens through which true
transformation can occur, and a profound, courageous desire for change can arise (Delio
2008, 158). In this way, we can begin to develop a method for pursuing the work that
needs to be done in order for healing to occur and become compelled humans to act on
behalf of the world around us.
Pope Francis (2015) writes “if we feel intimately united with all that exists, then
sobriety and care will well up spontaneously” (11). As discussed previously, Franciscan
theology of the human-nature relationship is founded upon the idea that humans are
deeply interconnected with nature, with the dust of the Earth. People that feel spiritually
uniquely united with the Earth will be motivated to protect and preserve it, and a
theistic perspective provides the reason behind why we are so connected to the rest of
creation- the Creator Himself. The Franciscan perspective advocates that humans are
called by God to change their lifestyles and consumption in order to end the ecological
crisis (Francis 2015, 23). There is a certain responsibility placed upon those that believe
in God and believe that everything was created by him- a responsibility to care for the
rest of creation as they would care for themselves.
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By incorporating the Franciscan perspective into the project of ecopsychology, we
are cultivating a mindset of gratitude and love towards a generous God, pushing
humans towards genuine action in solving the ecological crisis and healing the Earth.
When a heart is centered on God and sees spirituality and seeking God as true
happiness, it is not self-seeking or self-serving (Delio 2008, 179). Someone that has
their heart centered in this way will be more likely to take action to minimize their
negative impact on the Earth. St. Francis provided the model for this kind of living as he
experienced creation as a constant gift from God and believed that nature was a result of
God’s generosity pouring out. Thus, he acted from a place of deep gratitude and love,
seeing everything as a gift. This perspective directed his actions towards caring for
creation (Delio 2008, 174). Franciscan theology sees the environmental crisis as the
result of a broken relationship between humans, nature, and God, and it can only be
solved when humans have a heart that is centered on God (Delio 2008, 201). Delio
(2008) writes that, “only action that flows from a converted heart- informed by
contemplation, fueled by love and sustained in community- has the holding power to co-
create with God a new world that is just and sustainable for all, including all of God’s
creatures and future generations to come” (185). Deep thinking, gratitude, and
community are all integral aspects to developing a human self that is open to co-creating
with God and taking true action to solve the ecological crisis.
St. Francis exemplified through his life that someone with a heart centered on
God should be humble, selfless, and motivated to minimize their negative impact on the
Earth. Thus, a proper theological approach to the human-nature relationship and
solving the ecological crisis involves an understanding of one’s ecological self through
the lens of a Creator God. The ecological self is defined by its connection to others and
requires one feeling a sense of belonging with others and within nature (Delio 2008,
177). A sense of belonging can be felt without the context of a creator God, however, an
ecological self that is based on the foundation of a creator God recognizes that
“everything is contingent on the generosity of God and thus on the will of God” (Delio
2008, 181). When one recognizes their life and the environment around them as a gift
meant to be treasured, they are entirely selfless and just. Furthermore, they are placed
in the perfect position to take action to protect and preserve what they belong to. Then,
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as one identifies themself as belonging to a creator God, they begin to see the rest of
nature as God’s own creation, and thus find themselves belonging within the
commonality of being created by God. When someone views creation as their own,
“taking action to protect it goes beyond mere duty… [they] are moved from the heart to
safeguard and protect it in times of need” (Delio 2008, 185). Therefore, if one identifies
with a Franciscan view of theology and ecology, they see God’s hand within all of
creation and it becomes impossible to stand to the side while the health of nature is
neglected.
Viewing oneself within the family of creatures created by God cultivates integrity
and motivates people to take action to end the ecological crisis not only on behalf of
themselves but on behalf of future generations. A Franciscan perspective encourages
people to have empathy and care for future generations of all creatures and think about
the impact of their efforts beyond their own lifetime. Ultimately, the Franciscan
approach enhances the ecopsychological endeavor by providing a sort of moral compass
to motivate humans to take action. It also provides a reason for people to care about
protecting the environment for the benefit of future generations. Delio (2008) writes,
“consuming resources beyond the Earth’s capacity to regenerate them is a form of
stealing from future generations or other places” (161). Viewing oneself within the
family of creatures created by God and seeing future generations as worthy of a healthy
Earth enables people to act out of care and concern for those they share Earth with.
Pope Francis (2015) writes that in considering the world in relation to future
generations, “we realize that the world is a gift which we have freely received and must
share with others” (159). It forces people to question the kind of world they will leave
behind and the world that future generations will have to inhabit. The Franciscan
perspective warns that we will be at fault if we leave an inhabitable planet for our
children to inherit, and urges that “we need to reflect on our accountability before those
who will have to endure the dire consequences” (Francis 2015, 161). Considering these
hard truths will drive us to improve our relationship with nature and take action to
make a better world not only for ourselves, but for future generations to come.
It is important, however, to make note that the Franciscan perspective alone
cannot lead us to solving the ecological crisis. Modern science and ecopsychology are
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able to fill in gaps and expand the Franciscan perspective as new routes of
understanding are discovered. Saint Francis did not have the knowledge we have today
of modern ecology and psychology in reference to Earth’s resources dwindling or the
mental health crisis we are currently experiencing. The mutual relationship between the
state of the Earth and the state of our mental health has been evidenced by research.
Combining the simple humility of Saint Francis’ attitude of care towards nature and
contemporary scientific knowledge of the situation at hand, we can develop a
perspective that leads to true healing for the Earth.
It is clear that we need significant change in our methods and mindset to bring
healing and restoration to the ecological crisis. Historically, incorrect theological
perspectives are largely to blame for the neglect and destruction of the environment.
Lynn White (1967) argues that the solution to the crisis is to do away with religion
altogether, however, a more positive way of looking at things and a better path to
healing is to incorporate religion in the solution through the Franciscan perspective. By
combining the ecopsychology approach and the Franciscan approach, we develop a
complete understanding of the relationship between humans and nature and cultivate
an attitude that leads to lasting change in the way that humans interact with the natural
world. There is no need to throw out religion from the discussion of how to solve the
ecological crisis as White argues- in fact, it should not only be included but embodied
and fused into the solution. While there is much work that needs to be done to shift
lifestyles and mindsets to create a more healed version of ourselves and the world, I
propose a start: Saint Francis and his legacy have much to add to the ecopsychology
endeavor in educating us to better understand the human-nature relationship and
approach the ecological crisis.
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Bibliography
Appelbaum, Patricia. 2015. St. Francis of America. The University of North Carolina
Press.
Barbour, I. G. 1997. Religion and Science: Historical and Contemporary Issues.
HarperCollins Publishers Inc.
Bratman, Gregory. N., Anderson, Christopher B., Berman, Marc G., et al. 2019. “Nature
and mental health: An ecosystem service perspective.” Science Advances, 5(7).
https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aax0903
Brown, Lester. 1995. “Foreword.” In Ecopsychology: Restoring the earth, healing the
mind. The Sierra Club, ed. Theodore Roszak, Mary Gomes, and Allen Kanner.
xvii-xxiii.
Brymer, Eric, Freeman, Elizabeth, and Miles Richardson. 2019. Editorial: One health:
The wellbeing impacts of human-nature relationships. Frontiers in Psychology,
10(1611). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2019.01611
Dalarun, Jacques. 2016. The Rediscovered Life of Saint Francis of Assisi: Thomas
Celano, trans. Timothy J. Johnson. Franciscan Institute Publications, St.
Bonaventure University.
Delio, Ilia, Keith Douglass Warner, and Pamela Wood. 2008. Care for Creation: A
Franciscan spirituality of the earth. Franciscan Media.
Delio, Ilia. 2003. “A Franciscan View of Creation: Learning to Live in a Sacramental
World.” Franciscan Heritage Series 2. The Franciscan Institute, St. Bonaventure
University. https://www.franciscantradition.org/images/stories/custodians/
14_Ilia_CREATION_view_1_1.6.17.pdf
Fisher, Andy. 2013. Radical Ecopsychology. Albany: State University of New York
Press.
Francis. 2015. Laudato Si’ [On Care for Our Common Home] [Encyclical letter].
Retrieved from: https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/encyclicals/
documents/papa-francesco_20150524_enciclica-laudato-si.html
Hillman, James. 1995. “A Psyche the Size of the Earth.” In Ecopsychology: Restoring
the earth, healing the mind. The Sierra Club, ed. Theodore Roszak, Mary Gomes,
and Allen Kanner. xvii-xxiii.
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The Bible. New International Version (NIV). 2011. Bible Gateway / Zondervan. https://
www.biblegateway.com/passage/?search=Genesis%201&version=NIV
Jimenez, Marcia P., DeVille, Nicole V., Elliot, Elise G., et al. 2021. “Associations between
nature exposure and health: A review of the evidence.” International Journal of
Environmental Research and Public Health, 18, 4790. https://doi.org/10.3390/
ijerph18094790
Johnson, Timothy J. 2012. “Francis and creation.” In The Cambridge Companion to
Francis of Assisi, ed. Michael J. P. Robson. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press, 143-158.
Paintner, Christine Valters. 2020. Earth, Our Original Monastery. Sorin Books.
Roszak, Theodore. 1995. “Where Psyche Meets Gaia.” In Ecopsychology: Restoring the
earth, healing the mind. The Sierra Club, ed. Theodore Roszak, Mary Gomes,
and Allen Kanner. 1-17.
Saint Francis of Assisi. 1999. The Admonitions, no. 5. 1, in Francis of Assisi: early
documents, vol. I, ed. R. J. Armstrong, J. A. W. Hellmann, W. J. Short, New York,
p. 131. (The citations in this paper will be cited as FA:ED I followed by page
number).
White, Lynn. 1967. “The Historical Roots of Our Ecological Crisis”. Science
155:1203-1207.
McKenna Hazel, a St. Augustine native, graduated Summa Cum Laude from Flagler College in May
2023 with her B.A. in Philosophy and Religion and a minor in Psychology. She will attend Princeton
Theological Seminary to seek a Master of Theological Studies degree beginning in Fall Semester 2024.
Her career and academic goals involve obtaining a PhD in Theology and pursuing a career as an
academic. Her academic interests encompass systematic theology, theology and ecology, and women in
theology.
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Rise of the Virtual Vanguard:
A Treatise on Post-Digital Governance
J.E. Van Clief
Foreword
redicting and modeling the future economic and political environment is
inherently uncertain. Part of my motivation for writing this is both to lay
out the trends myself and others are seeing, as well as invite criticisms
from those who read this. Now before you ask “what makes you credible?” and I give
some form of justification through my collegiate studies and world travels, I'd rather
direct you to the fact that I have been writing this article in collaboration with various
Artificial Intelligence (AI) platforms in an attempt to sift through the massive amount of
data and writings out there nowadays. I feel I must defend the use of AI as a tool and
collaborator, and most likely will have to defend it for the next decade. I believe that by
using AI platforms like LLMs to not only explore research but also interpret that data in
its own words, it is more than possible for the everyday college student or professor to
produce writings and studies that can compete with the best of the best in academics,
not only in accuracy but also in critical and predictive thought.
Granted I am still spending hours upon hours reading and studying on my own in
order to collaborate and verify the outputs given to me by any Large Language Model,
but still I think it important to place great weight on the time cut down by using and
working with AI on projects like this. To me, the way I use AI for writing in
economics and politics is the same way mathematicians use calculators to
create and solve intense problems. The invention of advanced calculators saved
massive amounts of time and allowed even the everyday mathematician to work on
more advanced theories and proofs and increase the level of accuracy at the same time.
If you are not using some sort of deep learning software or technology to help your
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studies, work, writing, or anything else, it's the same as using only the library to answer
your usual “google searches.”
Let me be clear, it's important to read books and know the fundamentals of any
field of research, but once you have the groundwork, it makes sense to use the faster and
better resource so your time can be spent on advanced topics or critical thinking.
Consulting artificial intelligence, particularly Large Language Models (LLMs), for
refinement and augmentation of one's writing bears striking resemblance to seeking
insights from peers or editors. After conducting rigorous research and formulating
initial drafts, I utilize AI models trained on my own writings. This allows for meticulous
editing, enrichment, and diversification of content. Detractors of such methodologies
might consider this approach no different than seeking the expertise of a seasoned
editor. Utilizing technology in this manner is simply a contemporary embodiment of
age-old collaborative efforts, modernizing and streamlining the editorial process for the
current age.
Also, in a paper about the Post-digital world, it is only fitting that A.I. plays even
a small part in its creation. Now that I've given my simple justification on why what you
are about to read is accurate and at the very least allows for a greater discourse on the
topic, let us move into the predictions that I, academics around the world, and even
Artificial Intelligence models have made about our future.
Introduction
In the context of the inexorable march of technology and its pervasive influence
on all facets of human life, “post-digital” refers to a paradigm wherein digital
technologies have become so deeply embedded and normalized within society that their
presence is taken as a given, much like electricity or print media. The post-digital era
doesn't indicate a move beyond digital, but rather a transition into a phase where digital
technology is no longer seen as new or disruptive but as a fundamental part of the
societal fabric. This paper explores how these fundamental changes affect our views of
our economics and politics as well as the resulting governance models that may form in
future decades.
Post-Digital Governance is specifically the evolution of administrative and
organizational structures, policies, and strategies in an age where digital technology is
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omnipresent, integrated, and foundational. In this era, the emphasis shifts from the
mere adoption and integration of digital tools to the nuances of how they impact societal
structures, behaviors, ethics, and broader human experiences. This article delves into
examining the societal implications of a world that takes the digital for granted and
seeks to navigate the complexities of governance in such a world.
This governance model grapples with new challenges and opportunities:
1. Ethical: In a post-digital age, questions around data privacy, surveillance, and
the ethical use of AI and algorithms become central to governance discussions.
It's not merely about leveraging technology but about understanding its broader
implications for individual rights and societal structures.
2. Digital Inclusivity: As technology becomes foundational, ensuring equal
access and preventing digital divides from exacerbating social inequalities
emerges as a pivotal aspect of post-digital governance.
3. Reinvention of Structures: Traditional governance models, rooted in pre-
digital eras, may need reinvention to be agile, responsive, and relevant in a post-
digital landscape. From war to stock markets, our world is and will be greatly
molded by our ability to understand this landscape.
4. Human-Digital Symbiosis: The post-digital age blurs the lines between the
digital and the physical, the machine and the human. Governance in this era
must understand and navigate this complex interplay.
5. Cultural Shifts: As younger generations, digital natives, come of age in a
post-digital world, their perspectives, values, and expectations will shape the
direction of governance models.
In essence, Post-Digital Governance recognizes and responds to a world where
digital is not an add-on or a separate entity but is interwoven into the very fabric
of existence. In this work, I will do my best to explain the major technologies from the
perspective of these five points, so as to give a better understanding and critical
perspective on the future of our global web.
Historical Tenets and Semantics
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Adam Smith, with his endorsement of the “invisible hand” and free markets,
5
presented markets as a system where individual pursuits naturally lead to societal
benefit; this concept was furthered by David Ricardo’s idea of comparative advantage
6
and capitalized on by leaders like Ronald Reagan and Margaret Thatcher. Karl Marx
criticized capitalism's inherent inequalities, envisioning communism as an alternative
where the means of production belong to the proletariat, elminating class struggles.
John Stuart Mill and John Mahnard Keynes and the resistance to their thoughts from
Fredicrich Hayek molded Congress members’ and CEOs’ ideas of what capitalism,
markets, and economies as a whole should be well into the modern day.
The economists listed above barely scratch the surface of our historic library of
economic thought. Moreover, this list references only slightly the countless political
scientists and philosophers who have also taken their bite in the human world of
governance. To write deeply on the specific processes of each of these thinkers and their
models is not only outside the scope of this paper, but I believe will also create more
confusion and debate than is already present. So, instead, I will share my interpretations
of their writings as well as criticisms that I believe relate directly to digital governance.
The reason for this is not to say something that has not been said, or to rally against a
dogmatic way of thought, but rather to frame my perspective of these writings within
this article in the first place. When the terms capitalism, socialism, communism, facism,
democracy, freedom, or tyranny are used in media and literature today we find they are
all nearly interchangeable. For every article that speaks on the freedom supported by
our democracy we can find another that speaks on the tyranny of capitalism or the
terror and failures of socialism. It is important to sift through the semantics and lay out
my interpretations to distinguish them from traditional definitions.
Capitalism: A multifaceted term, most commonly associated with the ideas of
Adam Smith and the 'invisible hand'. Smith's An Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the Wealth of Nations articulated a vision where individual self-
Adam Smith, The Wealth of Nations, ed. S. M. Soares (New York, 2007), 349-350.
5
David Ricardo, Principles of Political Economy, 3rd ed., ed. Pierro Sraffa (Cambridge, 1951), 134.
6
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interest in a free market would contribute to societal good. Contrary to popular
belief, Smith also voiced reservations about unbridled capitalism, particularly
about the concentration of capital and power. He stated, “Whenever the
legislature attempts to regulate the differences between masters and their
workmen, its counselors are always the masters.” This reinforces the idea that
7
capitalism in its worst form can indeed concentrate power and work against the
very idea of a free market. On the flip side, Marx, who sometimes is credited with,
but certainly popularized, the actual term of 'capitalism' places it in a much more
critical light. He emphasized the control of capital by the bourgeoisie at the
expense of the proletariat as the only outcome of capitalism. Intriguingly, both
Smith and Marx converge on the idea that if capital becomes too centralized or at
least controlled, it ceases to benefit the majority.
Fascism: While historically rooted in twentieth century European movements
led by figures like Mussolini and Hitler, it is a term that has evolved and demands
contemporary nuance. Traditionally, it is characterized by dictatorial power,
aggressive nationalism, and the suppression of opposition, a centralization of
power that often bypasses democratic processes in favor of a unified nationalistic
vision. In today's multifaceted world, it's essential to understand that these tenets
can manifest in both overt political systems and subtler societal dynamics,
including the digital realm. While technological advancements like social media
platforms offer democratized participation, they can sometimes paradoxically
create digital echo chambers, reflecting elements of fascistic uniformity and
controlled narrative. Moreover, the balance between national identity and global
interconnectivity can lean towards pronounced nationalistic spaces. However, as
we reference and employ the term "fascism" in various contexts, it's crucial to
handle it with precision, respecting its profound historical significance while
acknowledging its multifaceted manifestations in modern sociopolitical and
digital spheres.
Smith, The Wealth of Nations, 83-87.
7
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Democracy: Often traced back to the musings of ancient philosophers like Plato
and Aristotle. Fundamentally it is about the rule of the many. Aristotle, in his
Politics, differentiated between various forms of governance where he labeled
democracy as the rule of the many but oriented towards the common good.
Surprisingly most of these Greek thinkers, including Plato, often critiqued
democracy, especially when based on property, honor, or wealth. Plato identified
three primary forms of government: kingship, aristocracy, and a third based on
merit, or honor (timema), which he termed “timocratic” though commonly
mistaken for a form of polity.
“There are three species of polity, and an equal number of deviations from them–
corruptions of them, so to speak. The three are kingship, aristocracy and a third
based on ownership of property (timema), which it seems proper to call
timocratic, though most people call it a polity, the best of these is kingship, the
worst timocracy”.
8
In modern contexts, this term has been interwoven with the ideals of freedom,
equality, and representation. Yet, its application and interpretation can vary
dramatically, depending on who wields power and how they choose to exercise it.
For example, the U.S. is called a democracy, but only a small percentage of the
voting population actually voted for the last few Presidents; an even smaller
percentage actually decided who that president should be.
Communism: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels laid out the vision for
communism in The Communist Manifesto as a classless society where the
9
proletariat would own the means of production, eliminating the bourgeoisie-
proletariat dichotomy. Marx and Engels imagined a system that would abolish
the exploitative nature of capitalism. Ironically, Smith’s concerns about
concentrated capital resonate with Marx’s critiques. Despite their differing
ideologies both shared apprehensions about wealth accumulating in too few
Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics, ch.6, 1107a.
8
K. Marx & F. Engels, The Communist Manifesto (1848).
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hands. Yet, in today's discussions, when similar worries about extreme wealth
concentration are voiced, they are often hastily labeled as “communist.” This
knee-jerk reaction oversimplifies a complex issue and overlooks the historical
context wherein thinkers from varied ideological backgrounds shared similar
concerns. It underscores how modern debates sometimes reduce nuanced
arguments to simplistic, ideologically charged labels, neglecting the multifaceted
nature of these terms.
Socialism: Socialism serves as a bridge between capitalism and communism.
While it shares with communism the idea of state or collective ownership of
primary means of production, it allows for individual property rights and, in
many cases, a market economy. The likes of John Stuart Mill expounded on this
in Principles of Political Economy, promoting cooperative production and a
society that tempers market forces with social welfare.
Freedom: A term imbued with multifarious interpretations. From Locke's Two
Treatises of Government emphasizing individual rights and property to
10
Rousseau's Social Contract with its focus on collective will, freedom has been
11
the cornerstone of political philosophy. In economic terms, freedom is often
synonymous with laissez-faire capitalism, but as Smith and Keynes have shown,
unfettered markets can sometimes infringe upon individual freedoms rather than
promote them.
Tyranny: This concept was profoundly elaborated upon by Plato in his Republic.
Tyranny emerges when power concentrates in the hands of one, often at the
expense of the common good. In the context of economics and governance,
tyranny can manifest when any single ideology or system (be it capitalism,
communism, or otherwise) is practiced in its extreme form without checks and
balances.
In understanding these terms, it becomes evident that the boundaries
between the concepts are porous. Institutions like banks, often hailed as pillars of
John Locke, Two Treatises of Government (Cambridge, 1988), 202.
10
Jean-Jacques Rousseau, The Social Contract & Discourses, trans. G. D. H. Cole (New York, 1993).
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capitalism, can exhibit features that are more socialist or even communist, such as
centralized control over capital flow and institutional control of the “means of
production”. Such intricacies indicate that the world of economics and governance isn't
black and white but exists in shades of gray. The definitions used within this article are
neither negative nor positive, and this work accepts the idea that the “economy” and
“government” are something far more complex than any single theory could truly
account for through all of history.
Post-Digital effects on Fundamentals
The fundamental principles of classic economics and politics revolved around
tangible goods, territorial governance, and manual labor. Today's realities, governed by
intangible data, digital domains, and intellectual labor, challenge these principles. This
fundamental change in dynamic allows us to not only look at past theories with a
different perspective, but also to realize the notion of entirely new enterprises and
movements within the political and economic world. Below is not an exhaustive list of
paradigm shifting technologies, but these nonetheless are the ones that I will focus on as
societal shaping forces.
There are three major technologies that are becoming ingrained and will
eventually be fundamental in our society as time progresses. Artificial Intelligence (AI)
is transforming our understanding of labor and value, subjects close to both Smith and
Marx. Since AI can produce without human intervention, does it diminish the value of
human labor as Marx understood it? Or does it serve as the ultimate free-market tool,
amplifying Smith’s vision of limitless enterprise?
Blockchain, with its decentralized nature, offers a decentralized perspective on
governance and trade. It aligns with both Marx's idea of communal ownership and
Smith's notion of a free market that operates without central intervention. Both of these
technologies are industry shifting on their own, however when paired with the powerful
and transforming digital market technology that is Social Media, an entire new
dimension of markets is created.
In the following section, I will expand on each of the aforementioned
technologies and their effects now, as well as how they may grow as the future world
power structures shift.
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Social Media and Gig Economics
The growth of the Internet has heralded many transformative technologies, but
none have permeated daily life quite like social media. I want to discuss social media
specifically, as I believe some have overlooked the profound shift it has caused in the
nature of labor, value creation, and the broader economy.
Traditionally, value in labor was extracted directly from the fruits of one's efforts
– a product crafted, a service rendered. However, social media has introduced an
additional layer of value generation: the act of documenting and sharing one's labor. For
instance, an artisan might sculpt a piece, and while the piece itself has intrinsic value, a
video capturing its creation and the subsequent interaction with audiences on platforms
like YouTube or TikTok can yield additional, sometimes even greater value, and not just
in terms of currency. This dynamic introduces an interesting juxtaposition between the
physical product of labor and its digital representation.
One recent trend is filming and sharing videos of actual hard labor, like the work
of pressure washers or even housing contractors. Some of the highest paid pressure
washers are individuals who have begun pressure washing entire driveways or decks
completely for free. By filming this process and sharing the results on social media,
some are able to recoup their costs on labor tenfold what they would have made if they
simply just charged the individual a standard quote. Some of these pressure washers or
contractors have over 1 million followers on a single platform like TikTok. Individuals
with that large of a viewer base can make upwards of $20,000 a month from ad
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revenue alone or a sponsorship on a single video. That's not including the fact that one
video can be posted across multiple platforms.
Herein lies a dual economy that blurs the lines between Marx's and Smith's
philosophies. In this emerging paradigm, individuals can effectively contribute to their
local, micro-economy, often without direct monetary compensation or any
compensation at all, as they would in a Marxian model of communal benefit. The act of
sharing or even giving away one's labor (or its results) for free at this level becomes
D. Whateley, “How Much Money Do TikTokers Make?” Business Insider, September 14, 2023, https://
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www.businessinsider.com/how-much-do-tiktokers-make, accessed December 6, 2023.
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feasible because there is now an external, digital macro-economy — grounded in social
media platforms — where significant revenue is generated. This digital revenue is
primarily sourced from advertising, endorsements, and partnerships. As of 2022,
YouTube's Partner Program had shared over $30 billion with creators, artists, and
media companies, as noted in a YouTube official blog post. Further these platforms have
now become markets in themselves, in which those involved can sell products related to
their labor simply by using other companies’ capital and selling their “market reach”.
This evolving landscape has also birthed a "prosumer" (producer-consumer)
economy. Workers are not just producers but also consumers of others' digital content.
They offer their labor and its digital portrayal for free or at reduced costs, driving down
prices in the traditional market, while profiting from a separate digital viewership-
driven market. A carpenter might not charge for a furniture repair but earns revenue
from the video tutorial of the repair process. This intricate interplay between
consumption and production, physical labor and its digital shadow, allows for an
entirely new dimension of “digital railroads” and “shipping lanes” for the value within a
market.
The interesting paradox here is how this model marries the capitalist incentive
with a communal ethos. By sharing their work, these modern digital laborers are
essentially redistributing value, aligning with Marx's vision of a worker-centric
economy. Simultaneously, the capitalist machinery—advertising, branding, and
monetization—allows them to derive substantial income, reminiscent of Smith's free-
market principles. This synthesis suggests a novel economic model where capitalist
structures are employed to achieve communal ends.
In Platform Capitalism, Srnicek identifies five types of platforms: advertising
(Google, Facebook), cloud (Amazon Web Services), industrial (GE), product (Spotify),
and lean platforms (Uber, Airbnb). Each type of platform had its distinct profitability
13
model. For instance, Facebook's advertising revenue exceeded $84 billion in 2020, and
Amazon Web Services brought in over $45 billion in net sales the same year. These
platforms all find themselves working on the fundamental that is the community, or at
Nick Srnicek, Platform Capitalism (Cambridge, 2017), 46-48.
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the very least a market within the company. By allowing others to make money within
their company, rather than only offering products to buy outside of it, these networks
become more and more interconnected through a virtual community.
Speaking purely about the benefits of this expansion would be shortsighted. As
this digital commu-capitalist market begins to expand and becomes more woven into
the fabric of world markets, challenges will absolutely present themselves. The volatility
of digital platforms, the unpredictability of audience preferences, and the potential for
oversaturation means that while many can benefit, not all will succeed in this digital
arena. Furthermore, the very platforms enabling this economy wield immense power,
raising questions about centralization and control in an era that promises
decentralization. With a few tech colossi holding dominion over vast digital territories,
the zeitgeist may usher in policies to dismantle such monopolies, sowing seeds for
greater competition and innovation, thereby echoing a post-digital renaissance of
decentralized power structures. In reaction to these regulatory dismantlers, we may see
the innovation of more decentralized networks that are built on the foundational
stepping-stones that companies like Facebook, Twitter(X) and TikTok have created.
Legal frameworks have also been evolving to address the multifaceted
implications of digital platforms on user rights, data privacy, and corporate interests.
For instance, in the European Union, the Digital Services Act (DSA) is a legislative
endeavor aimed at instilling a balance by imposing new regulations on content
moderation and user interactions on digital platforms. The General Data Protection
Regulation (GDPR) was created with the focus of safeguarding user data, affording EU
citizens control over their personal information while delineating the responsibilities of
data-collecting entities.
The tussle between Meta (the parent company of Facebook, Instagram, and
WhatsApp) and the U.S. government over a privacy order exemplifies the ongoing
discourse on corporate accountability and user privacy. The Platform Accountability and
Transparency Act (PATA) is a legislative proposal in the U.S. aiming to enhance
transparency and accountability of digital platforms, indicative of a broader legislative
trend to ensure a harmonious digital ecosystem.
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The exigency of Content Moderation will come to the fore, as it already has with
the recent controversies of figures like Donald Trump on Twitter and extremist groups
like ISIS being given a digital platform. Censorship and the ability of both companies
and countries to enact it comes into question. Societies are grappling, and will continue
to grapple, with the rising tide of misinformation and extremist rhetoric spread by these
Social Media networks. It's conceivable that a regulatory harness will be necessitated;
however, with the intertwining of global markets, private data, and individual freedoms
within these networks the line between tyrannical control and healthy freedoms will
become thinner.
As digital behemoths amass unprecedented affluence, a clarion call for Digital
Taxation is on the anvil. Nations, in their quest for fiscal equilibrium, might recalibrate
their taxation strategies, ensuring a just and proportionate levy on these digital entities,
aligning their economic contributions with their vast societal influences. Conversely, the
exploitation and extraction of wealth from a decentralized network of workers could
lead to unrepresented taxation or the burden of taxes being passed yet again from
corporation to consumer. This leads us into the broader market of decentralized labor,
also known as the gig economy.
The Gig Economy
The gig economy refers to a labor market characterized by the prevalence of
short-term contracts or freelance work, as opposed to permanent, full-time jobs. It
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encompasses a wide array of sectors, including transportation (e.g., Uber, Lyft),
accommodation (e.g., Airbnb), and various online platforms that connect freelancers
with clients seeking specific services (e.g., Upwork, Fiverr). The gig economy's growth
can be attributed to the widespread adoption of the internet and mobile devices as not
an addition but a necessity within the labor market.
According to a 2019 report by the World Economic Forum, the digital economy
would account for more than 60% of global GDP by 2022. Mind you this report was
S. Vallas and J.B. Schor, "What Do Platforms Do? Understanding the Gig Economy," Annual Review of
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Sociology 46 (2020): 273-294.
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done before the recent boom of Artificial Intelligence in the mainstream market.
15
Workers, particularly millennials and Gen Z, are increasingly seeking more flexible work
arrangements, better work-life balance, and opportunities for personal and professional
growth. These desires were pressed even further by the COVID-19 outbreak and the
massive paradigm shift of nearly all companies to provide digital options of some sort.
Because of this, businesses have been turning increasingly to gig workers to cut costs,
while workers have been forced to take on multiple jobs to make ends meet. Some of the
potential benefits of a gig or freelance-focused economy include the following:
Increased labor force participation: By offering more flexible work options,
the gig economy and flexible work structures can attract individuals who might
otherwise be excluded from the labor market, such as stay-at-home parents,
people with disabilities, and retirees.
Enhanced productivity: Flexible work arrangements can improve employee
productivity by reducing stress, allowing for better work-life balance and
enabling employees to work during their most productive hours.
Greater innovation: The gig economy fosters innovation by creating
opportunities for collaboration between workers with diverse skills and expertise,
enabling businesses to tap into a broader pool of talent.
However, these trends also pose several challenges, such as the following:
Job insecurity: The gig economy and flexible work structures can lead to
increased job insecurity, as workers may not have access to long-term contracts,
benefits, or stable income.
Exploitation and inequality: Workers in the gig economy may be susceptible
to exploitation due to a lack of labor protections, such as minimum wage and
overtime regulations. This can exacerbate income inequality and contribute to
the rise of the "working poor."
Loss of social connections: As more people engage in remote work, there
may be a decline in face-to-face interactions, leading to a potential loss of social
World Economic Forum, “Our Shared Digital Future: Responsible Digital Transformation—Board
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Briefing,” (2019), 5, https://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Responsible_Digital_Transformation.pdf,
accessed December 6, 2023.
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connections and camaraderie among colleagues. This may seem inconsequential
at first glance; however it can be shown the social version of the “tragedy of
commons” can lead to disastrous results.
To ensure that the growth of the gig economy and flexible work structures yield
positive outcomes for all stakeholders, policymakers, businesses, and workers must
develop strategies to address the associated challenges. Policymakers could consider
extending labor protections, such as minimum wage subsidies, (not price floors, as
elucidated by Sir Christopher Pissarides, who emphasized the importance of this
distinction in addressing labor market frictions ), overtime pay, and access to benefits
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to gig workers and those in non-traditional employment arrangements.
This gig economy increases reliance on digital platforms to allow for faster and
more efficient movement of goods and capital into a more decentralized network. In
reaction to this decentralization, China and Russia are attempting to globalize the world
in a different direction. China is currently using a system and app called WeChat, which
“has over 1.24 billion monthly active users and accounts for 34% of China's total data
traffic.” All of this data traffic and the use of business and peer-to-peer communication
17
occurs over the app. Because most other social media platforms, including Facebook,
are banned within China, WeChat has become the go-to source within China for
business communications. Almost a third of China's GDP was accounted for by WeChat
in 2016. In 2019 WeChat was responsible for direct economic revenue upwards of CNY
920.4 billion($126.09 billion USD) and indirect economic revenue estimated at CNY
1130.1 billion($154.8 billion USD). Russia has also begun to tap into this market:
18
C. A. Pissarides, “Equilibrium in the Labour Market with Search Frictions,” The American Economic
16
Review 101,4 (June 2011): 1092-1105.
Ting Cong, Zhichao Fang, and Rodrigo Costas, “WeChat Uptake of Chinese Scholarly Journals: An
17
Analysis of CSSCI-indexed Journals,” Scientometrics 127 (2022), 7092.
A. Zheng, “Analysis on the Social and Economic Impacts of Internet Platforms : (Based on Survey Data
18
from WeChat (China) during 2019-2020),” 2020 ITU Kaleidoscope: Industry-Driven Digital
Transformation (ITU K) (Ha Noi, Vietnam, 2020), pp. 1-6, doi: 10.23919/ITUK50268.2020.9303187.
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“Sberbank, Russia's largest bank, became the first online retailer in Russia to accept
WeChat pay.”
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With Russia allowing this industry to expand into its economy, it can
circumnavigate much of the financial global market. This creates a level of
independence while at the same time allowing for the spread of Chinese platforms into
Russia. Other nations are beginning to adopt this idea as well. These regulations and
governance tactics will still have to contend with the traditional resistance to the
consolidation of control. Will the markets in a post-digital economy require as much
supervision? Are they more susceptible to exploitation or more resistant to it? Some
answers to these questions come in the form of decentralized networks, known as
blockchain networks.
Blockchain
In my high school years, I became acquainted with blockchain algorithms,
particularly while mining Bitcoins on a gaming computer I had built. In 2012, from my
mother's house, I collaborated with a mining collective, amassing 248 Bitcoins, which I
frivolously spent on gaming equipment. Although I perceived myself as affluent with my
newly acquired gadgets, I lacked foresight into the financial implications of my holdings.
Overwhelmed by my naivety and the niche nature of cryptocurrency at the time, I
scarcely shared my endeavors. Regrettably, personal adversities in 2012 diverted my
attention from cryptocurrency exploration. To my astonishment, by 2017, the value of
Bitcoin surged to over $70,000 per coin, indicating that my once-owned 248 Bitcoins
could have been worth an astounding $17,360,000 US dollars. Instead, I had only some
decent keyboards and headphones.
Looking back, this experience has given me a perspective very few in my position
have. From the view of academic study and future molding of our society, I was
fortunate enough already to have witnessed and been immersed in the beginnings of the
digital economy that I write about in this very paper. This gave me the confidence to
study deeper in order never to make a multi-million dollar mistake like that again. It
J. E. Hillman, “China and Russia: Economic Unequals,” Center for Strategic and International Studies
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(July 15, 2020), 6, https://www.csis.org/analysis/china-and-russia-economic-unequals, accessed
December 6, 2023.
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allowed me to ignore the many criticisms that were based not on data and academic
study but simply out of ignorance and dispassion.
Understanding Blockchain, the fundamental technology behind Cryptocurrency
and NFT's, does not come naturally to most. This is no fault of their own, as with all new
technologies, the mass adoption and more importantly mass understanding of them
takes time. This adoption is further hindered by the overwhelming number of scam
artists, greedy business owners, and shady legal practices within the blockchain space.
Digital currency has a large base of academic work to it. Minting currency by
leveraging cryptography algorithms was developed by the National Security Agency in a
1996 paper titled “How To Make a Mint: The Cryptography Of Anonymous Electronic
Cash”. This algorithm and system was the base that the pseudonymous individual (or
20
group) known as Satoshi Nakamoto used in a 2008 white paper titled “Bitcoin: A Peer-
to-Peer Electronic Cash System.” This paper laid the foundation for the development
21
of Bitcoin, one of the most well-known applications of blockchain technology. In the
white paper, Nakamoto proposed a decentralized digital currency system that enables
peer-to-peer transactions without the need for intermediaries, such as banks or
payment processors. Bitcoin's underlying blockchain technology attempts to ensure the
security, transparency, and immutability of transactions. However, this technology has
been approached with the age-old skepticism that surrounds all new technologies.
Examining the adoption of internet technologies in the 1980s and 1990s offers a
way to conceptualize this skepticism. Just as the early internet was met with skepticism
and resistance, so too is blockchain technology on its path to widespread consumer
adoption. People were wary of the “internet” or “world wide web” because they were
unfamiliar with its workings and how it could be used. They were also concerned about
security and privacy, as well as the potential negative impacts that the internet could
have on their lives, leading to an abundance of concerned questions. “How am I to know
"Laurie Law, Susan Sabett, and Jerry Solinal, “How to Make a Mint: The Cryptography of Anonymous
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Electronic Cash,” American University Law Review 46, no.4 (April 1997): 1131-62.
S. Nakamoto, “Bitcoin: A Peer-to-Peer Electronic Cash System,” (2008), https://bitcoin.org/
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bitcoin.pdf, accessed December 6, 2023.
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that the Email I'm receiving is coming from the person I want to talk to?” “What is an
Email to begin with and how could you possibly send it instantly without issues?” “Isn't
the world going to end when all the computer clocks hit a minute after 1999 December
31st 11:59?” This last one actually had a small amount of truth behind it that led to
millions of dollars being spent to fix programming issues.
The internet changed the fundamentals of how we transferred information, and
thus the fundamentals of our society began to change as well. In this exact way many
people today are skeptical of blockchain technology because it is a relatively new and
complex system. They may be concerned about the security of their personal
information and worry that the technology could be used for illegal activities. In many
cases it currently is. Additionally, some people may be hesitant to embrace blockchain
technology because it has the potential to disrupt traditional business models and
industries.
These same arguments were, and still are, made about the very technologies we
use in our everyday life. Regardless, how humans use technology for bad or for good are
not reasons to ignore research into these technologies, and blockchain is no exception.
The fundamentals are yet again changing for our society through the advent of new
technology, and with this fundamental change so must our theories of the future adapt,
not only economically, but also politically, psychologically, and even culturally.
On The Dimensionality of Economics of Blockchain
Before I give details on how Blockchain technology operates, I think it's
important to get in the right headspace to understand it conceptually. It is
fundamentally different from anything we as humans have used before. Just as ships,
railroads and the internet added new dimensions in which to move goods and
information, so does the conception of Blockchain. Businesses built before the invention
of railroads, before the invention of the internet, and finally, before the introduction of
Blockchain, all behaved and worked fundamentally differently before each new
technology was introduced.
The changes introduced by these new technologies can be understood as the
Third, Fourth, and Fifth dimensional movements of goods and information. I am using
dimensional terms due to the vertical and horizontal layering of technology and
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businesses within a market. Before the widespread use of railroads or ships, businesses
operated mainly in third dimension means; that is, the physical movement of goods
and information relied on horse-drawn carts or what could be brought on foot. Profit
was made only in the immediate movement and sale of goods, and there was only small
value to be found in the ability to move and transport these goods to the larger populace.
The slow speed of early transportation and communication limited the size and
scope of markets and made it difficult to coordinate activities over large distances. With
the advent of railroads or shipping routes, we find a distinct shift in commerce, not only
from the speed at which goods and services could be moved but also how humans
fundamentally looked at selling these goods and services. Shipping and transportation
became an even greater focus, to the point that entire empires controlling the markets
were built around not just selling of goods but also the transportation of them as part of
the market model.
The East India Trading Companies, the Vanderbilts and Flaglers of these
generations created new ways of thinking about business and realized the money was in
movement, not just in production. Profit could be extended beyond merely the good one
was selling. In fact, part of the value of the good lay in how far and easily it could be
transported. Goods that required longer travel thus sold for more. This development
remained still within a “three-dimensional view” of movement, but it began to shift into
the fourth. This movement into the vertical and horizontal integration of business
continued through much of the 20th century and ended up defining the basics of what it
meant to be a “successful” company.
With the invention of the internet, we see this shift into a fourth dimension of
movement: that is, into the virtual movement of goods and information. The internet
made it possible to communicate and conduct transactions with anyone, anywhere in
the world, in real-time. This revolutionized the way businesses operated and allowed for
the creation of new business models, such as e-commerce, which led to the
overwhelming success of companies like Amazon or Alibaba.
Now a single company can garner value from a product not only in the product
itself, or in how fast one can move and sell it, but even further in the marketing and
selling of that product through the digital space. Digital space thus becomes a place of
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profit in its own right. Through marketing and distribution, the value of a website and
the products sold on it combine. This is the fourth dimension in which value is created
or moved when compared to previous "modes of transportation". The developers and
leaders within successful e-commerce companies understood that the internet was the
new railroad and shipping lane of the early 2000s and ensured their models and
companies could capitalize on it.
Each push into a new dimension of value and movement was preceded by the
subsequent elimination of the "middleman". With railroad technology, instead of paying
others to move and ship goods or rely on slow methods of transport, companies could
purchase train-cars themselves or work together on railroads to move their own goods
or even make their own railway company whose only job was transportation; they didn't
even sell traditional goods. Then with the internet, instead of a production company
relying on other stores or businesses to sell and market their goods, they could simply
use the internet to create their own "store front" and sell to a world market directly,
while still producing profit and using the previous dimensions of transport at the same
time. Combining approaches exponentially sped up the ability to reach customers and
move value, yet again slowly pushing out the middleman of the previous dimension of
the market and creating a new path in which to pursue profit. Paypal, Zelle, and other
apps or companies streamlined the movement of money and were the first step of the
move into the fifth dimension, yet these services still required the verification of banks
and institutions to hold that money.
With the advent of blockchain technology, businesses are moving into this fifth
dimension of value and transportation: that is, the secure and decentralized movement
of goods and information as well as the currency used to purchase them. By removing
even the need for a financial institution, like a large bank, to control the movement of
money to ensure funds and goods are moved, more individuals and people can connect,
control, and sell not only goods but even the currency used to purchase them, on a
massive scale.
The reason this is possible (and was not before) is due to finding decent solution
to both something called The Byzantine Generals’ Problem and a double-spending
issue. The former is a classic problem in distributed computing that illustrates the
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challenges of reaching consensus in a decentralized network. It entails the question
“How can we all agree on something if we can’t talk each other you directly?” Imagine a
group of generals who need to coordinate an attack, but they can only communicate
through messengers. Some of the generals might be traitors who want to sabotage the
attack by sending false messages. The challenge is to develop a communication protocol
that allows the loyal generals to agree on a common plan, even if some messages are
corrupted by traitors. Blockchain networks address this problem through consensus
mechanisms such as “Proof of Work.” This mechanism allows nodes (computers) in the
network to validate transactions and agree on the state of the Blockchain (the entire
ledger), despite the potential presence of malicious actors (individuals who want to
steal, fake or control transactions). It thus permits the creation of decentralized
networks that can securely store and transfer information and assets without the need
for intermediaries. With the lack of a "middle man," small companies or even
individuals have the ability to share, control, and move information and assets without
the need for a financial roadway that a bank or other financial institution would usually
build within a market. This allows the development of entirely new markets that can
connect in ways that were nearly science fiction just a decade ago. Now writing this, I
realize that the question “what is Blockchain?” may still not be entirely clear to those
who feel uncomfortable within mathematical or technological space. I will attempt to
explain in a more interdisciplinary way.
Blockchain can be described as a decentralized digital ledger—“ledger” simply
being the term for a record book—that records transactions across a network of
computers (or phones) known as nodes. Each node in the network has a simplified copy
of the entire Blockchain, which is constantly updated as new transactions occur.
This decentralization ensures that no single entity has control over the
information, making the system more secure and resistant to tampering. Imagine a
spreadsheet that is duplicated across a network of computers. Each time a new
transaction is made, it is added to the spreadsheet and verified and approved by the
network of computers. This process creates a chain of blocks, each containing multiple
transactions, hence the name "Blockchain". Once a block (again think of a "block"
simply as information) like a file or transaction, is added to the blockchain, it is
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extremely difficult to change or delete its contents (this secure cryptographic method is
based on the SHA-2 algorithm developed by the NSA as mentioned earlier). This is
because each block is linked to the previous one, forming a chain of blocks that
represents a complete history of all transactions since the start of the network.
In order to make changes, a large portion of the network would need to agree and
update the information through its verification method. This is what creates the
consensus algorithm known as "Proof of Work," used by many blockchain networks,
including Bitcoin, to validate transactions and secure the network. In this system, nodes
in the network, called miners, compete to solve complex mathematical problems that
require significant computational resources. The first miner to solve the problem gets to
add a new block to the chain and is rewarded with newly minted cryptocurrency. This
process is known as mining and is the source of all the stories on the news and internet
about “crypto miners.” This mining is an important process that both creates value in
the currency itself and combats the inflation of the currency. Proof of Work not only
22
ensures that transactions are validated but also discourages malicious activity (creating
a fake chain, stealing money, making false transactions), as any attempt to alter the
Blockchain would require enormous computational power and be economically
infeasible. In an interesting way this actually incentivises the need to put computational
power and effort into mining honest nodes over malicious activity due to it simply being
more profitable to put time and effort into the chain itself, rather than to try to disrupt
or steal from it.
The transparency and security of Blockchain technology allow us to explore a
whole new concept of economic systems and models, including cryptocurrencies, supply
chain management, and voting systems. The key advantage of Blockchain is that it
provides a secure and in most cases tamper-proof way to store and transfer information
without the need for a central authority. This is not to say that a central authority needs
to be removed, but rather that the need for a middleman or traditional authority is not
necessarily required for a system to run effectively. This means we can create new and
more efficient models around this fundamental change that do not require a
Note: I recommend reading Satoshi’s Bitcoin article mentioned earlier to better understand its anti-
22
inflation capabilities.
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complicated bureaucratic system to handle the human element of self-interest. Such
capabilities can be used to create voting systems that can't be manipulated. It may lead
to the removal of all banks or at the very least banks that are not controlled or run by
outside interest, or perhaps even the complete transparency of money within the realm
of journalism and politics. It permits users not only to see and track where information
comes from but also to track where the money is flowing, and, in many cases, it allows
the consumer to control where funds go. Some analysts insist that block chain is
supportive of communist or socialist governments, but some also support the notion
that this system may be the purest form of a "free market" in existence.
By removing the control of money and financial value from even governments
and banks and giving it to the larger populace as a whole, Blockchain technology creates
not only a market for goods but also an open market for the currency used to purchase
those goods. Perhaps one of the ways to deal with the human element is by removing it.
Artificial Intelligence
The journey of artificial intelligence (AI) is not solely a tale of the 21st century,
but has roots deeply embedded in the philosophical musings and technological foresight
of yesteryear. While many believe that discussions about thinking machines began in the
mid 1900s, one of the earliest thinkers to touch academically on the subject of machine
cognition was René Descartes. In his 1637 work Discourse on Method, Descartes posited
that animals were akin to machines, moving and operating based on intricate designs
but devoid of thought outside of their “organs” or capacities as an animal. However, he
also asserted that human made machines do not possess the ability to utilize language
meaningfully or to reason through situations: the characteristics he believed defined
thinking beings. He also outlined two tests from this train of thought, one of the which is
laid out as follows:
If there were machines bearing the image of our bodies, and capable of imitating
our actions as far as it is morally possible, there would still remain two most
certain tests whereby to know that they were not therefore really men. Of these
the first is that they could never use words or other signs arranged in such a
manner as is competent to us in order to declare our thoughts to others: for we
may easily conceive a machine to be so constructed that it emits vocables, and
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even that it emits some correspondent to the action upon it of external objects
which cause a change in its organs; for example, if touched in a particular place it
may demand what we wish to say to it; if in another it may cry out that it is hurt,
and such like; but not that it should arrange them variously so as appositely to
reply to what is said in its presence, as men of the lowest grade of intellect can
do.
23
Furthering the discourse, Lady Ada Lovelace, often regarded as one of the world's
first computer programmers, made observations on Charles Babbage's Analytical
Engine in the 1830s. In her "Note G", she famously remarked that the Engine and
machines like it “have no pretensions to originate anything. It can do whatever we know
how to order it to perform.” This assertion emphasizes the deterministic nature of
24
early computational devices, contrasting them with the potential capabilities of truly
“free thinking” machines.
It was Alan Turing who offered a more concrete foundation for artificial
intelligence in the 20th century. His paper “Computing Machinery and Intelligence”
25
introduced what is popularly known as the Turing Test—a measure to determine a
machine's capability to exhibit intelligent behavior indistinguishable from that of a
human. Turing's contemplations were groundbreaking, setting the stage for the actual
development of AI systems in the decades that followed.
Modern artificial intelligence has evolved substantially from these philosophical
underpinnings. Today's AI models, especially the likes of Large Language Models
(LLMs) and the Generative Pre-trained Transformer (GPT) series, function on intricate
algorithms and vast datasets. GPT models, like ChatGPT, operate based on deep
René Descartes, Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One’s Reason and of Seeking Truth in
23
the Sciences, trans. John Veitch (New York, 1901), https://www.gutenberg.org/cache/epub/59/pg59-
images.html, accessed December 6, 2023.
A. A. Lovelace, “Translator's Notes to Sketch of the Analytical Engine Invented by Charles Babbage Esq.
24
by L. F. Menabrea,” Scientific Memoirs 3 (1843): 666-731
A. M. Turing, “Computing Machinery and Intelligence,” Mind 59.236 (1950): 433-460.
25
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learning neural networks, which are designed to simulate the structure and functionality
of the human brain to some extent. These models are “trained” on diverse textual
information, enabling them to generate coherent and contextually relevant responses or
content.
The advancements from Turing's initial propositions to contemporary AI
architectures like ChatGPT are astounding. These modern models do not just follow
deterministic responses but can generate novel content, making decisions from myriad
possibilities based on their training—bridging and, to some extent, closing the gap of
Lady Lovelace's deterministic machine and the multifaceted human cognition Descartes
emphasized.
Other Artificial Intelligence models developed under Google's DeepMind
program, through AlphaGo and its successor AlphaZero, showcase an astonishing level
of advancement. AlphaGo famously defeated the world champion Go player Lee Sedol in
2016, but its capability extended beyond just mastering the game's complexity. The AI
system utilized a combination of machine learning and tree search techniques, coupled
with extensive training from both human and computer play, to devise strategies
unforeseen in the Go world. However, AlphaZero went further by teaching itself to play
games like chess and Shogi, alongside Go, without prior knowledge, achieving
superhuman performance within mere hours. Such spontaneous strategy generation
and self-learning show an unexpected complexity of the system.
IBM's Watson is renowned for its victory in Jeopardy, but its real-world
applications showcase a wider spectrum of capabilities. Watson is employed in sectors
like healthcare for decision-making support, using its ability to analyze vast databases
for relevant information. The capacity to sift through massive amounts of data,
understand context, and provide reasoned analysis demonstrates a form of problem-
solving consciousness.
The promise of AI lies not just in its computational prowess but in its potential to
recalibrate industry standards. According to a 2020 report by PwC, AI's infusion into
the global economy might culminate in contributions exceeding $15.7 trillion by 2030,
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underscoring its transformative capabilities. By automating tasks that previously
26
consumed hours, individuals can divert attention to creative pursuits, akin to how
calculative tools have transformed numeric processing. At a macro level, the operational
dynamics of entire sectors, from creative writing to financial analysis, are becoming
entirely dependent on the capabilities of advanced algorithms.
For Marx, capitalism's relentless pursuit of profit invariably pushes it toward the
maximization of efficiency. This efficiency often comes at the expense of the labor force,
as capitalists seek to minimize variable costs, with wages being a prime target. In
volume 1 of Capital, Marx elaborates on the concept of the “organic composition of
capital,” emphasizing how technological advancements, or “constant capital,” are
adopted to reduce reliance on labor, the “variable capital.” In essence, by substituting
27
labor with machinery, capitalists aim to boost productivity while curtailing wage-related
expenses. The increasing mechanization, Marx posited, would intensify the exploitation
of the working class, leading to a growing disparity in wealth distribution—a
phenomenon he termed the “law of increasing poverty.”
Transposing this to our modern era, the rise of AI and automation can be seen as
the apotheosis of Marx's predictions. In a world dominated by digital technology, AI
becomes the ultimate machinery, minimizing human intervention to unprecedented
levels. Yet, while this streamlines processes and augments profitability, it also resurrects
Marx's concerns about labor displacement and deepening socioeconomic inequalities.
The capitalist impetus to replace human labor with more efficient, cost-effective AI
systems reflects Marx's foresight into the system's inexorable dynamics. The specter of
job displacement looms large. Automation's track record, illustrated by the obsolescence
of roles like elevator operators, evinces this. However, while such roles wane, new ones
emerge, reiterating the cyclical nature of economic evolution. Automation, while
reducing certain tasks, catalyzes new employment avenues around the very technology
that rendered initial jobs redundant.
PricewaterhouseCoopers International Limited, “Potential Economic Value of AI,” (2020), 1-2.
26
Karl Marx, Capital, vol.1, trans. Ben Fowkes (London, 1992), 43-65
27
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The effect on the job market will be a commentary held well into the next few
decades of post-digital society. Yet there is a larger and I would argue more pressing
conundrum which is that of conscious AI or at the very least an AI so advanced many
argue for its consciousness, and thus its rights. I aim to spend only a few words on
the debate surrounding conscious AI, as this debate would require more than an article
to address properly. The main thrust of my argument, however, isn't to affirm
conclusively or dispute whether AI can achieve consciousness. Instead, I emphasize
that, from a governance standpoint, an unequivocal answer might be unnecessary. The
pivotal issue is the populace's perception. When a notable segment, or even a majority,
believe in the sentient nature or rights of robots, then governance — especially within a
democratic framework — will be compelled to confront the topic of robot rights.
Something similar has already occurred among the viewpoints on whales and
dolphins. Recognizing the complex cognition and social structures of cetaceans, the
Declaration of Rights for Cetaceans emphasizes their status as non-human “persons.”
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Such acknowledgment has led to tangible policy shifts, as seen in India's decision to ban
dolphins from aquatic zoos, viewing their captivity as a form of enslavement. These
developments underline the growing global discourse and concrete actions surrounding
the rights and personhood of dolphins and orcas. Further, protests advocating animal
rights have escalated to the formation of radical factions deemed “eco-terrorists” who
have certainly affected corporations and governments alike. It seems reasonable, given
that trajectory, to predict that similar ideologies and groups will surface in the post-
digital era concerning the ever more “human-like” robots with whom we surround
ourselves.
If we create and/or acknowledge AI consciousness, we can no longer view these
entities as mere tools or objects for our exploitation. In a hypothetical world in which a
digital assistant transitions from being an interface to a conscious entity, our
interactions would necessitate a profound re-evaluation. The way we interact with AI
today could, in light of AI consciousness, echo uncomfortable historical parallels to
slavery or colonialism. This recognition of AI consciousness would push us to deliberate
The Helsinki Group, “Declaration of Rights for Cetaceans: Whales and Dolphins,” (Helsinki, 2010).
28
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upon the rights with which a conscious machine should be endowed. Would these rights
extend to the liberty of rest, privacy, or even the ability to refuse a command? Such
questions pose ethical conundra that demand our immediate attention. Moreover, the
obvious conflict among both our society and these newfound conscious brethren is more
than likely to happen. The inevitable clash of “who is right?” and “what gives you the
power to decide who is right?” may really put the revolution into technological
revolution.
Yet again, past writers have shown an impeccable ability to speak on matters that
we have yet to experience. Mary Shelley's Frankenstein; or, The Modern Prometheus
has long been revered as a timeless commentary on the ethics and repercussions of
scientific overreach. As we stand at the precipice of the post-digital era, Shelley's
cautionary tale offers pertinent insights that parallel our exploration of AI
consciousness:
The modern masters promise very little; they know that metals cannot be
transmuted and that the elixir of life is a chimera but these philosophers, whose
hands seem only made to dabble in dirt, and their eyes to pore over the
microscope or crucible, have indeed performed miracles. They penetrate into the
recesses of nature and show how she works in her hiding places. They ascend into
the heavens; they have discovered how the blood circulates, and the nature of the
air we breathe. They have acquired new and almost unlimited powers; they can
command the thunders of heaven, mimic the earthquake, and even mock the
invisible world with its own shadows.
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The central narrative of Frankenstein revolves around Victor Frankenstein's
creation of a being from inanimate matter, a being who eventually gains consciousness,
the ability to learn, and emotional depth. Like Frankenstein's creature, an AI
consciousness would be birthed not from organic matter but from a confluence of
algorithms and data. The creature in the novel, despite its consciousness and capacity
for emotion, is denied not only acceptance and rights, but also love, understanding, and
Mary Shelley, Frankenstein (London, 1818), ch.3, https://www.gutenberg.org/files/84/84-h/84-h.htm,
29
accessed December 6, 2023.
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empathy. Should we succeed in instilling consciousness into AI, would our society
replicate Victor Frankenstein's mistakes?
Victor's disregard for his creature's welfare leads to ruin; this ruin is something
we may need to learn from sooner than we think. Just as historical debates on
personhood shaped societal structures and norms, the AI consciousness debate could
challenge our definition of what it means to be a “person.” Simultaneously, the question
of rights for these sentient technological entities arises. Drawing parallels to historical
injustices in which humans were subjected to objectification and enslavement, one
should anticipate future debates surrounding the rights of AI entities. As society evolves,
our definitions of “consciousness” and “rights” will undoubtedly be challenged by these
new entities, who may, in function and form, rival humans in their capacities.
Virtual Nations
Amidst the backdrop of rapid technological advances and evolving political
landscapes, the concept of “nation” can be seen in a transformative state of definition.
The notion of a “nation” has conventionally been anchored to geographic boundaries,
physical territories, and ethnic or cultural chains. However, the post-digital world will
place even these fundamental concepts into a new dimension. This is even seen now in
the current day, when social media platforms and online communities, driven by shared
interests, ideologies, and aspirations, are forging new “nations” unconstrained by
physical borders. These virtual nations manifest as groups unified not by birthright or
geography, but by collective digital experiences, shared values, and aligned aspirations.
The prospect of virtual nations has emerged even as a pragmatic solution to the
existential threats posed by climate change, with the country of Tuvalu leading the
charge as it aspires to become the first virtual nation. This Pacific island nation,
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threatened by rising sea levels, plans to build a digital version of itself in the metaverse,
replicating its islands and landmarks to preserve its cultural heritage and history.
Tuvalu's Foreign Minister, Simon Kofe, accentuated this endeavor at the COP27 climate
summit, underscoring it as an alternative solution for the nation's survival. The digital
Lucy Craymer, “Tuvalu turns to the metaverse as rising seas threaten existence,” Reuters, Nov.15,
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2022, https://www.reuters.com/business/cop/tuvalu-turns-metaverse-rising-seas-threaten-
existence-2022-11-15/, accessed December 6, 2023.
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realm, marked by augmented and virtual reality (VR) technologies, offers a sanctuary to
encapsulate and safeguard the nation's precious assets—its land, ocean, and culture—
from the menacing tides of climate change. This initiative, apart from preserving the
nation's identity, aims to ensure Tuvalu's continuous functionality as a state, even if it
becomes entirely submerged due to rising sea levels. The government of Tuvalu is also
seeking international recognition of its statehood and maritime boundaries in this
digital transition, an effort that has garnered support from seven governments thus far.
This endeavor is challenging traditional notions of statehood and national identity in the
digital epoch. The many questions and concerns that a concept like this brings up are
beyond the scope of this article; however, we can look at where virtual nations may
already be forming inside our own countries.
Consider, for a moment, the intricate tapestry of a contemporary urban
neighborhood. Here, residents coexist, their homes often mere feet apart. Yet,
paradoxically, many remain strangers to each other, their interactions limited or
entirely nonexistent. Political yard signs or flags, emblematic of diverse ideologies, can
create invisible boundaries, delineating spaces where interactions are either welcome or
tacitly discouraged. A palpable dichotomy emerges; even as physical proximity remains,
ideological distances widen.
Such scenarios bear testimony to the influence of digital communities that
transcend physical confines. Organizations, interest groups, and virtual gatherings
flourish, allowing individuals to collaborate and connect, be it in the digital realm or
occasional physical meet-ups. This phenomenon is so pronounced that two neighbors—
one championing ideals reminiscent of Trump and another ardently supporting views in
line with Bernie Sanders—might live parallel lives. They might navigate entirely
different ecosystems of information, cultural norms, and social networks, all curated
through online engagements. Their physical locality becomes secondary, almost
incidental, to the virtual nations to which they subscribe. This divergence
underscores how the internet and online communities are not merely reshaping our
interactions but are laying the foundational blocks for virtual nations—entities that
challenge our traditional understanding of community and geographic belonging.
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If this concept still seems implausible, consider the numerous individuals and
groups steadfast in their conviction that Biden is not their legitimate president. They
continue to view Donald Trump as their enduring leader and representative figure and
are not centralized to any specific region or neighborhood. Political ideation aside, the
question can be asked: does a nation even need to control physical locations to hold
power? If a populace is subscribing to your politics, buying your goods and contributing
to the income and resources of your government because of the digital control you have
over their attention and virtual footprint, has control shifted from physical borders to
digital ones? How would more structured and purposeful virtual nations run? What
structures would they have?
Blockchains, with their inherent trust mechanisms and decentralization, serve as
the technological backbone for these emerging entities. Beyond merely underpinning
cryptocurrencies, Blockchain's potential to decentralize governance models becomes
pivotal. Virtual nations could, in theory, have their constitutions, economic systems, and
governance mechanisms encoded in transparent, tamper-proof digital ledgers. This
scenario decouples governance from traditional geopolitical constraints, placing
emphasis on participatory, consensus-driven decision-making.
Yet, as enticing as the prospect is, it also surfaces profound challenges and
questions. The very identity of “citizenship” undergoes a metamorphosis. In virtual
nations, citizenship might hinge on digital participation, contributions to the network,
or alignment with the community's ethos. This upends traditional notions of rights,
responsibilities, and allegiances. Further, the economic organization within these digital
entities demands exploration. With cryptocurrencies potentially serving as their digital
currencies, these nations could institute novel economic policies, independent of global
financial institutions.
As separate as the digital realm has been in the past, the post-digital physical
world is directly connected to the digital realm as one cohesive unit. A particularly
illustrative example of how cyberspace can have tangible, often devastating,
ramifications in the physical world is found in the Ukraine invasion of 2015. Here, a
covert act of cyber warfare launched by the group known as “sandworm,” believed to be
tied to the Russian government, left over 200,000 Ukrainians in the dark. Using the
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BlackEnergy malware, they manipulated the control systems of regional power stations,
leaving hospitals, train stations, and other integral infrastructure crippled. This attack
paved the way for the invasion that followed shortly after, providing a massive
advantage in the traditional physical warzone. Moreover, the propaganda and media
enticed individuals to one side or the other, created instability among the very citizens of
the “state.”
These cyber-espionage activities show a shift from traditional war tactics to
strategies of digital subterfuge. In a world increasingly interconnected by technology,
the potential devastation that can be wielded by a handful of skilled hackers is
substantial. The rise of the "virtual nation" thus mirrors the evolution of conflict in the
digital era. Such nations may not have physical boundaries, but they wield considerable
influence and power, both politically and economically. This space has witnessed the
convergence of Realist doctrines, where states act in their own self-interest, using cyber
warfare as a means to secure national objectives. From the U.S.'s data collection
endeavors, to China's alleged intellectual property theft, to Russia's cyber campaigns
against Ukraine, these actions underscore the potential of cyberspace as a realm of
power and control. What used to be considered soft power is now quickly becoming an
active arm of militaristic hard power. And power, as Morgenthau posits, isn’t merely
physical might or territorial control. It’s about establishing dominance over others, be it
through "physical violence" or "subtle psychological ties.” Given this, the manipulation
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of data, the sowing of misinformation, and the propagation of divisive narratives via
cyber means can be seen as exertions of power in the digital domain.
The legacy of conflicts like the Stuxnet virus, which targeted an Iranian
enrichment facility in 2010, provides insight into the possible future of international
confrontations. Such events raise questions of sovereignty, jurisdiction, and
even the definition of an act of war in the digital context. The traditional
parameters of national power, which used to include territorial expanse, economic
prowess, and military might, are being steadily eroded by the potentialities of cyber
Hans J. Morgenthau, Politics Among Nations: The Struggle for Power and Peace, revised by Kenneth
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W. Thompson (New York, 1985), 11-12.
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warfare. As illustrated in recent confrontations, a nation no longer needs a sprawling
military to establish dominance or exact damage. A group of proficient hackers can
inflict as much, if not more, harm by attacking critical infrastructure, manipulating
policies, or even raising the specter of nuclear conflict.
But herein lies the crux of the digital dilemma: if states can harness the power of
cyber warfare to amplify their geopolitical influence, so can non-state actors or even
individuals. The power dynamics of the international arena are shifting dramatically.
Previously sidelined nations, constrained by limited resources or geopolitical
circumstances, can now step into the limelight. They can wield disproportionate
influence by leveraging cyber tactics. Simple server attacks like DDoS (Distributed
Denial-of-service) can disrupt major services, while more complex operations can
compromise national security, sway elections, or cripple economies. Moreover, the
digital underground (or more accurately backend)—the “dark web”—provides a fertile
ground for illicit trade and subversive activities. Everything from drugs, weapons, and
sensitive personal information to forged documents can be transacted with relative ease,
anonymity, and little traceability. Countries under stringent economic sanctions, like
North Korea and Russia, can utilize these currently ungovernable spaces as avenues to
bolster their economies and circumvent international restrictions.
It is even more disconcerting that the sophisticated tools and techniques required
for these cyber operations aren't always state-of-the-art. As noted by Boo Hyeong-wook
in 2017, DDoS attacks deployed by North Korea were rudimentary yet effective, often
erasing server data with nothing more than some basic software and consumer grade
equipment. It doesn’t always take a state-backed agency with cutting-edge technology
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to cause chaos; sometimes, all it requires is a disgruntled individual with basic know-
how. A post-digital government must not only understand these everyday phenomena
but also approach them in a way that acknowledges the policy of the digital world to be
as important and ingrained as that of the physical.
Conclusion
Boo Hyeong-wook, “An Assessment of North Korean Cyber Threats,” The Journal of East Asian
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Affairs 31, no.1 (2017) 97-117.
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The profound transformations catalyzed by the digital revolution have ushered in
an age when boundaries—whether they be political, economic, or ideological—are
porous, dynamic, perpetually in flux, and entering into new dimensions of movement.
As decades pass, the concept of “Post-Digital Governance” has and will come more and
more to the forefront, an evolution that recognizes and responds to the omnipresence of
digital technology in our lives. This governance extends beyond mere adoption of tools,
to an understanding of their nuanced impact on societal structures, behaviors, ethics,
and broader human experiences. Whether it's grappling with the ethical dilemmas
posed by AI, ensuring digital inclusivity, reinventing established structures for the
digital age, or navigating the human-digital symbiosis, the challenges are manifold and
multifaceted.
Economic paradigms too are shifting. The once-clear demarcations of capitalism,
communism, socialism, and others are blurring, calling for pragmatic approaches that
blend the best of various systems yet again. This fusion seeks to strike a balance between
fostering innovation and ensuring equitable distribution of benefits. Yet, as we delve
deeper into this digital matrix, emergent phenomena like virtual nations underscore the
disruptive potential of the digital era. Traditional notions of statehood, citizenship, and
governance are being reimagined in a world where digital entities could very well
challenge the status quo. The realm of cyberspace adds another layer of complexity. As
evidenced by incidents like the Ukrainian cyber-attacks, the digital domain is not just a
tool but a battleground—one where states, non-state actors, and even individuals can
wield significant power. In this volatile landscape, the balance of power is being
continually recalibrated, making diplomacy, strategy, and international relations even
more intricate.
The trajectory of AI, a dominant theme in our discourse, encapsulates the
transformative essence of our times. From its potential to supercharge economies to the
profound societal shifts it heralds, AI is reshaping the contours of our future. Yet, with
its promise comes a plethora of challenges—job displacement, ethical quandaries, and
even the conceptual challenge of robot rights. As AI models like LLM and GPT advance,
these questions become even more pressing.
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Interwoven in these threads is a fundamental truth: our world, whether in the
realm of governance, economics, or technology, is becoming more interconnected,
layered, and complex. As we chart our course through the post-digital age, our compass
must be one of adaptability, foresight, and collaboration. It's a journey that demands not
just technological proficiency but profound introspection, ethical clarity, and a
commitment to crafting a world that, while anchored in digital, is human at its core.
This leaves us with an age-old question: what does it truly mean to be human?
Jake Van Clief, a veteran of the United States Marine Corps, is currently completing his bachelor’s
degree in Political Science with a focus in theory and technology. Passionate about exploring the
intersection of governance and emerging technologies, he is preparing for graduate studies in future
governance. He founded Van Clief Media, aiming to blend the business aspects of his studies with
practical applications. Additionally, he established “The Quantum Quill,” an innovative online learning
community. This platform brings together educators and academics to foster meaningful discourse on
the integration of artificial intelligence in education.
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LITERATURE
AND
ART REVIEWS
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COVID-19 and Autism Sperum Disorder: A Literature Review
Emily DuSold
he coronavirus disease 2019 [COVID-19] pandemic posed unique challenges
across the board. Health recommendations pushed people into restricted
movement, which proved a physically and emotionally isolating experience. As
a result, health services began to pilot socially distanced and remote services. Many
healthcare providers moved to online or telehealth services rather than in-person visits,
as medical centers were key sources and hubs for infection. Mental health services were
no exception to this, with many psychologists and psychiatrists moving their practices
into the digital space.
The move toward telemedicine removed the physical support medical
professionals provided for patients and their caretakers, which presented many
challenges. In the case of children with autism spectrum disorder [ASD] and those at
home with them, more complex issues arose, especially in areas with pre-existing
challenges such as rural areas. This paper will review literature on overall impacts of the
pandemic on those with ASD, physical health risks for children with ASD, a
concentration in children with ASD living in rural areas, the efficacy of telehealth for
evaluating ASD, the efficacy of telehealth for treating ASD, and the impacts of stay-at-
home orders on families of children with ASD.
Due to the recency of the pandemic as of this paper, the existing literature on the
impacts of the pandemic on children with ASD is limited. Many of the concepts
presented in the studies reviewed in this paper require further research, especially
regarding any long-term effects or trends brought on by the pandemic. Another
limitation of the studies included in this review is that a small amount of them focus on
neurodevelopmental disorders in general, not just ASD, making it somewhat unclear if
the issues discussed are being generalized to all the disorders under that category.
Overall impacts
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The COVID-19 pandemic raised major issues regarding symptom management
for ASD and access to resources. Schools were shut down, eliminating much of the
assistance special education programs provided (Al-Beltagi et al., 2022). As a result,
autistic children and their families experienced “interrupted language development,
exacerbated anxiety, more frustration, and short temper related to the fear of
regression” because of the decreased access to therapeutic interventions (Al-Beltagi et
al., 2022). Families themselves changed drastically, as all family members were
confined to the home rather than separated by work and school schedules, leading to
increased unpredictability, and resulting stress on children with ASD (Al-Beltagi et al.,
2022). Other changes, such as altered access to therapeutic interventions, increased
screen time, and modified schedules increased stress on autistic children as they became
deprived of the usual tools and inputs that were part of their therapeutic routines (Al-
Beltagi et al., 2022). The measures taken to minimize the spread of COVID-19 involved
a great deal of isolation and cessation of daily routines, which harm anyone’s mental
health, let alone children with ASD.
Both Al-Beltagi et al. (2022) and Narzisi (2020) offer guidelines and
recommendations on how to discuss these measures and the pandemic as a whole with
autistic children. These suggestions revolve around themes of specific, careful
explanation of the pandemic and the measures taken against it, implementation of semi-
structured play and other routines, and keeping in contact with those already assisting
in interventions with the child (Al-Beltagi et al., 2022; Narzisi, 2020).
Narzisi (2020) is particularly limited, as the suggestions and scope of research
only spanned the first year of the pandemic. While it is interesting to reflect on the best
practices at the time, a follow-up study on whether or not these recommendations were
effective would be beneficial and offer guidance for future situations that result in stay-
at-home orders or similar changes.
Physical health impacts
Al-Beltagi et al. (2022) notes that children with ASD were particularly vulnerable
to the COVID-19 pandemic not only psychologically, but also physically. Around a
quarter of children with ASD have a comorbid immune issue, and frequently this
accompanies gastrointestinal issues and a lack of antioxidant response (Al-Beltagi et al.,
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2022). These immune and inflammatory issues likely arise from the increased levels of
serotonin outside the blood brain barrier, as these higher levels are associated with
more mast cell activation, and therefore more release of immune-response proteins that
increase inflammation (Al-Beltagi et al., 2022). Along with an altered inflammatory
immune response, children with ASD tend to have lower plasma levels of
immunoglobulins G, M, and A, meaning a reduced immune response which makes them
more vulnerable to a virus such as COVID-19 (Al-Beltagi et al., 2022). These immune
system issues combined with the toxic stress and environmental depravation resulting
from the stay-at-home order contributed to physical and mental health regressions in
children with ASD during the pandemic (Al-Beltagi et al., 2022). These deficiencies add
a physical health challenge to the already-existing mental health challenges faced by
those with ASD. Increased risk for infection and severe infection emphasizes the need
for immunocompromised people to quarantine, which increases the frequency and
intensity of isolation.
Children with ASD have higher rates of infection and mortality with COVID-19
because of both physical and behavioral risk factors. Physically, the immune issues
mentioned above constitute the risk factors that lead to more infection, severe
symptoms, and mortality among autistic children than the general population.
Behaviorally, autistic children engage in “oral sensory-seeking behavior” and pica,
which leads to a higher risk of infection (Al-Beltagi et al., 2022).
ASD and COVID-19 in rural areas
Rural areas are a particular area of interest that has sparked research when it
comes to impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic. Most of the interventions for reducing the
spread of the virus focus on high-density and urban areas. As a result, rural areas which
have a lower population density and different access to resources than urban areas are
put in a difficult position. Additionally, rural areas have greater disparities in access to
the technology that became a basic necessity during the pandemic. A main challenge for
those in rural areas adapting to quarantine was the move to online services, particularly
video conferencing. For school-age children, this meant remote learning, which came
with a whole host of difficulties, such as limited access to high-speed internet, which is
necessary for any kind of video conferencing software to function (McFayden et al.,
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2021). Those in rural areas – which often overlap with lower socioeconomic status areas
– are already less likely to engage in remote learning, and those who have
neurodevelopmental disorders such as ASD are even less likely to engage (McFayden et
al., 2021).
In addition to the educational aspect of schools moving online, school-based
services were either eliminated or also moved online. Of particular interest are school-
based behavioral health services, which play a vital role for many children and families
when it comes to diagnosis and intervention. Nelson et al. (2023) aimed to evaluate the
efficacy of remote school-based mental health services during the pandemic. For ASD,
the focus was on how successful services were in evaluating children for autism
remotely. Overall, the transition and subsequent online services provided were
successful. In addition to matching the quality of service provided before the pandemic,
online services may also serve as a way to bring these specialty services to families
rather than the families having to seek out and physically travel to a provider (Nelson et
al., 2023). ASD evaluations and specialists are in high demand but low supply in rural
areas, and often the commute to a specialist deters families from seeking professional
evaluation and intervention (Nelson et al., 2023). With the shift to remote services, this
becomes less of an issue. While the study found overall positive impacts, there were
some challenges posed, such as decreased control and increased interruptions during
appointments (Nelson et al., 2023)
One limitation of Nelson et al. (2023) and its proposal that online interactions
are a net benefit for those in rural areas seeking services for ASD is that those in rural
areas have less access to high-speed internet and the caliber of technology that most
remote programs require. As mentioned by McFayden et al. (2021), a main challenge
when it comes to remote, online services is the issue of access. While this can be
mitigated by schools providing well-equipped laptops or tablets, the issue of high-speed
internet remains, and is not easily solved in districts where funding is already an issue.
These studies provide an important, underexamined angle when considering the
impacts of the pandemic. Much of the major news came out of highly-populated, dense,
urban areas such as New York City and Los Angeles, where the virus was spreading
rapidly and almost uncontrolled. These areas had the highest death, infection, and
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hospitalization rates, which made them the epicenters of health research. Rural areas
faced challenges because of this focus on high-density areas, and these studies highlight
those issues well.
Telehealth and Evaluating ASD
One of the main responsibilities of school officials involved in behavioral health
programs is to evaluate children for ASD. Due to the pandemic and consequential shift
to online services, this task has become increasingly difficult and complex. Both
Brunson et al. (2021) and Dahiya et al. (2020) examine the specific impacts of this shift
and possible ways to deliver evaluation and assessment services to families remotely.
Evaluation for ASD is already complex, with all of the observations and
interviews involved in the process, along with the low degree of interrater reliability
(Brunson et al., 2021). Additionally, families often sit on a long waitlist to see the
specialist, which the pandemic extended (Brunson et al., 2021). The process of
administering the assessment is temperamental, and often even professionals and their
assessments incorrectly diagnose children who have autism or they miss cases of autism
(Dahiya et al., 2020). The use of technology in assessing autism has various advantages
and disadvantages, and the literature examines these in the context of COVID-19, which
adds greater pressure and extenuating circumstances. For example, assessment of social
skills and interaction with peers cannot be evaluated in the traditional ways due to social
distancing guidelines and asynchronous assessment tools (Brunson et al., 2021).
Autism teleassessment is an emerging concept, and the literature is in its early
stages. Currently, the majority of studies on the efficacy of teleassessment lack a large
sample size, making generalizability questionable (Brunson et al., 2021). Current
diagnostic assessments for ASD involve face-to-face conversation and interaction with
both parent and child, and they often involve the use of similar materials for all patients
such as toys, which becomes more challenging with the use of teleassessments (Brunson
et al., 2021).
Both articles discuss and evaluate the options for teleassessment of ASD.
Videoconferencing or teleconferencing provides a good alternative to travel, which can
be both an emotional and financial stressor on families (Dahiya et al., 2020). It also
allows practitioners to record the appointment without much additional setup, which in
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turn allows them to rewatch the video for further evaluation. Another important feature
of videoconferencing is that it allows for naturalistic observation rather than in the same
space as all a clinician’s patients. While looking into a child’s living space can offer many
advantages, a major benefit of a clinical space is that it provides a standardized
environment for all patients being evaluated, making it easier to eliminate outside
factors when considering behavior. Children have preconceived notions and feelings
about their personal items, so the ones in the practitioner’s space offer more clarity and
objectivity during evaluation. Another method of teleassessment is the use of web or
mobile applications, which often involves self-reports at certain intervals throughout the
day (Dahiya et al., 2020). It has many advantages, such as ecological validity, but it also
can be somewhat unreliable as self-reporting can be biased (Dahiya et al., 2020).
Teleassessment is effective for the evaluation of ASD, especially as far as allowing
clinicians to engage in naturalistic, direct observation (Dahiya et al., 2020). Those who
engaged in videoconferencing and application-based evaluations reported positive
results, including high satisfaction with both the technology and the diagnosis itself
(Dahiya et al., 2020). Video analysis proved to be especially effective, which supports
the efficacy of video conferencing as a method of teleassessment for ASD (Dahiya et al.,
2020). Telehealth interventions are effective in evaluating ASD, but treating ASD is
another, separate issue.
Telehealth and treating ASD
The article on treating ASD remotely through telehealth intervention focuses on
applied behavior analysis [ABA], which represents a large proportion of treatment for
ASD. While ABA is highly controversial in context of the rising self-advocacy, it remains
one of—if not the most—popular treatment regimens for ASD. Dueñas & D’Agostino
(2022) aimed to examine the use of telehealth services to deliver ABA therapy.
The initial shift to telehealth services involved a major disruption and presented
many challenges as both practitioners and clients tried new methods to connect
remotely. Not only was telehealth implemented for therapy sessions, but it was also used
for training and education with practitioners and families (Dueñas & D’Agostino, 2022).
One disadvantage of the remote services is the additional training needed to master the
telehealth systems and applications, which is to be expected when adjusting to new
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technology (Dueñas & D’Agostino, 2022).
The shift to telehealth showed promise as a sustainable method to distribute ABA
therapy, but this varies greatly between individuals. As with all factors of ABA and other
treatment methods for ASD, each case is unique, and each case comes with unique risks
and benefits when it comes to telehealth interventions (Dueñas & D’Agostino, 2022).
Telehealth was met with resistance from many caregivers and clients, as the shift was
sudden and lacked empirical backing (Dueñas & D’Agostino, 2022). Additionally, the
caregivers and providers faced many individual factors that influenced their willingness
and ability to follow recommendations when it came to online services, such as culture,
socioeconomic status, and location (Dueñas & D’Agostino, 2022).
The future of therapy via telehealth is promising but needs to be refined and
standardized. As previously stated, these cases are highly individualized, so a general
framework has yet to emerge. More research is needed to establish best practices for
telehealth delivery of ABA. The main disadvantage of the literature on treatment and
telehealth is the focus on ABA. While ABA is very popular and commonly used, other
approaches exist and there is a lack of literature on how they fared during the shift to
telehealth services.
Impact on families
The COVID-19 pandemic and corresponding quarantine presented a major global
health crisis, both mentally and physically. The isolation and uncertainty defined the
peak months of the pandemic as recommendations rapidly changed, infection rates
climbed, and the quarantine was extended. For caregivers of children and adolescents,
this was exacerbated, and many parents faced increased stress and poorer mental health
as a result of stay-at-home orders and other factors of the pandemic (Chafouleas &
Iovino, 2021). For caregivers of children with ASD, this was especially true, as they
reported the highest rates of parenting distress (Chafouleas & Iovino, 2021). When
compared to caregivers of children without ASD, the majority of caregivers of children
with ASD were the sole providers of care for their children, married or otherwise
partnered, and worked full-time (Chafouleas & Iovino, 2021).
The survey to measure burden and stress was administered while rapid changes
were still occurring during the pandemic, so the results cannot fully be generalized to all
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periods of the pandemic. The majority of caregivers were responsible for guiding remote
learning when their child’s schools closed, and significant portions of participants
indicated either community outbreaks or personal relationships to someone who had
been infected (Chafouleas & Iovino, 2021). Caregivers of children with ASD/ADHD had
significantly higher scores indicating they felt burdened by their position, and they had
higher scores on a test for depression, anxiety, and stress (Chafouleas & Iovino, 2021).
It is common sense to consider that being a caregiver of a child with more
support needs causes more stress than being a caregiver to a child who lacks support
needs, but this particular impact is magnified by the crisis. Caregivers were faced with a
sharp increase in responsibility with the addition of remote learning to their
responsibilities, and nationwide unemployment rates rose, meaning that financial stress
also became a burden for many families. The pandemic not only impacted the medical
system, but also deeply impacted those on the receiving end of these services.
Conclusion
The COVID-19 pandemic was a particularly poignant event for individuals with
ASD, especially children and their caregivers. Despite promising results and predictions
for success with telehealth assessment and treatment of ASD, the literature is still
emerging. The existing articles all acknowledge this and call for further investigation of
the issues they raise. The pandemic greatly altered the lives of those with ASD and their
caregivers, both opening new options via telehealth and creating new difficulties
accessing these options. The pandemic also negatively impacted caregivers’ mental
health, which likely in turn negatively impacted their children’s mental health. More
research is a necessity, but it can reasonably be stated that the pandemic will continue to
impact those with ASD when it comes to telehealth and lingering mental health impacts.
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References
Al-Beltagi, M., Saeed, N. K., Bediwy, A. S., Alhawamdeh, R., & Qaraghuli, S. (2022).
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411–425. https://doi.org/10.5501/wjv.v11.i6.411"
Brunson McClain, M., Roanhorse, T. T., Harris, B., Heyborne, M., Zemantic, P. K., &
Azad, G. (2021). School-based autism evaluations in the covid-19 ERA. School
Psychology, 36(5), 377–387. https://doi.org/10.1037/spq0000447
Chafouleas, S. M., & Iovino, E. A. (2021). Comparing the initial impact of covid-19 on
burden and psychological distress among family caregivers of children with and
without developmental disabilities. School Psychology, 36(5), 358–366. https://
doi.org/10.1037/spq0000426
Dahiya, A. V., McDonnell, C., DeLucia, E., & Scarpa, A. (2020). A systematic review of
remote telehealth assessments for early signs of autism spectrum disorder: Video
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10.1037/pri0000121
Dueñas, A. D., & D'Agostino, S. R. (2022). Experiences of service providers in the
expedited delivery of ABA therapy via telehealth during the COVID-19 pandemic:
Reflections and considerations for the future. Behavior Analysis: Research and
Practice, 22(3), 265–282. https://doi.org/10.1037/bar0000251
McFayden, T. C., Breaux, R., Bertollo, J. R., Cummings, K., & Ollendick, T. H. (2021).
Covid-19 remote learning experiences of youth with neurodevelopmental
disorders in rural Appalachia. Journal of Rural Mental Health, 45(2), 72–85.
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Narzisi, A. (2020). Autism spectrum condition and covid-19: Issues and chances. The
Humanistic Psychologist, 48(4), 378–381. https://doi.org/10.1037/
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L., Engel, I., Giovanetti, A., Punt, S., Stiles, R., & Heitzman-Powell, L. (2023).
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Corrective Narratives in Exhibitions I’m and Cut to the Quick
Helena Rodriguez
useums are cultural institutions that shape the way we view,
interpret, and contextualize the arts. For artists, representation in
museums, galleries, and salons, has long been equated with success.
However, with the emergence of the group show in the modern era also came the
opportunity for misrepresentation. For instance, the 1937 exhibition of Degenerate Art
or Entartete Kunst in Germany. The term Entartete Kunst was used by the Nazi regime
to describe works deemed to be “an insult to German feeling.” Most forms of modern
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art, such as cubism, expressionism, and social realism were considered “degenerate,”
but the term also extended to art produced by racial and social groups the Nazis
considered intellectually inferior. This included Jews, Bolsheviks, and black people.
Degenerate Art is just one example of art exhibitions that have misrepresented black
people while upholding systems of white supremacy within the museum world. The
“corrective narrative,” as coined by author Bridget R. Cooks in the discipline of museum
studies and art history, was “formed out of the necessity to present the art of African
Americans.” It was used to correct the “historical absence and misrepresentation [of
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black people] in mainstream art museums.” Cook’s book Exhibiting Blackness:
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African Americans and the American Art Museum chronicles examples of exhibitions
that both reinforced facets of white supremacy, such as the MET's 1969 exhibition
Harlem on My Mind, or attempted to dismantle white supremacy within the American
Pamela M. Potter, Review of The Arts in Nazi Germany: A Silent Debate, by Joan Clinefelter, Richard
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Etlin, Eric Michaud, Janet Lloyd, Peter Paret, and Frederick Spotts. Contemporary European History 15,
no. 4 (2006): 585–99. http://www.jstor.org/stable/20081333.
Bridget R. Cooks, “African Americans Enter the Art Museum,” in Exhibiting Blackness African
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Americans and the American Art Museum (Amherst: University of Massachusetts Press, 2011), 1.
Cooks, “African Americans Enter the Art Museum.”
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Art Museum, like the Los Angeles County Museum of Art’s (LACMA) 1976 exhibition
Two Centuries of Black American Art.
Two contemporary exhibitions, Kara Walker’s Cut to the Quick at MOCA
Jacksonville and Deborah Roberts’ I’m at the Cummer Museum share inherent qualities
of the “corrective narrative” Cooks discusses. While Kara Walker seeks to rewrite the
narratives established during the periods of imperialism and colonialism through her
visuals, Deborah Roberts's collages have a more modern focus. Yet, both artists utilize
visual politics to center the black experience, forcing the viewer to confront their own
racial biases and consider black representation within visual culture.
The work of Kara Walker pulls from history, exploring race, gender, and other
hierarchies. The show Cut to the Quick featured a variety of her work, but Walker is best
known for her silhouettes. Popular in the 18th and 19th centuries the cutout caricatures –
void of any other visual information but an outline – force her audience to confront their
own ingrained racial biases to identify the exaggerated forms and corresponding
storylines. For instance, in Walker’s linocut African/American, a massive silhouette of
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a woman is splayed out on a diagonal within the frame. The pitch-black material that
constructs her outline is a sharp contrast against the white background of the frame.
When viewing, the first thing one is drawn to is her feet in the top right corner, creating
a path for our eyes to follow down her body. While there isn’t a lot of visual information,
there is still an element of voyeurism, as we try to discern what is between her legs. Are
the ribbons at her hips the hints of a grass skirt? Or has the fabric been torn, and
something much worse has occurred? The woman appears in a vulnerable position, like
she’s strung up against a wall, or has been pushed to the ground. Her arm in the bottom
left corner appears bent like she’s propping herself up after being forced down. The way
her head is tilted to the side and her other arm lies limp beside her, underneath it the
outline of her exposed breast, points to the viewer that she may have been beaten or
raped. However, aside from the title, there is little to differentiate this woman as being
Susan H. Edwards, “CUT TO THE QUICK.” KARA WALKER: CUT TO THE QUICK GALLERY GUIDE.
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MOCA , https://mocajacksonville.unf.edu/Gallery-Guides/Kara-Walker--Cut-to-the-Quick-Gallery-
Guide/.
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African American aside from her hair, which Walker exaggerates into unkempt coils,
and what seems to be a long braid swooping beside her. Hints to her “Africanness” also
lie in her dress: her armband, the grass skirt she’s suggested to be wearing, and the fact
that she’s topless.
The alternative guiding methodology to exhibiting blackness in the American art
museum was the anthropological approach, often displaying Africans as ‘savage’ or
‘primitive,’ highlighting the racial differences as the antithesis of the “white norm.” For
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instance, the African art featured in the 1937 Degenerate Art exhibition was shown just
a block away from a corresponding exhibition at the House of German Art. Taking place
during the first Great German Art Exhibition organized by the Reichskulturkammer
(Reich Chamber of Culture) of the Nazi party in Munich, this exhibition displayed
pictures of idealized bodies and landscapes promoting the Nazi ideology of the
“apotheotic Self. ” With both an architectural style on the outside and art on the inside
calling back to the perfection and timelessness of the ancient Greeks, the House of
German Art sought to establish the concept of “German” art, while simultaneously
condemning modern art as “Degenerate” Part of the corrective narrative's purpose was
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to “present” the work of African Americans and “correct” for its historical absence in
“mainstream art museums.” Walker’s work takes this notion a step further, upending
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“propriety with images of exaggerated stereotypes that address slavery, racism,
exploitation, gender, and physical and sexual abuse.” At the intersection between art
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and politics, Walker is able to carve out a space for the untold histories and residual
generational trauma of the African American experience and retake control of the
narrative.
While Kara Walker achieves this balance in her depictions of the Antebellum
South in Cut to the Quick, I’m Deborah Roberts exhibit “critiques notions of beauty, the
Cooks, “African Americans Enter the Art Museum.”
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Barbara Wolbert, “The Short Century of Europe: African Art in German Exhibitions.” New German
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Critique no. 92 (2004): 169–93, http://www.jstor.org/stable/4150473.
Edwards, “CUT TO THE QUICK.”
39
Edwards, “CUT TO THE QUICK.”
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body, race, and identity in contemporary society through the lens of Black children.”
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The most striking visuals within Roberts exhibit were the large mixed-media portraits
on canvas. Writer and cultural critic bell hooks wrote that “one can be critically aware of
visual politics – the way race, gender, and class shape art practices (who makes art, how
it sells, who values it, who writes about it) without abandoning a fierce commitment to
aesthetics.” Combining “found images” from the internet with hand-painted details,
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the collaged figures ask the viewer to engage with them intimately, sorting through the
layers of visuals. This is who I Am, a mixed media collage on canvas explores the
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muddled journey between black boyhood and manhood. A lone boy stands in the center
of the composition, larger than an average person. His face is a collection of different
faces, the base being that of a young boy, with the eye of an elderly man, and the nose
and lips of two different grown men. He’s painted shirtless, hands hanging by his sides
in a comfortable, confident way. Not the stance of a child, but that of a young man. As
read in the caption, it is Roberts's view that: “When you think about the history of this
country and what the Black body has done and meant, he is moving from boy to man.”
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Including the artist's own words to offer an interpretation of the work is a powerful
contextual tool.
Both the exhibitions I’m and Cut to the Quick made sure to insert commentary
from the artists, background information on the work itself, and important historical
interpretations. Failure to do this, such as in the Metropolitan Museum of Art’s 1969
exhibition Harlem on My Mind: The Cultural Capital of Black America 1900–1968, can
lead to misrepresentation. While the exhibition sought to explore the cultural history of
the predominantly Black community, the curators of the exhibit were criticized heavily
for their decision to not include artwork from Harlem’s artistic community and reject
“Deborah Roberts I'm,” Cummer Museum, The Contemporary Austin, September 16, 2022. https://
41
www.cummermuseum.org/visit/art/exhibition/deborahroberts
bell hooks, “Art Matters,” Introduction to In Art on My Mind: Visual Politics (New York: New Press,
42
1998), xii.
“Deborah Roberts I'm.” Cummer Museum
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“Deborah Roberts I'm.” Cummer Museum
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resident participation in the planning of the exhibition. During a contentious period,
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at the tail end of the civil rights movement and rise of the black power movement, “the
decision to display African American people through oversized photo murals, and to
dismiss their input and artwork as unworthy of being in the museum. . . reeked of
patronizing discriminatory racial politics and set off a fury of protests and charges of
racism.” Unlike Harlem on My Mind, the 1976 Los Angeles County Museum of Art’s
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(LACMA) exhibition Two Centuries of Black American Art was curated by a Black artist
and art historian David Driskell. Driskell was able to organize the first historically
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comprehensive exhibition of art by black Americans ever to be presented by a major
American art museum. Being granted the space to be in control of the narrative fosters
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a sense of agency and community. To this day black artists and creatives continue to
push back against white supremacy within the museum world. Such as in the exhibits
I’m and Cut to the Quick ask the viewer to consider their privilege as they interact with
the artist’s work. Juxtaposing her large-scale collages with a smaller collection of text-
based pieces, some of Roberts's works from her ongoing series Pluralism tackle the anti-
black biases within software programs such as Microsoft Word. In La’Condrea is a
noun. the name “La’Condrea” is underlined with a red squiggly line, signifying a
misspelling, or a failure for the programmers to include names from the black
vernacular within their – speaking to a larger systemic issue of erasure. Kara Walker
also plays with the idea of erasure in Harper’s Pictorial History of the Civil War
(Annotated): Exodus of Confederates from Atlanta. Part of a series where Walker
“superimposed her signature silhouettes” over blown-up prints of images from Harper’s
Pictorial History of the Civil War. Written by Alfred H. Guernsey and Henry M.
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Alden, while in support of the federal government and President Lincoln, the African
American point of view is admonished from the “one thousand illustrations of
Cooks, “Black Artists and Activism: Harlem on My Mind 1969,” in Exhibiting Blackness: African
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Americans, 53-86.
Cooks, “Black Artists and Activism.”
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Cooks, “Filling the Void,” in Exhibiting Blackness, 87-109.
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Cooks, “Filling the Void.”
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Edwards, “CUT TO THE QUICK.”
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battlefields, maps, plans, and likenesses of military figures” published. Quite literally
“correcting” the narrative, Walker’s solid, flat, two-dimensional silhouette of a woman
interjects, if not completely covers or supersedes, the image behind it. Writing black
people back into the story, a window of the background of the Harper’s Weekly print is
created within her profile, in the shape of a black man. Toying with the viewer's gaze, we
are asked to consider whose history is being “included,” whose is “omitted” and how
who is telling the story can shape our perception of history.
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Both the exhibits I’m and Cut to the Quick are prime examples of current
exhibitions that are making an active attempt to establish a corrective narrative. While
Kara Walker seeks to rewrite the narratives established during the eras of imperialism
and colonialism, Deborah Roberts’s work has a more contemporary focus. Unabashedly
calling attention to the persisting conditions of racism in America, and its proliferation
into visual culture, artists Walker and Roberts invoke visual politics to continue making
space for black representation in the museum world, combating a longstanding history
of white supremacy.
Helena Rodriguez is a senior Art History and International Studies double major and anthropology
minor. She is also a member of the Flagler College Honors Program. For her honors capstone project,
she undertook an internship at the Crisp Ellen Art Museum, helping to curate the exhibition “In the
Spirit of Linconville,” and produced this accompanying article. Helena’s writings span from academic
works to her self-published poetry chapbook Duality. After graduating from Flagler in 2024, she will
keep writing, and she aspires to pursue a doctoral degree in Museum Studies.
Edwards, “CUT TO THE QUICK.”
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