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Eschatology
Jeffrey Glen Jackson
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Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xv
1.0 THE NET BIBLE (R), New English Translation, Copyright
Statementxv
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection. . . . . . . 1
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
2.0 1 Corinthians 15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.1 1 Corinthians 15:1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
2.2 1 Corinthians 15:12-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2.3 1 Corinthians 15:20-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.4 1 Corinthians 15:35-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.5 1 Corinthians 15:42-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.6 1 Corinthians 15:45-49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.7 1 Corinthians 15:50-58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
4.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . 15
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.0 Historical Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.0 Literary Form. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
4.0 Temple and Sacrifice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
5.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor . . . . . . 19
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.0 The Historical Temples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.1 The Tabernacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.2 Shiloh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.3 Solomon’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.4 Ezekiel’s Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.5 The Second Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.6 Samaritan Temple. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
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3.0 Jesus’ References to the Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
4.0 Paul’s use of the Temple Metaphor. . . . . . . . . . . . 22
5.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon . 25
1.0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.0 Context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.1 Context in Scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
2.2 Context in History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
2.3 Context in Literature and Language. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2.4 New Testament Allusions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.0 Pulling It All Together . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.1 Title (Isaiah 13:1) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.2 Universal Judgment (Isaiah 13:2-16) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.3 Medes Will Destroy Babylon (Isaiah 13:17-22) . . . . . 33
3.4 Compassion on Jacob (Isaiah 14:1-4a). . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.5 Taunt of the King of Babylon (Isaiah 14:4b-21) . . . . . 36
3.6 Babylon Condemned (Isaiah 14:22-23) . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
4.0 Concluding Thought: The Experience of Jonah . . 38
4.1 Bibliography. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
1.0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
2.0 The Visions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.1 Daniel 2:31-45 — The Statue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
2.2 Daniel 7:2-14, 17-18, 23-27 -- The Four Beasts . . . . . 43
2.3 Daniel 8:1-14, 19-26 — The Two Beasts. . . . . . . . . . . 45
2.4 Daniel 11-12 -- The Battles of Kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
2.5 Daniel 9:24-27 — Seventy Weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.0 Comparison. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
4.0 The Kingdoms. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.1 First Kingdom — Babylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
4.2 Second Kingdom — Medo-Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.3 Third Kingdom — The Greek Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.4 Fourth Kingdom — The Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . 58
4.5 The Kingdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
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5.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Zechariah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
1.0 Preface . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
2.0 Introductory Pericope (Zechariah 1:1-6) . . . . . . . . 65
3.0 The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8) . . . . 66
3.1 First Vision (Zechariah 1:7-17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.2 Second Vision (Zechariah 1:18-21) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.3 Third Vision (Zechariah 2:1-13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.4 Fourth Vision (Zechariah 3:1-10). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.5 Fifth Vision (Zechariah 4:1-14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.6 Sixth Vision (Zechariah 5:1-4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.7 Seventh Vision (Zechariah 5:5-11). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.8 Eighth Vision (Zechariah 6:1-8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.0 Words of the LORD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.1 The Crown (Zechariah 6:9-15). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
4.2 Inquiry about Fasting (Zechariah 7:1-7) . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.3 Justice (Zechariah 7:8-14) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
4.4 Concern for Jerusalem (Zechariah 8:1-17). . . . . . . . . . 74
4.5 Fasts Turned to Feasts (Zechariah 8:18-23) . . . . . . . . . 75
5.0 Two Oracles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
5.1 First Oracle (Zechariah 9:1-11:17). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
5.2 Second Oracle (Zechariah 12:1-14:21) . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
6.0 Concluding Thoughts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
7.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Messianic Expectations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.0 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
2.0 The Dead Sea Scrolls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
3.0 Early Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha. . . . . . . . . . 90
4.0 Historical Revolts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
5.0 Justin’s Dialog with Trypho. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
6.0 Late Pseudepigrapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
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7.0 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
8.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.1 Abbreviations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
The Day of the Lord . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
1.0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.0 The Literal Phrase. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.1 Day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
2.2 The Lord. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.3 Of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
2.4 Syntax. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.0 Old Testament Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.1 Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.2 Lamentations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.3 Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.4 Joel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.5 Amos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.6 Obadiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.7 Zephaniah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.8 Malachi. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.0 New Testament Usage. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.1 Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
4.2 Paul. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
4.3 Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
5.0 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Mark 13: Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.0 How The Gospels Came To Be. . . . . . . . . . . . . . .111
1.1 Importance of Synoptic Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.2 Synopsis of the Synoptics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
1.3 Dating The Gospels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
2.0 Historical Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .116
3.0 Synopsis of Mark 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .118
4.0 Luke 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
5.0 Matthew 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
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6.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4) 135
1.0 Disciples Admire The Temple (Mark 13:1). . . . . 135
2.0 Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)136
2.1 Synopsis Of The Jewish War . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
2.2 Extract From The Church History of Eusebius . . . . . 136
3.0 Disciples Ask When It Will Happen and For Signs (Mark
13:3-4)142
4.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) . . . . . . . . 145
1.0 The Beginning of Birth Pains (Mark 13:5-8) . . . 145
1.1 False Messiahs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.2 Wars and Rumors of Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
1.3 Earthquakes and Famines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
2.0 Persecution (Mark 13:9-13). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.1 Early Persecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.2 The Ten Primitive Persecutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2.3 Roman Attitudes Towards Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . 150
2.4 Do Not Worry. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
3.0 Abomination Of Desolation (Mark 13:14-20). . . 151
3.1 “let the reader understand”. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
3.2 Eusebius . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.0 False Messiahs (Mark 13:21-23) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.0 Allusions From Old Testament Prophets (Mark 13:24-27)153
5.1 Isaiah 13:10,13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
5.2 Isaiah 34:4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
5.3 Daniel 7:13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
5.4 Gathering The Elect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.0 Parable Of The Fig Tree (Mark 13:28-31). . . . . . 158
6.1 Right At The Door . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
6.2 This Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
6.3 My Words Will Never Pass Away . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
7.0 Stay Alert! (Mark 13:32-37) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
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7.1 Similar Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
7.2 Similarity of the Parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
8.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
1 Thessalonians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
1.0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.0 1 Thessalonians 1:1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
3.0 1 Thessalonians 2:1-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
4.0 1 Thessalonians 3:1-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
5.0 1 Thessalonians 4:1-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
6.0 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
7.0 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
8.0 1 Thessalonians 5:12-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2 Thessalonians. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
1.0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.0 Suffering (2 Thessalonians 1:5-7). . . . . . . . . . . . 169
3.0 Hell (2 Thessalonians 1:8-10). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
4.0 Warning of a Heresy (2 Thessalonians 2:1-3a). . 170
5.0 Rebellion (2 Thessalonians 2:3b) . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
6.0 Man of Lawlessness (2 Thessalonians 2:3c-17) . 172
6.1 Identity (2 Thessalonians 2:3c) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.2 Claims Deity (2 Thessalonians 2:4) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.3 Surely You Recall (2 Thessalonians 2:5) . . . . . . . . . . 172
6.4 Held Back (2 Thessalonians 2:6-8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
6.5 Deception and Stand Firm (2 Thessalonians 2:9-17) . 173
7.0 Idleness (2 Thessalonians 3:6-15). . . . . . . . . . . . 174
8.0 Summary. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
9.0 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Revelation 1: Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
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1.0 Author and Date. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
1.1 Tradition: John the apostle in the late 1st Century. . . 177
1.2 Often Challenged on Authorship and Date . . . . . . . . 177
1.3 Historical Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.0 Genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.1 Gospel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.2 Letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
2.3 Apocalypse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.0 Background of Symbolic Visions . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.1 Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.2 Isaiah’s Commissioning Vision (Isaiah 6) . . . . . . . . . 180
3.3 Ezekiel & Zechariah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.4 Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.5 Cultic Writings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
4.0 Interpretations of the Bulk of the Visions . . . . . . 180
4.1 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.2 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.3 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.4 Idealist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.5 Literary Critical (Skeptical) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
4.6 Some Thoughts about Hermeneutics . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.0 Interpretation of the Millennium . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.1 Hyper-preterist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.2 Premillennial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.3 Postmillennial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.4 Amillennial. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.5 Who’s Right? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.0 Revelation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.1 Prologue (Revelation 1:1-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
6.2 Greetings and Doxology (Revelation 1:4-8) . . . . . . . 183
6.3 Introduction of the Vision (Revelation 1:9-11) . . . . . 185
6.4 Seven Lampstands and Son of Man (Revelation 1:12-16)185
6.5 John Commissioned (Revelation 1:17-20). . . . . . . . . 185
Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches 187
1.0 The Seven Churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
2.0 The Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
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2.2 Ephesus (Revelation 2:1-7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.3 Smyrna (Revelation 2:8-11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2.4 Pergamum (Revelation 2:12-17) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
2.5 Thyatira (Rev 2:18-29). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
2.6 Sardis (Rev 3:1-6) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
2.7 Philadelphia (Revelationi 3:7-13) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
2.8 Laodicea (Revelation 3:14-22). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
3.0 Historicist Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll 195
1.0 Structure of the Book . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1.1 High Level Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1.2 Revelation 4-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
2.0 Relationship of Revelation 4-5 to Ezekiel 1-2 . . 196
2.1 Survey of Ezekiel 1-2. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
2.2 Survey of Revelation 4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
2.3 Literary Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3.0 Rev 4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4.0 God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.1 Theophany . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
4.2 Doxologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.0 The Scroll and the Lamb/Lion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
6.0 Interpretive Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed . . . . . . . 203
1.0 Overview of the Interpretive Schools . . . . . . . . . 203
1.1 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.2 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
1.3 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
1.4 Idealist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
2.0 First through Fourth Seal: The Four Horsemen of the Apoca-
lypse (Revelation 6:1-8)204
2.1 The White Horse and Rider: Christ or Antichrist?. . . 204
2.2 The Horsemen as Representing History in General . . 206
3.0 Fifth Seal: The Altar of Martyrs (Revelation 6:9-11)207
ix
4.0 The Sixth Seal: Cosmological Signs (Rev 6:12-17)207
5.0 The Interludes (Revelation 7) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
6.0 The Seventh Seal: Silence and the Trumpets (Revelation 8:1)
210
7.0 Sovereignty of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets . . . . . . 211
1.0 Overview of the Interpretive Schools . . . . . . . . . 211
1.1 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.2 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
1.3 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
1.4 Idealist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2.0 The First Four Trumpets (Revelation 8:2-13) . . . 212
3.0 The Fifth Trumpet (Revelation 9:1-12) . . . . . . . . 214
4.0 The Sixth Trumpet (Revelation 9:13-21). . . . . . . 215
5.0 Summary of the Fifth and Sixth Trumpets . . . . . 216
6.0 First Interlude: The Little Book (Revelation 10). 216
7.0 Second Interlude: The Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14)
217
8.0 The Seventh Seal (Revelation 11:15-19) . . . . . . . 220
9.0 Questions to Ponder. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon. . 223
1.0 Protevangelion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
2.0 The Woman, Child, and Dragon (Revelation 12:1-6)223
3.0 The War in Heaven (Revelation 12:7-12) . . . . . . 224
4.0 The War on Earth and Sea (Revelation 12:13-18)225
5.0 The Meta-narrative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
6.0 Other Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.1 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
6.2 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
x
6.3 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
7.0 Road Map . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.1 The Letters (Revelation 1-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
7.2 The Unsealing of the Book (Revelation 4-11) . . . . . . 229
7.3 Women, Beasts, and Judgment (Revelation 12-22) . . 230
Revelation 13: The Two Beasts . . . . . . . . . . . 231
1.0 Background From Daniel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
2.0 Beast with Seven Heads and Ten Horns (Revelation 13:1-10)
232
2.1 Appearance (Revelation 13:1-2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.2 Wounded Head (Revelation 13:3-4). . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
2.3 Blasphemy and Authority (Revelation 13:5-8) . . . . . 232
2.4 Providence (Revelation 13:9-10) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3.0 Beast with Two Horns (Revelation 13:11-18) . . 233
3.1 Appearance (Revelation 13:11) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3.2 Authority (Revelation 13:12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
3.3 Signs (Revelation 13:13-15). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3.4 The Mark of the Beast — 666 (Revelation 13:16-18) 234
4.0 Other Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.1 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.2 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.3 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Revelation 14: The Great Commission. . . . . . 237
1.0 Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
2.0 The Lamb with the 144,000 (Revelation 14:1-5) 238
3.0 Three Angels. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.1 The Eternal Gospel (Revelation 14:6-7) . . . . . . . . . . 238
3.2 Fall of Babylon (Revelation 14:8) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
3.3 Judgment (Revelation 14:9-12) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.0 A Voice of Blessing (Revelation 14:13) . . . . . . . 240
5.0 The Harvests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.1 Use of the “Harvest” Metaphor by Jesus . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.2 Reaping by the Son of Man (Revelation 14:14-16) . . 242
5.3 Harvest of the Grapes (Revelation 14:17-20) . . . . . . 243
xi
6.0 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
7.0 Other Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.1 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.2 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.3 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
7.4 Idealist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
Revelation 15-16: The Seven Bowls of Wrath 247
1.0 The Heavenly Scene (Revelation 15) . . . . . . . . . 247
2.0 The Bowls of God’s Wrath Compared to the Trumpets (Reve-
lation 16)248
3.0 Armageddon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
4.0 Other Interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.1 Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.2 Preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.3 Futurist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
Revelation 17-18: The Whore of Babylon . . . 253
1.0 Who or What is the Whore of Babylon? . . . . . . . 253
2.0 The Whore of Babylon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
2.1 The Whore Introduced (Revelation 17:1-6) . . . . . . . . 254
2.2 The Beast Interpreted (Revelation 17:7-14). . . . . . . . 254
2.3 The Whore in the Hands of the Beast (Revelation 17:15-18)256
3.0 The Destruction of Babylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.1 Fallen is Babylon (Revelation 18:1-3) . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
3.2 Come Out (Revelation 18:4-8). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
3.3 The Grief of the Kings and Merchants (Revelation 18:9-20)257
3.4 Destruction Symbolized by an Angel (Revelation 18:21-24)258
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium. . . . . . . . . 259
1.0 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
2.0 Literary Structure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
3.0 Celebrations in Heaven (Revelation 19:1-10) . . . 261
3.1 The Destruction of Babylon (Revelation 19:1-5). . . . 261
3.2 Wedding Celebration of the Lamb (Revelation 19:6-10)261
xii
4.0 Defeat of the Beast and False Prophet
(Revelation 19:11-21)262
5.0 Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10) . . . . 263
5.1 Satan Bound (Revelation 20:1-3). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
5.2 The First Resurrection and Second Death (Revelation 20:4-6)265
5.3 Satan Cast into the Lake of Fire (Revelation 20:7-10)267
5.4 Amillennialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5.5 Postmillennialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
5.6 Premillennialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.0 Sorting Through the Confusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273
7.0 White Throne Judgment (Revelation 20:11-15) . 274
8.0 Isaiah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.1 Isaiah 2:1-5. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
8.2 Isaiah 65:16-25. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and New Earth 277
1.0 The New Heaven and New Earth (Revelation 21:1-8)277
2.0 New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:9-22:5) . . . . . . . 278
3.0 Epilog (Revelation 22:6-20) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Revelation: Epilog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
1.0 An Block Diagram of Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
2.0 Interpretive Issues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.1 The Letters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.2 The Seals and Trumpets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
2.3 The Beasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
2.4 Eternity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
Revelation: Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
1.0 Bible Translations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
2.0 Books . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3.0 Journal Articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.0 Other . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
xiv
xv
Preface
These lessons were taught over the course of the last several years. I’ve attempted to
reformat them consistenantly, but some variation remains. The collection is by no
means complete. In time, I hope to add some additional chapters on various topics,
especially on Ezekiel.
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xvi Preface
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THE NET BIBLE (R), New English Translation, Copyright Statement
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xviii Preface
1
1 Corinthians 15:
Physical Resurrection
We examine the physical and spiritual
aspects of resurrection and the eternal
state.
1.0 Introduction
Eschatology is the study of last things, the end of the world. Beyond that is our eternal
state. What is the final disposition of humanity? The traditional Christian view has
always been that our physical bodies will be resurrected; we will continue to exist in
some sort of perfected physical form. Not everyone agrees with this view. Some hereti-
cal forms of Christianity deny a physical resurrection. Those who hold the so-called Full
Preterist view1 believe in a strictly spiritual resurrection: only our non-corporeal souls
ascend to Heaven at our death. Liberal Christianity2 denies the physical resurrection as
part of its rejection of miracles in toto. Neither Full Preterism’s nor Liberal Christian-
ity’s view of non-physical resurrection is consistent with scripture.
We will examine the scriptures used to argue for physical and non-physical resurrection.
Other issues of eschatological theology, such as millennialism, the intermediate state (of
the soul between death and the resurrection), baptism for the dead3, and other related
topics that might be brought up in the passages we will examine are outside the scope of
this study. However, in addition to apologetics for the orthodox belief in a physical res-
urrection, we will also look at historical context to understand the vocabulary used to
discuss the subject in scripture.
1. The Full Preterist view presupposes that all Biblical prophecy has already been fulfilled.
2. It is questionable that one should apply the word “Christianity” to this view. The term is used
here only because it would be used by those holding this view.
3. 1 Corinthians 15:29.
1 Corinthians 15
21 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
2.0 1 Corinthians 15
1 Corinthians 15 is Paul’s premiere essay on the topic of resurrection and will be the
central focus of this study. On the basis of a few select verses of this chapter, ripped
from their context, it is argued by the heterodox non-physical resurrection views that
Paul did not teach a physical resurrection.
... 1 Co 15:44 it is sown a natural body, it is raised a spiritual body. If there is a natural
body, there is also a spiritual body. 15:45 So also it is written, “The first man, Adam,
became a living person”; the last Adam became a life-giving spirit. 15:46 However, the
spiritual did not come first, but the natural, and then the spiritual. 15:47 The first man is
from the earth, made of dust; the second man is from heaven. 15:48 Like the one made
of dust, so too are those made of dust, and like the one from heaven, so too those who
are heavenly. 15:49 And just as we have borne the image of the man of dust, let us also
bear the image of the man of heaven.
15:50 Now this is what I am saying, brothers and sisters: Flesh and blood cannot inherit
the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable.
To correctly understand these verses, we must examine the greater context. That context
includes not just the whole of chapter 15, but also the whole of scripture and the histori-
cal context in which 1 Corinthians was written by Paul and received by its addressees in
Corinth.
2.1 1 Corinthians 15:1-11
Christ’s Resurrection
1 Co 15:1 Now I want to make clear for you, brothers and sisters, the gospel that I
preached to you, that you received and on which you stand, 15:2 and by which you are
being saved, if you hold firmly to the message I preached to you – unless you believed
in vain. 15:3 For I passed on to you as of first importance what I also received – that
Christ died for our sins according to the scriptures, 15:4 and that he was buried, and that
he was raised on the third day according to the scriptures, 15:5 and that he appeared to
Cephas, then to the twelve. 15:6 Then he appeared to more than five hundred of the
brothers and sisters at one time, most of whom are still alive, though some have fallen
asleep. 15:7 Then he appeared to James, then to all the apostles. 15:8 Last of all, as
though to one born at the wrong time, he appeared to me also. 15:9 For I am the least of
the apostles, unworthy to be called an apostle, because I persecuted the church of God.
15:10 But by the grace of God I am what I am, and his grace to me has not been in vain.
In fact, I worked harder than all of them – yet not I, but the grace of God with me. 15:11
Whether then it was I or they, this is the way we preach and this is the way you believed.
This paragraph is Paul’s introduction to his essay on the resurrection. The first two
verses are a long, complicated sentence in the Greek, complexity which is reflected in
many English translations. It will prove constructive to break it down. The core of the
sentence is the statement “I want to make clear for you... the gospel”. The “you” being
addressed is avdelfo.j, literally “brothers”, but plural masculine is often inclusive of
1 Corinthians 15
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection 3
both genders1. Paul is addressing all the believers in Corinth, not just the men. The word
“gospel” is modified by four phrases:
•“that I preached to you”
•“that you received”
•“on which you stand”
•“by which you are being saved”
The final phrase is further modified by the conditional “if you hold firmly to the mes-
sage I preached to you”, then finally a statement of the alternative to being saved if the
gospel were to be false “unless you believed in vain.” The alternative situation is not
contrasting what happens if you don’t believe, but rather what happens if you are not
saved in spite of that belief.
The NIV simplifies this by breaking it up into three sentences.
1 Co 15:1 Now, brothers, I want to remind you of the gospel I preached to you, which
you received and on which you have taken your stand. 15:2 By this gospel you are
saved, if you hold firmly to the word I preached to you. Otherwise, you have believed in
vain. [NIV]
The point that Paul is making here, and that he will expand upon, is the objective truth-
fulness of the gospel message and the importance of that truthfulness with regard to the
efficaciousness of the gospel.
Scholars recognize verses 3 through 7 as a primitive creedal statement, although it is
perhaps more accurately called a testimonial statement with its long list of witnesses,
most of whom would have still been alive (v. 6). Two sets of witnesses are cited: scrip-
tures and disciples. The core of the gospel message is that “Christ died for our sins...
was buried... was raised on the third day... and... appeared”. We see this emphasis in the
four Gospels also, which are effectively accounts of the crucifixion and resurrection
introduced by short accounts of his prior ministry.2 It is probable that this creedal state-
ment with its testimonials is not Paul’s composition but is a liturgical statement memo-
rized and well known throughout the church, and that Paul was quoting it.3
In verses 8 through 10, Paul added his own testimony to the other witnesses. It is not
just the account of what he had seen, but the change in his life, what he had become (“by
the grace of God I am what I am”, which I would understand ingressively, that is “I have
become what I am”), that testifies to the veracity of the gospel message. He summarized
in verse 11 that the gospel preached by himself and the other witnesses was the same,
and that it was this gospel that the Corinthians believed.
This stands in contrast to liberal Christianity’s de-emphasis on historical veracity of the
Gospel events. Bultmann, for example, thought he could “demythologize” the New Tes-
1. Bauer. “avdelfo.j” (ADELPHOS) in A Greek-English Lexicon.
2. I don’t recall where I heard this witticism. It is not original with me.
3. Habermas. The Historical Jesus. pp. 152-158.
1 Corinthians 15
41 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
tament yet still maintain a “true” gospel message. Paul would call such a belief “vain”.
The scenario proposed by liberal Christianity is that of course Jesus wasn’t physically
resurrected, but the early church experienced Jesus in perhaps visions. Paul taught a
spiritual resurrection. Then only later the Gospel writers invented a physical resurrec-
tion. They assume their conclusion, however. It is only the desire to not see the Gospel
accounts as accurately representing the beliefs of the early church, let alone the actual
teachings and life of Jesus, that leads to a late dating for the Gospels. In actuality there is
really little, if any, evidence for dating the Gospels to after Paul’s time.1
The creedal statement quoted by Paul here cites “scripture” behind the primary gospel
events. Most commentaries assume that by “scripture” Paul must have meant the Old
Testament. However, in 1 Timothy 5:18, Paul cited a verse from Luke 10:7 as scripture,
and in 2 Peter 3:16, Peter referred to Paul’s letters as scripture. There is no need to
assume that Paul must have meant the Old Testament here. In fact, the difficulty of iden-
tifying what Old Testament passages the statements would be alluding to is an embar-
rassment. Although there are passages that prophesied the gospel events in a general
way, such as Isaiah 53:5-6, Psalm 16:8-11, the precise details that are said to be “accord-
ing to scripture” are not found in the Old Testament. They are, of course, found in the
Gospels. The scriptures in mind are more likely an early canonical Gospel (Mark’s is a
likely candidate since Matthew and Luke’s were probably not written till the early 60’s2
while Paul wrote 1 Corinthians in the mid 50’s) or a proto-Gospel that stands behind the
canonical ones (Luke 1:1-4). Thus the liberal view of an evolution of the resurrection
doctrine is not supported by actual historical evidence, but rather it is the assumption
behind the liberal interpretation of the scriptures.
2.2 1 Corinthians 15:12-19
No Resurrection?
1 Co 15:12 Now if Christ is being preached as raised from the dead, how can some of
you say there is no resurrection of the dead? 15:13 But if there is no resurrection of the
dead, then not even Christ has been raised. 15:14 And if Christ has not been raised, then
our preaching is futile and your faith is empty. 15:15 Also, we are found to be false wit-
nesses about God, because we have testified against God that he raised Christ from the
dead, when in reality he did not raise him, if indeed the dead are not raised. 15:16 For if
the dead are not raised, then not even Christ has been raised. 15:17 And if Christ has not
been raised, your faith is useless; you are still in your sins. 15:18 Furthermore, those
who have fallen asleep in Christ have also perished. 15:19 For if only in this life we
have hope in Christ, we should be pitied more than anyone.
In the next paragraph, Paul turned from the gospel in general to the resurrection specifi-
cally. Evidently the Corinthians thought they could dispense with the resurrection, much
like Bultmann’s demythologization (there is truly “nothing new under the sun”!), and
still have the gospel. Paul in no uncertain terms denied that this is possible. If we can’t
be raised, then neither could Christ. If Christ was not raised in historical fact, then the
gospel is futile and empty. Then the witnesses have been lying (the “we” in verse 15 are
the witnesses cited above: Paul, the Apostles, and the other disciples). Then when we
1. Robinson. Redating the New Testament.
2. See “Dating The Gospels” on page 113.
1 Corinthians 15
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection 5
die we will simply cease to exist. Then we “should be pitied more than anyone” for ever
believing otherwise.
To understand why the Corinthians were having trouble with the concept of resurrec-
tion, we need to examine the historical context here. Chapter 32 of Bulfinch’s Mythol-
ogy synopsizes a portion Virgil’s Aeneid that sheds light on what the ancient pagans
believed. We’ll look at a few extracts below.1 Here we’ll see that the pagan concept of
the afterlife is as a disembodied spirit.
...
Then a roaring was heard in the earth, the woods on the hill-tops were shaken, and the
howling of dogs announced the approach of the deities. “Now,” said the Sibyl, “sum-
mon up your courage, for you will need it.” She descended into the cave, and Æneas
followed. Before the threshold of hell they passed through a group of beings who are
enumerated as Griefs and avenging Cares, pale Diseases and melancholy Age, Fear and
Hunger that tempt to crime, Toil, Poverty, and Death,- forms horrible to view. The
Furies spread the couches there, and Discord, whose hair was of vipers tied up with a
bloody fillet. Here also were the monsters, Briareus, with his hundred arms, Hydras
hissing, and Chimaeras breathing fire. Æneas shuddered at the sight, drew his sword
and would have struck, but the Sibyl restrained him. They then came to the black river
Cocytus, where they found the ferryman, Charon, old and squalid, but strong and vigor-
ous, who was receiving passengers of all kinds into his boat, magnanimous heroes, boys
and unmarried girls, as numerous as the leaves that fall at autumn, or the flocks that fly
southward at the approach of winter. They stood pressing for a passage and longing to
touch the opposite shore, But the stern ferryman took in only such as he chose, driving
the rest back. Æneas, wondering at the sight, asked the Sibyl, “Why this discrimina-
tion?” She answered, “Those who are taken on board the bark are the souls of those who
have received due burial rites; the host of others who have remained unburied are not
permitted to pass the flood but wander a hundred years, and flit to and fro about the
shore, till at last they are taken over.” Æneas grieved at recollecting some of his own
companions who had perished in the storm. At that moment he beheld Palinurus, his
pilot, who fell overboard and was drowned. He addressed him and asked him the cause
of his misfortune. Palinurus replied that the rudder was carried away, and he, clinging to
it, was swept away with it. He besought Æneas most urgently to extend to him his hand
and take him in company to the opposite shore. But the Sibyl rebuked him for the wish
thus to transgress the laws of Pluto; but consoled him by informing him that the people
of the shore where his body had been wafted by the waves should be stirred up by prod-
igies to give it due burial, and that the promontory should bear the name of Cape Palinu-
rus, which it does to this day. Leaving Palinurus consoled by these words, they
approached the boat. Charon, fixing his eyes sternly upon the advancing warrior,
demanded by what right he, living and armed, approached that shore. To which the
Sibyl replied that they would commit no violence, that Æneas’s only object was to see
his father, and finally exhibited the golden branch, at sight of which Charon’s wrath
relaxed, and he made haste to turn his bark to the shore, and receive them on board. The
boat, adapted only to the light freight of bodiless spirits, groaned under the weight of the
hero. 2
...
1. Public domain text found at http://www.bulfinch.org/fables/bull32.html.
2. Virgil. Aeneid. Book VI. lines 355-540.
hydra.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/text?lookup=verg.+a.+6.268&vers=english;williams&browse=1
1 Corinthians 15
61 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
Ixion was there, fastened to the circumference of a wheel ceaselessly revolving; and
Sisyphus, whose task was to roll a huge stone up to a hill-top, but when the steep was
well-nigh gained, the rock, repulsed by some sudden force, rushed again-headlong
down to the plain. Again he toiled at it, while the sweat bathed all his weary limbs, but
all to no effect. There was Tantalus, who stood in a pool, his chin level with the water,
yet he was parched with thirst, and found nothing to assuage it; for when he bowed his
hoary head, eager to quaff, the water fled away, leaving the ground at his feet all dry.
Tall trees laden with fruit stooped their heads to him, pears, pomegranates, apples, and
luscious figs; but when with a sudden grasp he tried to seize them winds whirled them
high above his reach.1
...
The Sibyl now warned Æneas it was time to turn from these melancholy regions and
seek the city of the blessed. They passed through a middle tract of darkness, and came
upon the Elysian fields, the groves where the happy reside. They breathed a freer air,
and saw all objects clothed in a purple light. The region has a sun and stars of its own.
The inhabitants were enjoying themselves in various ways, some in sports on the grassy
turf, in games of strength or skill, others dancing or singing. Orpheus struck the chords
of his lyre, and called forth ravishing sounds. Here Æneas saw the founders of the Tro-
jan state, magnanimous heroes who lived in happier times. He gazed with admiration on
the war chariots and glittering arms now reposing in disuse. Spears stood fixed in the
ground, and the horses, unharnessed, roamed over the plain. The same pride in splendid
armour and generous steeds which the old heroes felt in life, accompanied them here.
He saw another group feasting and listening to the strains of music. They were in a lau-
rel grove, whence the great river Po has its origin, and flows out among men. Here
dwelt those who fell by wounds received in their country’s cause, holy priests also, and
poets who have uttered thoughts worthy of Apollo, and others who have contributed to
cheer and adorn life by their discoveries in the useful arts, and have made their memory
blessed by rendering service to mankind. They wore snow-white fillets about their
brows. The Sibyl addressed a group of these, and inquired where Anchises was to be
found. They were directed where to seek him, and soon found him in a verdant valley,
where he was contemplating the ranks of his posterity, their destinies and worthy deeds
to be achieved in coming times. When he recognized Æneas approaching, he stretched
out both hands to him, while tears flowed freely. "Have you come at last," said he, "long
expected, and do I behold you after such perils past? O my son, how have I trembled for
you as I have watched your career!" To which Æneas replied, "O father! your image
was always before me to guide and guard me." Then he endeavoured to enfold his father
in his embrace, but his arms enclosed only an unsubstantial image. 2
...
2.3 1 Corinthians 15:20-28
1 Co 15:20 But now Christ has been raised from the dead, the firstfruits of those who
have fallen asleep. 15:21 For since death came through a man, the resurrection of the
dead also came through a man. 15:22 For just as in Adam all die, so also in Christ all
will be made alive. 15:23 But each in his own order: Christ, the firstfruits; then when
1. Virgil. Aeneid, Book VI, lines 708-809.
hydra.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/text?lookup=verg.+a.+6.548&vers=english;williams&browse=1
2. Virgil. Aeneid, Book VI, lines 810-911.
hydra.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/text?lookup=verg.+a.+6.628&vers=english;williams&browse=1
1 Corinthians 15
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection 7
Christ comes, those who belong to him. 15:24 Then comes the end when he hands over
the kingdom to God the Father, when he has brought to an end all rule and all authority
and power. 15:25 For he must reign until he has put all his enemies under his feet. 15:26
The last enemy to be eliminated is death. 15:27 For he has put everything in subjection
under his feet. But when it says “everything” has been put in subjection, it is clear that
this does not include the one who put everything in subjection to him. 15:28 And when
all things are subjected to him, then the Son himself will be subjected to the one who
subjected everything to him, so that God may be all in all.
Paul next drew a tight connection between the resurrection of Jesus and the resurrection
of all Christians.1 Jesus’ resurrection is the firstfruits of the more general resurrection.
We are to understand from this that his resurrection and our resurrection are essentially
of the same nature: both are physical or both are non-corporeal. See Romans 6:5 where
Paul states this same doctrine: “For if we have become united with him in the likeness
of his death, we will certainly also be united in the likeness of his resurrection.”
The Gospel accounts give the orthodox view of Jesus’ resurrection. First we have the
empty tomb: Matthew 28:1-15, Luke 24:1-12, 22-23, and John 20:1-9. The empty tomb
makes no sense if it was not the body that was resurrected.
Luke 24:36-43 makes several points to emphasize that the resurrection had physically
happened:
•He invited the apostles to touch him;
•He explicitly stated he was not a ghost;
•He explicitly stated he had “flesh and bones”;
•He pointed out his hands and feet (presumably to point out the wounds, see the
verses from John below); and
•He ate in front of them.
Jesus Makes a Final Appearance
Lk 24:36 While they were saying these things, Jesus himself stood among them and
said to them, “Peace be with you.” 24:37 But they were startled and terrified, thinking
they saw a ghost. 24:38 Then he said to them, “Why are you frightened, and why do
doubts arise in your hearts? 24:39 Look at my hands and my feet; it’s me! Touch me and
see; a ghost does not have flesh and bones like you see I have.” 24:40 When he had said
this, he showed them his hands and his feet. 24:41 And while they still could not believe
it (because of their joy) and were amazed, he said to them, “Do you have anything here
to eat?” 24:42 So they gave him a piece of broiled fish, 24:43 and he took it and ate it in
front of them.
In John 20:20 we have another account of this episode where he showed his hands and
his side (again to point out the wounds).
Jn 20:20 When he had said this, he showed them his hands and his side. Then the disci-
ples rejoiced when they saw the Lord.
1. Paul didn’t say anything here about what happens to those that are not his. This passage also
hints at the timing of the resurrection and other topics, but these are beyond the scope of this
essay.
1 Corinthians 15
81 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
Then a few verses later, in John 20:24-28, when Thomas was with the group, Jesus
invited him to touch the wounds, finally erasing his doubts.
The Response of Thomas
Jn 20:24 Now Thomas (called Didymus), one of the twelve, was not with them when
Jesus came. 20:25 The other disciples told him, “We have seen the Lord!” But he
replied, “Unless I see the wounds from the nails in his hands, and put my finger into the
wounds from the nails, and put my hand into his side, I will never believe it!”
20:26 Eight days later the disciples were again together in the house, and Thomas was
with them. Although the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and
said, “Peace be with you!” 20:27 Then he said to Thomas, “Put your finger here, and
examine my hands. Extend your hand and put it into my side. Do not continue in your
unbelief, but believe.” 20:28 Thomas replied to him, “My Lord and my God!” 20:29
Jesus said to him, “Have you believed because you have seen me? Blessed are the peo-
ple who have not seen and yet have believed.”
Also, the women Jesus appeared to in Matthew 28:9 were able to grasp his feet. So,
there is no doubting that the Gospel accounts teach a physical resurrection of Jesus’
body.
Acts also makes it clear that Jesus’ resurrection was physical. Peter, preaching to those
who witnessed the miracle of tongues, cited Psalm 16:10 when pointing out that Jesus’
body did not see decay because he was raised (Acts 2:31-32). In Acts 10:39-41, Peter
told Cornelius that the Apostles ate and drank with Jesus after he was raised. In Acts
13:34-35 Paul sites the same prophecy as Peter above:
Ac 13:34 But regarding the fact that he has raised Jesus from the dead, never again to be
in a state of decay, God has spoken in this way: ‘I will give you the holy and trustwor-
thy promises made to David.’ 13:35 Therefore he also says in another psalm, ‘You w ill
not permit your Holy One to experience decay.’
Paul also applied this cessation of decay with regard to our resurrection in Romans
8:19-23.
Ro 8:19 For the creation eagerly waits for the revelation of the sons of God. 8:20 For
the creation was subjected to futility – not willingly but because of God who subjected
it – in hope 8:21 that the creation itself will also be set free from the bondage of decay
into the glorious freedom of God’s children. 8:22 For we know that the whole creation
groans and suffers together until now. 8:23 Not only this, but we ourselves also, who
have the firstfruits of the Spirit, groan inwardly as we eagerly await our adoption, the
redemption of our bodies. [emphasis added]
Since Luke was Paul’s traveling companion and the author of Luke-Acts, it is incon-
ceivable that his resurrection theology would be significantly different from Paul’s.
Jesus himself referred to a physical resurrection in Matthew 10:28, where he refers to
both the soul and body going to Hell, making it clear that our resurrection, even of those
condemned to Hell, is physical.
1 Corinthians 15
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection 9
2.4 1 Corinthians 15:35-41
The Resurrection Body
1 Co 15:35 But someone will say, “How are the dead raised? With what kind of body
will they come?” 15:36 Fool! What you sow will not come to life unless it dies. 15:37
And what you sow is not the body that is to be, but a bare seed – perhaps of wheat or
something else. 15:38 But God gives it a body just as he planned, and to each of the
seeds a body of its own. 15:39 All flesh is not the same: People have one flesh, animals
have another, birds and fish another. 15:40 And there are heavenly bodies and earthly
bodies. The glory of the heavenly body is one sort and the earthly another. 15:41 There
is one glory of the sun, and another glory of the moon and another glory of the stars, for
star differs from star in glory.
Even in the Gospel accounts, although Jesus’ body was still physical, it was not simply
reanimated. In Luke 24:30-311, Jesus was able to conceal his identity, then vanish from
the two disciples’ sight, and in John 20:262, he was able to enter a locked room. Resur-
rection also differs from simple resuscitation in another fundamental way. A body that is
simply resuscitated, such as presumably Lazarus’ (John 11), will eventually die again.
But Jesus is now immortal (see on 1 Corinthians 15:42-44 below). He will not die again.
The Corinthians presumably imagined resurrection as a crude resuscitation and were
repulsed by the idea. But Paul here explained how there are many kinds of bodies. Note
that all these examples are of physical bodies. Ghosts are decidedly absent from his list.
Paul explained that the resurrection body rises transformed, analogous to the way a seed
is buried and “dies” to grow into a plant. There is continuity of identity between the
body of the seed and the body of the plant, but they are two different kinds of bodies.
There are many kinds of flesh in living items as well as many kinds of inanimate matter
in non-living items (Verse 41 makes it clear that the distinction between heavenly and
earthly bodies in verse 40 refers to astronomical items, and not to angels vs. men).
2.5 1 Corinthians 15:42-44
1 Co 15:42 It is the same with the resurrection of the dead. What is sown is perishable,
what is raised is imperishable. 15:43 It is sown in dishonor, it is raised in glory; it is
sown in weakness, it is raised in power; 15:44 it is sown a natural body, it is raised a
spiritual body. If there is a natural body, there is also a spiritual body.
Here Paul made explicit connection to the seed metaphor. The body that is buried is
transformed into the body that is raised. The point is not that a body is buried, and a
ghost is raised. Taken out of context, and in English translation, verse 44 is easy to mis-
take as making such an implication. But the words translated “natural” and “spiritual”
here are contrasting moral qualities. In both cases we still have bodies, which implies a
physical object, not a body and a ghost.
1. Lk 24:30 When he had taken his place at the table with them, he took the bread, blessed and
broke it, and gave it to them. 24:31 At this point their eyes were opened and they recognized
him. Then he vanished out of their sight.
2. Jn 20:26 Eight days later the disciples were again together in the house, and Thomas was with
them. Although the doors were locked, Jesus came and stood among them and said, “Peace be
with you!”
1 Corinthians 15
10 1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
The Greek word translated “natural” here is yuciko,j (psuchikos). In 1 Corinthians 2:14,
yuciko.j de. a;nqrwpoj (psuchikos de anthropos) means an unbeliever (a “natural man”).
In James 3:15, it is applied to wisdom, to mean wisdom that is not of God. In Jude 17, it
refers to people who are scoffers of christ. the word “spiritual”, pneumatiko,j (pneumati-
kos), is used in contrast to the yuciko,j . See for example 1 Corinthians 2:14-15 which
contrasts the “natural man” with a pneumatiko,j, a spiritual man.
1 Co 2:14 The unbeliever [Grk “natural person”] does not receive the things of the
Spirit of God, for they are foolishness to him. And he cannot understand them, because
they are spiritually discerned. 2:15 The one who is spiritual discerns all things, yet he
himself is understood by no one.
2.6 1 Corinthians 15:45-49
1 Co 15:45 So also it is written, “The first man, Adam, became a living person”; the
last Adam became a life-giving spirit. 15:46 However, the spiritual did not come first,
but the natural, and then the spiritual. 15:47 The first man is from the earth, made of
dust; the second man is from heaven. 15:48 Like the one made of dust, so too are those
made of dust, and like the one from heaven, so too those who are heavenly. 15:49 And
just as we have borne the image of the man of dust, let us also bear the image of the man
of heaven.
The contrast between natural and spiritual is continued here as the contrast between
Adam and Jesus. But it does not say we cease to be physical. In fact verse 49 empha-
sizes the opposite when it says “just as we have borne the image of the man of dust, let
us also bear the image of the man of heaven” [emphasis added]. Note the “also”, not
“instead”.
2.7 1 Corinthians 15:50-58
1 Co 15:50 Now this is what I am saying, brothers and sisters: Flesh and blood cannot
inherit the kingdom of God, nor does the perishable inherit the imperishable. 15:51 Lis-
ten, I will tell you a mystery: We will not all sleep, but we will all be changed – 15:52 in
a moment, in the blinking of an eye, at the last trumpet. For the trumpet will sound, and
the dead will be raised imperishable, and we will be changed. 15:53 For this perishable
body must put on the imperishable, and this mortal body must put on immortality. 15:54
Now when this perishable puts on the imperishable, and this mortal puts on immortality,
then the saying that is written will happen,
“Death has been swallowed up in victory.”
15:55 “Where, O death, is your victory?
Where, O death, is your sting?”
15:56 The sting of death is sin, and the power of sin is the law. 15:57 But thanks be to
God, who gives us the victory through our Lord Jesus Christ! 15:58 So then, dear broth-
ers and sisters, be firm. Do not be moved! Always be outstanding in the work of the
Lord, knowing that your labor is not in vain in the Lord.
Verse 50, taken out of context, seems to contradict our thesis — “Flesh and blood can-
not inherit the kingdom of God”. It would also seem to contradict Luke 24:39 that we
sited above: “a ghost does not have flesh and bones like you see I have”. But consider
the fuller context here to see what Paul meant. In verses 51 and 52 he twice said we will
be changed. Verse 53 and 54a make the point that “this perishable body must put on the
1 Corinthians 15
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection 11
imperishable....”. That is, the perishable body is not replaced with something different,
but takes on something additional and is transformed. Remember earlier Paul’s dis-
course on how different flesh and objects have different attributes (“glory”). The old
body of flesh and blood is transformed into a different kind of body, but there is continu-
ity between the two. Paul’s use of the word “flesh” here and elsewhere emphasizes the
fallen, sinful nature, where as Jesus’ use of the word emphasizes the physical, solid,
material nature1. They meant different things by “flesh” and, therefore, did not contra-
dict each other.
Romans 8:5-11 makes this usage of the words “flesh” and “spirit” very clear, plus it
ends with an explicit statement of physical resurrection.
Ro 8:5 For those who live according to the flesh have their outlook shaped by the things
of the flesh, but those who live according to the Spirit have their outlook shaped by the
things of the Spirit. 8:6 For the outlook of the flesh is death, but the outlook of the Spirit
is life and peace, 8:7 because the outlook of the flesh is hostile to God, for it does not
submit to the law of God, nor is it able to do so. 8:8 Those who are in the flesh cannot
please God. 8:9 You, however, are not in the flesh but in the Spirit, if indeed the Spirit
of God lives in you. Now if anyone does not have the Spirit of Christ, this person does
not belong to him. 8:10 But if Christ is in you, your body is dead because of sin, but the
Spirit is your life because of righteousness. 8:11 Moreover if the Spirit of the one who
raised Jesus from the dead lives in you, the one who raised Christ from the dead will
also make your mortal bodies alive through his Spirit who lives in you. [emphasis
added]
Paul spoke of transformation elsewhere too. In Philippians 3:21, he wrote:
Php 3:20 But our citizenship is in heaven – and we also await a savior from there, the
Lord Jesus Christ, 3:21 who will transform these humble bodies of ours into the like-
ness of his glorious body by means of that power by which he is able to subject all
things to himself.
Also note the details in one of Paul’s earliest letters, 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18:
The Lord Returns for Believers
1 Th 4:13 Now we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those
who are asleep, so that you will not grieve like the rest who have no hope. 4:14 For if
we believe that Jesus died and rose again, so also we believe that God will bring with
him those who have fallen asleep as Christians. 4:15 For we tell you this by the word of
the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will surely
not go ahead of those who have fallen asleep. 4:16 For the Lord himself will come
down from heaven with a shout of command, with the voice of the archangel, and with
the trumpet of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. 4:17 Then we who are alive,
who are left, will be suddenly caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the
Lord in the air. And so we will always be with the Lord. 4:18 Therefore encourage one
another with these words.
The relevant points are in verse 14, where, when Jesus returns, he brings with him those
Christians who have died, and then, in verse 16, where the dead Christians are resur-
rected. If the resurrected are just disembodied souls floating around, what does it mean
1.
Conclusion
12 1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
for them to come back to earth to be resurrected (are they playing peek-a-boo with Satan
or something?). Rather our souls go to be with Christ upon death (see 2 Corinthians 5),
then we come back with him and are bodily resurrected at the “end of the world”.
3.0 Conclusion
By lifting a few passages out of context some have attempted to argue against a physical
resurrection. Some Corinthians did this because their pagan background caused them to
think of the afterlife in terms of being ephemeral ghosts. In more modern times Full
Preterists begin with the presupposition that all scriptural prophecy has already been
fulfilled. This leads them to conclude the resurrection, rather then being a future event,
is something that has been happening upon believers’ death, and has nothing to do with
the physical body. Liberal Christianity, presupposing that the miraculous doesn’t really
ever happen, argues that the belief in the resurrection must have evolved.
We have seen that interpreting certain of Paul’s statements to say that the resurrection is
only of the spirit fails to properly take into account the way Paul uses the words else-
where. Paul insisted he taught the same gospel as the disciples who had seen the resur-
rected Christ. He emphasized the historical reality of Christ’s resurrection and how that
was the assurance of our resurrection. Both he and the other disciples, especially Luke,
taught a physical resurrection.
The Full Preterist view can only be sustained by tortured misinterpretation of scripture
in the service of a faulty presupposition. The Liberal Christian view is not tenable either.
Only by picking a few verses out of context can Paul be imagined to have a different
view on resurrection than the Gospel writers. The context shows that Paul did not refer
to a non-physical resurrection in the passages in question, and elsewhere, he clearly
taught a physical resurrection.
4.0 Bibliography
W. Bauer et al. 2000. A Greek-English Lexicon of the New Testament and Other Early
Christian Literature. (AKA, BDAG)
Thomas Bulfinch. Bulfinch’s Mythology. (1993 Modern Library Edition). See also http://
www.bulfinch.org.
Rudolf Bultmann. New Testament & Mythology (and Other Basic Writings). Selected,
edited, and translated by Shubert M. Ogen. 1984.
Kenneth O. Gangel. 1968. “According to the Scriptures”. Bibliotheca Sacra (Vol. 125,
pp. 123-128).
Normon L. Geiser. 1989. “The Significance of Christ’s Physical Resurrection”. Biblio-
theca Sacra (Vol. 145, p. 148).
Gary R. Habermas. 1996. The Historical Jesus: Ancient Evidence for the Life of Christ.
Bibliography
1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection 13
Charles Hodge. 1 Corinthians. The Crossway Classic Commentaries. 1995.
John A. Jelinek. 1991. “1 Corinthians 15:35-58: A Preliminary Study On The Nature Of
Christ’s Resurrection Body”. Michigan Theological Journal (Vol. 2, pp. 19-21, 113-
114).
L. J. Kreitzer. 1993. “Resurrection”. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters. Ed., Gerald F.
Hawthorne.
John F. MacArther. 1984. 1 Corinthians.
W. Harold Mare. 1976. “1 Corinthians”. The Expositor’s Bible Commentary (Vol 10).
Ed., Frank E. Gaebelein.
G. R. Osborne. 1992. “Resurrection”. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. Ed., Joel B.
Green, et al.
Richard E. Oster, Jr. 1995. 1 Corinthians. (College Press NIV Commentary).
John A. T. Robinson. 1976. Redating the New Testament.
Robert H. Stein. 1977. “Was the Tomb Really Empty?”. Journal of the Evangelical
Theological Society (Vol. 20 p. 23-29).
Randall C. Webber. “A Note on 1 Corinthians 15:3-4”. Journal of the Evangelical Theo-
logical Society (Vol. 26, pp. 265-269).
Bibliography
14 1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection
15
Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s
Temple
We examine the predictive vs. prescriptive
nature of the temple that Ezekiel describes.
1.0 Introduction
This study will examine Ezekiel 40-48. (But, we will not read every verse). These chap-
ters are a major source of the Dispensational view of an eschatological temple being
built in Jerusalem1. This study will argue against that interpretation. General hermue-
netical principles will be an important part of this investigation.
2.0 Historical Context
Eze 40:1 In the twenty-fifth year of our exile, at the beginning of the year, on the tenth
day of the month, in the fourteenth year after the city was struck down, on this very day,
the hand of the LORD was on me, and he brought me there.
Ezekiel 40:1 sets the historical context. Hebrew theology is unique in ancient religions,
being focused on history rather than on myth. Note how the bulk of the Old Testament
is a more or less continuous historical narrative, starting with creation in Genesis, Exo-
dus, Leviticus, Numbers, Deuteronomy, Joshua, Judges-Ruth, Samuel, and Kings
(repeated again briefly in Chronicles), and finally Ezra-Nehemiah and Esther. Old Tes-
tament passages should always be studied in their historical contexts: doubly so when
the text itself goes out of its way to specify an exact time and place, as the opening of
our subject scripture does2.
1. “Ezekiel” in Expositor's Bible Commentary.
2. Most prophetic books have such notices.
Literary Form
16 Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple
The Babylonian exile that Ezekiel cites did not begin with the destruction of Jerusalem.
Rather, it began a little over a decade earlier when the young King Jehoiachin was cap-
tured (See 2 Kings 24:8-17). This happened in mid-597 BC1 2 3. Nebuchadnezzer set
up Zedekiah as a puppet king. After he rebelled, Nebuchanezzer destroyed the city
about Aug 14, 586 BC (See 2 Kings 25:1-12).
Ezekiel was carried away captive in 597 BC and had been in exile 25 years — it had
been 14 years since Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed. It would not be till about
538 BC that the Persian king Cyrus would issue the edict that would end the exile (Ezra
1:1ff). The exact date specified in Ezekiel 40:1 was April 19, 573. (If you're doing the
math, Ezekiel is counting calendar years that began in the spring4... the 14th calendar
year was really 12 elapsed years and some change). Most of the adults that Ezekiel was
ministering to would not live to see the end of the exile, and fewer would live to see the
completion of the temple's reconstruction in c. 516 BC (Ezra 6:15).
Eze 40:2 By means of divine visions he brought me to the land of Israel and placed me
on a very high mountain, and on it was a structure like a city, to the south.
Ezekiel 40:2 establishes more of our context. "By means of divine visions," he began.
The entire contents of chapters 40-48 are of one or more visions. This is very important
for understanding these chapters because visions are rarely, if ever, straight-forward rep-
resentations of reality. Let's do a quick sampling of some visions in the Bible.
•Genesis 40:9-19: The dreams of Pharaoh's baker and cup bearer interpreted by
Josheph;
•Genesis 41:17-27: Pharaoh's dream;
•Daniel 2:31-45: Nebuchandnezzer's dream;
•Daniel 7: Daniel's dream of sea monsters; and
•Acts 10:9-16, 28: Peter's vision of the unclean animals.
It would be quite proper to question (to the extent that Ezekiel 40-48 may be predictive)
whether it is predictive of a literal temple, since such visions elsewhere are not literal.
3.0 Literary Form
Literary form is important in understanding any literature. Poetry is different from nar-
rative is different from an informal letter, etc. My thesis is that Ezekiel 40-48 is deliber-
ately imitative of Moses' instructions for the construction of the tabernacle and its
rituals.
1. http://www.jeff-jackson.com/new/religion/kings.pdf
2. http://www.jeff-jackson.com/new/old_testament/old_testament.html
3. Thiele. Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings. p. 186.
4. Thiele. Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings.p. 187.
Temple and Sacrifice
Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple 17
Let's first look at how the design for the tabernacle was revealed to Moses. See Exodus
25:9, Exodus 25:40, Numbers 8:4, and Hebrews 8:5 . Moses was shown a vision of
what he was to construct. The vision did not function predictively, but prescriptively.
Ex 25:9 According to all that I am showing you – the pattern of the tabernacle and the
pattern of all its furnishings – you must make it exactly so.
Ex 25:40 Now be sure to make them according to the pattern you were shown on the
mountain.
Nu 8:4 This is how the lampstand was made: It was beaten work in gold; from its shaft
to its flowers it was beaten work. According to the pattern which the LORD had shown
Moses, so he made the lampstand.
He 8:5 The place where they serve is a sketch and shadow of the heavenly sanctuary,
just as Moses was warned by God as he was about to complete the tabernacle. For he
says, “See that you make everything according to the design shown to you on the moun-
tain.”
Compare Exodus 26 and Ezekiel 41, then compare Exodus 29 and Ezekiel 43:13-27.
Ezekiel's vision served the same prescriptive purpose as Exodus' regulations.
It is not necessary to find a literal historical fulfilment. Rather, while Moses and his
generation followed the prescription and constructed the tabernacle and its furnishings
as directed, the generation returning from the exile did not (Haggai 1:2-4).
The Indifference of the People
Hag 1:2 The Lord who rules over all says this: “These people have said, ‘The time for
rebuilding the Lord’s temple has not yet come.’” 1:3 So the Lord spoke through the
prophet Haggai as follows: 1:4 “Is it right for you to live in richly paneled houses while
my temple is in ruins?
4.0 Temple and Sacrifice
The presence of temple sacrifice in the vision shows that a literal fulfilment cannot
come after the advent of the Messiah. Look at Daniel 9:20-27. Near the end of the 70
"weeks", which represent about 5 centuries symbolically (a day for a year), the sacrifice
and offering cease and the city and santuary are destroyed. This is brought about by a
"desolating abomination" which Jesus refered to when he spoke of the destruction of the
temple in the Olivet Discourse (Mark 13:14, and see Luke's interpretation of this in
Luke 21:20-21).1 The temple was in fact destroyed in 70 AD by the Romans, right
when Daniel's prophecy said it would be.2
Hebrews 10:1-18 further makes it clear that after the sacrifice of Jesus, there is no fur-
ther sacrifice needed.
1. See “Abomination Of Desolation (Mark 13:14-20)” on page 151.
2. See “Daniel 9:24-27 — Seventy Weeks” on page 52.
Conclusion
18 Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple
He 10:18 Now where there is forgiveness of these, there is no longer any offering for
sin.
In Revelation, there is no indication of an eschatological temple as part of God's plan.
The only temple mentioned is in heaven itself, except possibly Revelation 11:1-14.1 If
Ezekiel’s temple is not the second temple, but a future temple, then it will not be part of
proper worship of God. It will exist in spite of Jesus' sacrifice, not as a proper part of
the Kingdom of God.
In Revelation 21:22, it explicitly states that in the New Jerusalem "I saw no temple in
the city". Even more significantly, it says "because the Lord God – the All-Powerful –
and the Lamb are its temple". This is important for understanding both the actual phys-
ical temples, and the prescribed temple in Ezekiel. They are types that foreshadow the
Jesus and his sacrifice.
John 2:12-22 also makes this link, when Jesus refers to his resurrection as a rebuilding
of "this temple". In John 4:21, Jesus declared the irrelevance of the physical temples in
the future.2
Further, consider the water that Jesus offers the Samaritan woman (John 4:10-14), in
light of the river flowing from the temple in Ezekiel 47:1-12. The image of the small
stream coming from the temple and growing to a great river in the space of only a few
thousand feet is as realistic as, say, the great sea monsters of Daniel's visions. It is obvi-
ous that it is to be taken figuratively. It is no coincidence that fish (the early symbol for
Christianity) figures so prominently there.
5.0 Conclusion
Ezekiel was ministering to Israel in exile. Solomon's temple and the whole city of
Jerusalem had been destroyed. He had a vision of a new temple in the same way that
Moses had had a vision of the tabernacle. The vision give Israel a blueprint for the con-
struction of a new temple, and, implicitly, hope of eventual restoration to the land.
Israel was eventually restored to the land but never built the temple as prescribed. This
should not be surprising as Israel never fully lived up to their covenant requirements.
Ultimately, both the actual and the prescribed temples and sacrificial systems are types
of Jesus Christ. Jesus claimed to be the true temple and the source of living water.
After his sacrifice, there is no place for temple or further sacrifice in God's plan. Reve-
lation specifically says that there will be no temple in New Jerusalem because God and
Christ are the temple.
1. See “Second Interlude: The Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14)” on page 217.
2. See “Jesus’ References to the Temple” on page 21.
19
Paul’s Use of “Temple”
as a Metaphor
We trace the “temple” metaphor through
scripture.
1.0 Introduction
Eph 2:19 So then you are no longer foreigners and noncitizens, but you are fellow citi-
zens with the saints and members of God’s household, 2:20 because you have been built
on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the corner-
stone. 2:21 In him the whole building, being joined together, grows into a holy temple
in the Lord, 2:22 in whom you also are being built together into a dwelling place of God
in the Spirit.
The dictionary definition of temple is “an edifice [i.e., building] for religious exer-
cises”1. Since Paul does not likely have in mind stacking Christian bodies into a literal
work of civil engineering, we may assume his usage here is metaphorical. This study
will trace the development of this metaphor throughout scripture, beginning with the lit-
eral temples of Biblical Israel and ending with the eschatological implications of Paul’s
temple metaphor.
2.0 The Historical Temples
2.1 The Tabernacle
Israel’s first “temple” of sorts was the tabernacle, which was actually an elaborate tent.
Moses was shown the blueprints for the tabernacle in visions (Exodus 25:9, 40, Num-
bers 8:4, see also Hebrews 8:5). To see the sort of detail that Moses was shown and
communicated to Israel, see Exodus 26:1-6 and Exodus 29:1-14. We’ll be returning to
these descriptions below.
1. Merriam-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.
The Historical Temples
20 Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor
2.2 Shiloh
The tabernacle traveled with Israel in the wilderness. Once they settled in the land, the
tabernacle was kept at Shiloh (Joshua 18:1). Eventually, a more formal temple was built
there (1 Samuel 1:9), which was eventually destroyed (Jeremiah 7:12-14).
2.3 Solomon’s Temple
Solomon’s temple is the most famous. It was the first one built in Jerusalem, and so is
often called the First Temple, although as we saw above, there was an earlier one in
Shiloh. This temple stood throughout the existence of Judah and Israel until it was
destroyed by the Babylonians in 586 BC.
2.4 Ezekiel’s Temple1
Ezekiel’s temple is not an actual temple that was ever built. Instead it is a temple that
Ezekiel saw in a vision (Ezekiel 40-48). The question that drives interpretation of this
passage is “Is this passage a prophecy that has not yet been fulfilled?” Dispensational-
ists argue that Ezekiel’s temple is a temple to be build after the rapture and will function
during the Millennial rule of Christ2. This is the wrong question because the passage is
not predictive, but rather prescriptive. Compare Ezekiel 40:2, 5 with the tabernacle and
how Moses was shown its blueprint in visions (in the passages cited above). Moses’
vision was no different from Ezekiel’s. Ezekiel was prophesying during the Babylonian
exile and was giving Israel a blueprint for a new temple to be built when they would
return to the land of Israel from the exile. That the actual temple they built didn’t follow
this design is not relevant to this understanding. We can compare the details of Ezekiel’s
temple (Ezekiel 41, Ezekiel 43:13-27) with the descriptions of the tabernacle above to
see these parallels more fully.
2.5 The Second Temple
If Solomon’s temple is the so-called “First Temple”, the temple built when Israel
returned from exile (Ezra 6:15), completed about 516 BC, is called the “Second Tem-
ple”. It was remodeled by Herod the Great in Jesus time (John 2:20) and stood until it
was destroyed by the Romans in 70 AD.
2.6 Samaritan Temple
The Samaritans had a temple on Mount Gerizim, but it had been destroyed by Jesus’
time.3 4 5
1. See “Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple” on page 15.
2. See any Dispensational commentary, such as Expositor’s Bible Commentary.
3. “Gerizim, Mount” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
4. Josephus. Antiquities 11.8.2, 4.
5. 2 Macc. 5:23, 6:2
Jesus’ References to the Temple
Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor 21
3.0 Jesus’ References to the Temple
Jesus predicted the future irrelevance of physical temples. When Jesus was speaking to
the Samaritan women, he told her, “Believe me, woman, a time is coming when you will
worship the Father neither on this mountain nor in Jerusalem” (John 4:21). “This moun-
tain” refers to Mt. Gerizm, where the Samaritans had a temple at one tme. The reference
to the mountain and Jerusalem are metonyms for the temples built there. He goes on to
say, “But a time is coming—and now is here—when the true worshipers will worship
the Father in spirit and truth, for the Father seeks such people to be his worshipers.”
But Jesus said things even more radical than that the literal temples would become irrel-
evant. He called himself the temple! When he drove the sellers out of the temple, he
told everyone “Destroy this temple and in three days I will raise it up again” (John 2:19)
which John explained that “Jesus was speaking about the temple of his body.” (John
2:21).
Jesus also appropriated language used to describe Ezekiel’s temple to describe his own
mission. See Ezekiel 47:1-12. The river that flowed from the temple, starting as a
trickle and growing to be a great river in the space of a few thousand feet, is obviously
not literal. This is normal procedure for visions in scripture. The images in a vision are
nearly always symbolic. For some examples, see:
•Genesis 40:9-19 — Pharaoh’s baker an cupbearer
•Genesis 41:17-27 — Pharaoh’s dream
•Daniel 2:31-45 — Nebuchadnezer’s dream
•Daniel 7 — Sea monsters
•Acts 10:9-16 — Peter’s vision of unclean animals
When Jesus was talking to the Samaritan woman, he offered her living water that would
yield eternal life (John 4:10-14). The water of Ezekiel’s temple comes from Jesus.
The key to understand what Jesus meant by calling himself the temple is to realize that
the literal buildings of the past were actually a foreshadowing of Jesus. The technical
terminology is that they are a “type” and Jesus is the “antitype”. Hebrews 10:1-18
explains this in detail. In offering his life, he supplanted the temple and its sacrifices in
about AD 30. Then shortly afterwards, the temple was destroyed and sacrifices brought
to an end, in 70 AD.
Concluding Exposition: Old and New Sacrifices Contrasted
He 10:1 For the law possesses a shadow of the good things to come but not the reality
itself, and is therefore completely unable, by the same sacrifices offered continually,
year after year, to perfect those who come to worship. 10:2 For otherwise would they
not have ceased to be offered, since the worshipers would have been purified once for
all and so have no further consciousness of sin? 10:3 But in those sacrifices there is a
reminder of sins year after year. 10:4 For the blood of bulls and goats cannot take away
sins. 10:5 So when he came into the world, he said,
“Sacrifice and offering you did not desire, but a body you prepared for me.
10:6 “Whole burnt offerings and sin-offerings you took no delight in.
Paul’s use of the Temple Metaphor
22 Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor
10:7 “Then I said, ‘Here I am: I have come – it is written of me in the scroll
of the book – to do your will, O God.’”
10:8 When he says above, “Sacrifices and offerings and whole burnt offerings and
sin-offerings you did not desire nor did you take delight in them” (which are offered
according to the law), 10:9 then he says, “Here I am: I have come to do your will.” He
does away with the first to establish the second. 10:10 By his will we have been made
holy through the offering of the body of Jesus Christ once for all. 10:11 And every
priest stands day after day serving and offering the same sacrifices again and again –
sacrifices that can never take away sins. 10:12 But when this priest had offered one sac-
rifice for sins for all time, he sat down at the right hand of God, 10:13 where he is now
waiting until his enemies are made a footstool for his feet. 10:14 For by one offering he
has perfected for all time those who are made holy. 10:15 And the Holy Spirit also wit-
nesses to us, for after saying, 10:16 “This is the covenant that I will establish with
them after those days, says the Lord. I will put my laws on their hearts and I will
inscribe them on their minds,” 10:17 then he says, “Their sins and their lawless deeds
I will remember no longer.” 10:18 Now where there is forgiveness of these, there is no
longer any offering for sin.
This is in line with the prophecy in Daniel 9:20-27 written five centuries earlier of the
end of the sacrifice at the end of 70 weeks1, which is symbolic of a 490 year period (a
day for a year - a symbolism that also occurs in Ezekiel 4:5-6). Revelation 21:22 makes
the connection even more explicit. Referring to the New Jerusalem, “Now I saw no
temple in the city, because the Lord God – the All-Powerful – and the Lamb are its tem-
ple.”
4.0 Paul’s use of the Temple Metaphor
Paul builds on the metaphor of Jesus as a temple to include the whole church, through
which Jesus works. It is no coincidence that Paul also uses the metaphor of the church
as the body of Christ in the same letters as he uses the metaphor of the temple. The two
are parallel concepts. Note the following especially:
•Christ is the head of the body (Ephesians 1:22)
•Apostles and prophets have first and second place in the body (1 Corinthians 12:28)
•The church, Christ’s body, is filled with his Spirit (Ephesians 1:23)
1 Co 6:15 Do you not know that your bodies are members of Christ? Should I take the
members of Christ and make them members of a prostitute? Never!
1 Co 12:12 For just as the body is one and yet has many members, and all the members
of the body – though many – are one body, so too is Christ. 12:13 For in one Spirit we
were all baptized into one body. Whether Jews or Greeks or slaves or free, we were all
made to drink of the one Spirit. 12:14 For in fact the body is not a single member, but
many. 12:15 If the foot says, “Since I am not a hand, I am not part of the body,” it does
not lose its membership in the body because of that. 12:16 And if the ear says, “Since I
am not an eye, I am not part of the body,” it does not lose its membership in the body
because of that. 12:17 If the whole body were an eye, what part would do the hearing? If
the whole were an ear, what part would exercise the sense of smell? 12:18 But as a mat-
1. See “Daniel 9:24-27 — Seventy Weeks” on page 52.
Paul’s use of the Temple Metaphor
Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor 23
ter of fact, God has placed each of the members in the body just as he decided. 12:19 If
they were all the same member, where would the body be? 12:20 So now there are
many members, but one body. 12:21 The eye cannot say to the hand, “I do not need
you,” nor in turn can the head say to the foot, “I do not need you.” 12:22 On the con-
trary, those members that seem to be weaker are essential, 12:23 and those members we
consider less honorable we clothe with greater honor, and our unpresentable members
are clothed with dignity, 12:24 but our presentable members do not need this. Instead,
God has blended together the body, giving greater honor to the lesser member, 12:25 so
that there may be no division in the body, but the members may have mutual concern
for one another. 12:26 If one member suffers, everyone suffers with it. If a member is
honored, all rejoice with it.
1 Co 12:27 Now you are Christ’s body, and each of you is a member of it. 12:28 And
God has placed in the church first apostles, second prophets, third teachers, then mira-
cles, gifts of healing, helps, gifts of leadership, different kinds of tongues.
2 Co 4:8 We are experiencing trouble on every side, but are not crushed; we are per-
plexed, but not driven to despair; 4:9 we are persecuted, but not abandoned; we are
knocked down, but not destroyed, 4:10 always carrying around in our body the death of
Jesus, so that the life of Jesus may also be made visible in our body.
Eph 1:22 And God put all things under Christ’s feet, and he gave him to the church as
head over all things. 1:23 Now the church is his body, the fullness of him who fills all in
all.
Eph 4:11 It was he who gave some as apostles, some as prophets, some as evangelists,
and some as pastors and teachers, 4:12 to equip the saints for the work of ministry, that
is, to build up the body of Christ, 4:13 until we all attain to the unity of the faith and of
the knowledge of the Son of God – a mature person, attaining to the measure of Christ’s
full stature.
Col 1:24 Now I rejoice in my sufferings for you, and I fill up in my physical body – for
the sake of his body, the church – what is lacking in the sufferings of Christ.
Now in the temple metaphor, we have several parallels:
•Christ is the cornerstone (Ephesians 2:20); c.f. head of the body
•The apostles and prophets are the foundation (Ephesians 2:20)
•God’s Spirit inhabits the temple (1 Corinthians 3:16, Ephesians 2:22)
1 Co 3:16 Do you not know that you are God’s temple and that God’s Spirit lives in
you? 3:17 If someone destroys God’s temple, God will destroy him. For God’s temple is
holy, which is what you are.
1 Co 6:19 Or do you not know that your body is the temple of the Holy Spirit who is in
you, whom you have from God, and you are not your own? 6:20 For you were bought at
a price. Therefore glorify God with your body.
1 Co 9:13 Don’t you know that those who serve in the temple eat food from the temple,
and those who serve at the altar receive a part of the offerings? 9:14 In the same way the
Lord commanded those who proclaim the gospel to receive their living by the gospel.
2 Co 6:16 And what mutual agreement does the temple of God have with idols? For we
are the temple of the living God, just as God said, “I will live in them and will walk
among them, and I will be their God, and they will be my people.”
Conclusion
24 Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor
Eph 2:19 So then you are no longer foreigners and noncitizens, but you are fellow citi-
zens with the saints and members of God’s household, 2:20 because you have been built
on the foundation of the apostles and prophets, with Christ Jesus himself as the corner-
stone. 2:21 In him the whole building, being joined together, grows into a holy temple
in the Lord, 2:22 in whom you also are being built together into a dwelling place of God
in the Spirit.
5.0 Conclusion
The Dispensational expectation of a future eschatological temple with sin offerings and
other sacrifices is wrong. As the author of Hebrews said,
He 10:18 Now where there is forgiveness of these [sins and lawless deeds], there is no
longer any offering for sin. [NET]
The temples and sacrifices prior to Jesus Christ’s death and resurrection were merely
foreshadowings of His incarnation and sacrifice. They were the types, but now the anti-
type has come, rendering them obsolete. Consider how awesome the responsibility to
be part of “a holy temple in the Lord”, to be “a dwelling place of God in the Spirit.” We
are the eschatological temple, and even our most private sins profane that temple. Let
us instead work diligently to complete the temple and so glorify God.
25
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The
Burden of Babylon
We examine the use of figures of speech in
Scripture in studying the relationship this
passage has, if any, to the fall of Satan.
1.0 Introduction
The passage in question has nothing to do with eschatology. Nonetheless, we must
study it because it is often misinterpreted as dealing with the end-of-the-world. How-
ever, I do not wish to spend great amounts of time deconstructing Dispensationalism.
Thus we will focus on what the passage does say, and hermeneutic principles for under-
standing it, implicitly ruling out Dispensational and other erroneous views. The key to
understanding this passage is context. We will examine the passage in its context in the
book of Isaiah as a whole, its context in history, and its context in literature and lan-
guage.
2.0 Context
2.1 Context in Scripture
The immediate context is usually the best place to start studying any literary passage,
whether scripture or otherwise. Isaiah is a rather large book, so commentaries come in
handy in getting a good bird’s eye view of its overall structure. Outlining is a useful
tool here. There is no one “right” outline, but most commentaries will more or less
agree on the overall structure, though they they may split or combine some points here
and there. The below outline is based on Wycliff Bible Commentary.
I. Rebuke and Promise (Isa 1-6)
II. Immanuel (Isa 7-12)
III. Judgment on the Nations (Isa 13-23)
A. Babylon
Context
26 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
B. Assyria
C. Philistia
D. Moab
E. Damscus and Samaria
F. Ethiopia
G. Egypt
H. Babylon
I. Edom
J. Dedan and Kedar
K. Jerusalem
L. Tyre
IV. General Rebuke and Promise, I (Isa 24-27)
V. Woes on Unbelievers (Isa 28-33)
VI. General Rebuke and Promise, II (Isa 34-35)
VII. Hezekiah (Isa 36-39)
VIII. Comfort (Isa 40-66)
One thing we notice about the book of Isaiah is that it is not in simple chronological
order. Rather it was probably collected together by Isaiah’s disciples at the end of his
career1. Its structure therefore is not planned by the author nor chronological, but
related materials are brought together. The passage we are going to examine opens up a
block of material that deals with the various nations of the region that were in conflict
with Assyria (except for the brief mention of Assyria itself of course). The passage
itself establishes its subject matter as being about Babylon: Isaiah 13:1, 19, 14:4. It
would be quite odd if Isaiah meant something by “Babylon” other than the literal nation
that his contemporaries would have known. Our default position, absent strong evi-
dence to the contrary, is that Babylon is not symbolic for the Roman Catholic church, or
the kingdom of the antichrist, or any other such thing. It was the 8th century BC nation.
2.2 Context in History
Scripture itself puts great emphasis on its own historical context. Biblical events do not
take place in a mythical past, but in a past that is human history solidly connected with
the present. The very first verse of Isaiah establishes the timeframe of Isaiah’s ministry.
Chapters 36-39 appear to be lifted directly from the account in Kings. Modern archeol-
ogy has discovered Assyrian and Babylonian records that help to fill in the details of the
historical context of Isaiah. We’ll briefly overview the historical background for the
purposes of this study.2
In 745 BC, Tiglath-pileser III ascended the throne of Assyria and revitalized the Assyr-
ian empire, meaning, he expanded the empire by conquest. By 740 BC he had annexed
northern and southern Syria, and by 734 BC the coastal Philistines. In 732 BC he
annexed Damascus. Assyrian records record the receipt of tribute from the biblical
1. Many scholars think Isaiah 40-66 are written by later prophets, but this issue is beyond the
scope of this study.
2. See Siegfried. Ancient Israel. and Prichard. ANET.
Context
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 27
Rezin of Damascus (before he was conquered) and Menaham of Israel. 2 Kings 16:5-9
records that Ahaz paid tribute to Assyria to get support against Damascus and Samaria.
Revolts were common. Shalmaneser V was kept very busy defending against them,
including besieging Samaria, which fell under Shalmaneser’s successor, Sargon II, 722-
705 BC. The death of one king and the accession of the next was always an opportunity
for revolt. When Sargon ascended the throne, Merodach-baladan led Babylon in revolt
and ruled as its king until 710 BC. He survived the fall of Babylon, and managed to
lead another shorter lived revolt a few years later, after Sargon II’s death and Sennach-
erib’s accession to the throne (704-703 BC). It is almost certain that it was during one
of these periods of Babylonian revolt that constitutes the background of Isaiah’s Baby-
lonian prophecy.
The exact dating and sequence of the Biblical events surrounding the above events are
difficult. The Biblical data is confusing. Thiele1 demonstrated that there were several
different calendars in use in Israel and Judah over their history, and different ones were
adopted during different periods by each kingdom. The below reconstruction should be
viewed as somewhat tentative.
2 Kings 18:13-16 records that Sennacherib attacked Jerusalem in the 14th year of
Hezekiah (713/2 BC). Sennacherib was not yet king of Assyria at that time, so perhaps
he lead the attempted conquest as crown prince. Hezekiah paid him off to leave. 2
Kings goes on to record another attack by Sennacherib that we know from Assyrian
records took place in 701 BC.
The next account is that of Hezekiah’s illness, which took place 15 years before he died
(his life was spared and extended by 15 years, 2 Kings 20:1-11), and so must have taken
place about the same time as Sennacherib’s first attack, presumably shortly afterwards.
After his illness, Hezekiah received representatives from Merodach-baladan, king of
Babylon (2 Kings 20:12-21). Pay special attention to Isaiah’s prophecy in 2 Kings
20:16-18.
2 Ki 20:16 Isaiah said to Hezekiah, “Listen to the word of the LORD, 20:17 ‘Look, a
time is coming when everything in your palace and the things your ancestors have accu-
mulated to this day will be carried away to Babylon; nothing will be left,’ says the
LORD. 20:18 ‘Some of your very own descendants that you produce will be taken away
and will be made eunuchs in the palace of the king of Babylon.’”
It is near this event that most, if not all the prophecies against Babylon in Isaiah are to
be dated as that would have bee one of the few times in Isaiah’s time that Babylon was
active. It is not necessary to date the passage to the exile as some liberal scholars do.
2.3 Context in Literature and Language
In the 19th century, many scholars thought that the Greek of the New Testament was a
special dialect, distinct from the classical Greek of Homer et al, especially for the reve-
lation of scripture, sometimes referred to as “Holy Ghost Greek”. Then, numerous
1. Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings.
Context
28 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
Greek papyri were discovered. Scholars realized they were written in the same dialect as
the New Testament.1 This is an important point: scripture is communicated in ordinary
language using the idioms and literary conventions familiar to those who first received
it. The interpreter of scripture must steer a course between two extremes: an excessive
literalness that makes the passage say things not intended by the writer, and an exces-
sive looseness that allows the interpreter to allegorize the scripture into saying anything
he wants without regard to the intent of the author.
The following quotations are from the NET, but will often follow the more literal notes
instead of the main text in order to emphasise the idiom of the original language. The
NET, like nearly all translations, interprets many ancient figures of speech using more
modern forms of expression. We will now survey many of the figures of speech that
occur in this passage, highlighting them with an underscore:
Is 13:7 For this reason all hands drop [hang limp],
every human heart melts [loses its courage].
Obviously the hands and heart do not detach from the body and fall to the ground. Sym-
bolism is occurring on two levels here. First, hands represent the person doing some-
thing in several idioms (e.g., “do whatever you hand finds to do”) or the power a person
has over something (e.g., “delivered into his hands”) and the heart is symbolic for the
center of emotion and courage. Second, these symbols are then themselves presented as
doing an action that is symbolic. They fall to the ground, representing a loss of efficacy.
Is 13:8 They panic—
cramps and pain seize hold of them like those of a woman who is straining to give birth.
They look at one another in astonishment, their faces are faces of flames [flushed red].
This is a standard simile. The pain is like labor, but not identical to it. Flame is a meta-
phore for the color of their faces.
Is 13:10 Indeed the stars in the sky and their constellations
do not flash forth their light [no longer shine];
the sun is darkened as soon as it rises,
and the moon does not shed forth its light [shine].
This verse is not eschatological. The stars, sun, and moon are not being said to cease to
exist. Rather, their light is not being shed forth (onto the observer). In the context of
military conquest (Isaiah 13:4), it is rather a poetical image of the light being blotted out
by conflagration, specifically of Babylon.
Is 13:13 So I will shake the heavens [Or “the sky”],
and the earth will shake loose from its place [foundation],
because of the fury of the LORD who commands armies,
in the day he vents his raging anger.
These are poetic hyperboles, not dissimilar to how in English we describe momentous
events as “earth-shattering”, or say they “rock our world”. Ancient peoples pictured the
sky as a solid dome, about which it was meaningful, if still hyperbolic, to speak of as
1. Wallace, Greek Grammar, p. 25.
Context
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 29
being shaken. Today, such an image doesn’t even have a sensible literal meaning since
we know the sky is not a solid object.
Is 13:14 Like a frightened gazelle or a sheep with no shepherd,
each will turn toward home,
each will run to his homeland.
Again we have a straight-forward simile.
Is 13:16 Their children will be smashed to pieces before their very eyes;
their houses will be looted
and their wives raped.
This is a stock phrase for military conquest. It is somewhat hyperbolic, thought not too
far from the truth. Children are not brittle like pottery to shatter into multiple pieces if
smashed into the ground, although the actual mutilation of bodies is not going to be far
from that.
Is 13:18 Their arrows will cut young men to ribbons;
they have no compassion on a person’s offspring,
their eye does not [they will not] look with pity on children.
An arrow does cut a man quite severely, but it is hyperbole to describe the flesh as cut
into neat ribbons, though the reality is hardly less gruesome.
The eye (not) looking with pity is an example of metonymy. The eye stands for the
person (a part for the whole). And even the action, looking, stands for the empathetic
emotional feelings of that person, so there is a metonymy inside the metonymy.
Is 13:19 Babylon, the most admired of kingdoms,
the Chaldeans’ source of honor and pride,
will be destroyed by God j
ust as Sodom and Gomorrah were.
This is another example of simile. Just how was Babylon’s destruction just like Sodom
and Gomorrah’s? Nothing in this passage suggests angels visiting Babylon and raining
down fire and brimstone on the city. Rather the similarity is a matter of metaphysics
rather than physics. That is, Babylon’s destruction was a judgment from God and per-
haps some hyperbole regarding the totality of its destruction.
Is 14:5 The LORD has broken the club of the wicked,
the scepter of rulers.
The club/scepter is symbolic of the power of oppressors. The image of their destruction
is a metonymy for the destruction of the powers behind those symbols.
Is 14:6 It furiously struck down nations with unceasing blows.
It angrily ruled over nations,
oppressing them without restraint.
“It” here is the club/scepter of the preceding verse The striking is symbolic of the
oppression carried about by those who wielded the symbols.
Context
30 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
Is 14:7 The whole earth rests and is quiet;
they break into song.
This is an obvious hyperbole. The Mayas and Aztecs in Mexico did not rest as a result
of the destruction of Babylon, let alone break into song. The point is only the totality of
the relief that the king of Babylon’s death will bring about.
Is 14:8 The evergreens also rejoice over your demise,
as do the cedars of Lebanon, singing,
‘Since you fell asleep,
no woodsman comes up to chop us down!’
The personification of the evergreens and cedars is another type of figure of speech. If
they were persons capable of rejoicing and singing, they certainly would do so at the
prospect of no longer being chopped down.
Is 14:22 “I will rise up against them,”
says the LORD who commands armies.
“I will blot out all remembrance of Babylon and destroy all her people,
including the offspring she produces,”
says the LORD.
This is hyperbole. Since the existence of Babylon is written in scripture, and scripture
will never pass away, it will always be remembered that Babylon existed. What this
verse points more precisely to is that the day will come when no one has a personal rec-
ollection of Babylon. The city has ceased and has remained extinct long enough for
everyone who knew her to have died.
Is 14:23 “I will turn her into a place that is overrun with wild animals
and covered with pools of stagnant water.
I will get rid of her, just as one sweeps away dirt with a broom,”
says the LORD who commands armies.
This is another poetic simile. God was not going to take a mountain-sized broom to
Babylon, but he was going to discard her like one discards household dirt.
2.4 New Testament Allusions
The New Testament alludes to three verses in our passage here: Isa 13:10 and Isa
14:13-14. These bring up important exegetical questions, and so will be examined in
detail here.
2.4.1 Isaiah 13:10, 13 (Matthew 24:29, Mark 13:24-25, Luke 21:26)
Is 13:10 Indeed the stars in the sky and their constellations
no longer give out their light;
the sun is darkened as soon as it rises,
and the moon does not shine....
Is 13:13 So I will shake the heavens,
and the earth will shake loose from its foundation,
because of the fury of the LORD who commands armies,
in the day he vents his raging anger.
Context
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 31
Mt 24:29 “Immediately after the suffering of those days, the sun will be darkened, and
the moon will not give its light; the stars will fall from heaven, and the powers of heaven
will be shaken.
Mk 13:24 “But in those days, after the suffering, the sun will be darkened and the moon
will not give its light; 13:25 the stars will be falling from heaven, and the powers in the
heavens will be shaken.
Lk 21:26 People will be fainting from fear and from the expectation of what is coming
on the world, for the powers of the heavens will be shaken.
Jesus quoted phrases from Isaiah 13:10, 13 when talking about Jerusalem’s destruction
in the Olivet discourse. I’ve argued elsewhere for a non-eschatological understanding
of that discourse1. Note how the bulk of that discourse is bracketed:
Mk 13:2 Jesus said to him, “Do you see these great buildings? Not one stone will be left
on another. All will be torn down!” ... Mk 13:4 “Tell us, when will these things happen?
And what will be the sign that all these things are about to take place?”................. Mk
13:30 I tell you the truth, this generation will not pass away until all these things take
place. [NET]
In invoking the language that Isaiah used in the Babylon oracle, he did not simply just
apply the same language to a similar situation (the destruction of a city), he implicitly
accused Jerusalem of being a second Babylon.
2.4.2 Isaiah 14:13-14 (2 Thessalonians 2:4)
Is 14:13 You said to yourself,
“I will climb up to the sky.
Above the stars of El
I will set up my throne.
I will rule on the mountain of assembly
on the remote slopes of Zaphon.
14:14 I will climb up to the tops of the clouds;
I will make myself like the Most High!”
2 Th 2:4 He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship,
and as a result he takes his seat in God’s temple, displaying himself as God.
Paul picked up some phrases from Isaiah 14:13-14. Paul was using it in describing a
future, possibly eschatological, figure with delusions of godhood. The hyperbolic lan-
guage Isaiah used in describing the king of Babylon is apropos, but the two are not to be
identified.
The popular identification of the king in Isaiah 14 with Satan is simply incorrect, at least
on the literal level. The king of Babylon was certainly an evil person who makes a good
type of Satan, but was himself an actual human. See more on this below.
1. See “Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)” on page 145.
Pulling It All Together
32 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
3.0 Pulling It All Together
Now that we’ve established our contexts, let’s go through paragraph by paragraph and
exegete the passage in greater detail.
3.1 Title (Isaiah 13:1)
The Lord Will Judge Babylon
Is 13:1 This is a message about Babylon that God revealed to Isaiah son of Amoz:
The title verse of the section says it’s about Babylon. It seems best to assume then that
the passage is about the literal Babylon, and not symbolically Jerusalem, Rome, Amer-
ica, or some other place.
3.2 Universal Judgment (Isaiah 13:2-16)
Is 13:2 On a bare hill raise a signal flag,
shout to them,
wave your hand,
so they might enter the gates of the princes!
13:3 I have given orders to my chosen soldiers;
I have summoned the warriors through whom I will vent my anger,
my boasting, arrogant ones.
13:4 There is a loud noise on the mountains—
it sounds like a large army!
There is great commotion among the kingdoms—
nations are being assembled!
The LORD who leads armies is mustering
forces for battle.
13:5 They come from a distant land, from the horizon.
It is the LORD with his instruments of judgment,
coming to destroy the whole earth.
13:6 Wail, for the LORD’s day of judgment is near;
it comes with all the destructive power of the sovereign judge.
13:7 For this reason all hands hang limp,
every human heart loses its courage.
13:8 They panic—
cramps and pain seize hold of them
like those of a woman who is straining to give birth.
They look at one another in astonishment,
their faces are flushed red.
13:9 Look, the LORD’s day of judgment is coming;
it is a day of cruelty and savage, raging anger,
destroying the earth
and annihilating its sinners.
13:10 Indeed the stars in the sky and their constellations
no longer give out their light;
the sun is darkened as soon as it rises,
and the moon does not shine.
13:11 I will punish the world for its evil,
and wicked people for their sin.
I will put an end to the pride of the insolent,
Pulling It All Together
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 33
I will bring down the arrogance of tyrants.
13:12 I will make human beings more scarce than pure gold,
and people more scarce than gold from Ophir.
13:13 So I will shake the heavens,
and the earth will shake loose from its foundation,
because of the fury of the LORD who cmmands armies,
in the day he vents his raging anger.
13:14 Like a frightened gazelle
or a sheep with no shepherd,
each will turn toward home,
each will run to his homeland.
13:15 Everyone who is caught will be stabbed;
everyone who is seized will die by the sword.
13:16 Their children will be smashed to pieces before their very eyes;
their houses will be looted
and their wives raped.
These verses interrupt the flow from verse 1 (“This is a message about Babylon...”) to
verse 17 (“Look, I am stirring up the Medes to attack them [Babylon]”) with a passage
of universal scope (“coming to destroy the whole earth”, v. 5). These verses actually
function as an introduction to the entire Judgment on the Nations section (Isaiah 13-23).
The armies are already summoned (verse 3) and are already being assembled (verse 4).
The day of judgment it looks forward to is near (“the LORD’s day of judgment is near”,
verse 6) and not some distant eschatological age. Its universal judgment finds its ful-
fillment in the fulfillment of the individual prophecies of the following 11 chapters. An
immanent, not a distant eschatological, judgment is prophesied here.
3.3 Medes Will Destroy Babylon (Isaiah 13:17-22)
Is 13:17 Look, I am stirring up the Medes to attack them;
they are not concerned about silver,
nor are they interested in gold.
13:18 Their arrows will cut young men to ribbons;
they have no compassion on a person’s offspring,
they will not look with pity on children.
13:19 Babylon, the most admired of kingdoms,
the Chaldeans’ source of honor and pride,
will be destroyed by God
just as Sodom and Gomorrah were.
13:20 No one will live there again;
no one will ever reside there again.
No bedouin will camp there,
no shepherds will rest their flocks there.
13:21 Wild animals will rest there,
the ruined houses will be full of hyenas.
Ostriches will live there,
wild goats will skip among the ruins.
13:22 Wild dogs will yip in her ruined fortresses,
jackals will yelp in the once-splendid palaces.
Her time is almost up,
her days will not be prolonged.
Pulling It All Together
34 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
The Medes referred to here were likely Median mercenaries in the Assyrian army1. The
Median reputation referred to here is referred to by Xenophon in the 4th century BC:
[Cyrus speaking.... ] “Ye Medes, and others who now hear me, I well know that you
have not accompanied me in this expedition with a view of acquiring wealth.”—Cyrop.
lib. 5.2
The language used to describe Babylon’s destruction here is conventional for the genre.
We encounter it elsewhere in scripture. Jeremiah 25:9-25 uses such language in refer-
ring to 6th century Jerusalem and Babylon.
Je 25:9 So I, the LORD, affirm that I am going to send for all the peoples of the north and
my servant, King Nebuchadnezzar of Babylon. I will bring them against this land and
its inhabitants and all the nations that surround it. I will utterly destroy this land, its
inhabitants, and all the nations that surround it and make them everlasting ruins. I will
make them objects of horror and hissing scorn. 25:10 I will put an end to the sounds of
joy and gladness, to the glad celebration of brides and grooms in these lands. I will put
an end to the sound of people grinding meal. I will put an end to lamps shining in their
houses. 25:11 This whole area will become a desolate wasteland. These nations will be
subject to the king of Babylon for seventy years.’
Notice how in nearly the same breath, Jeremiah can describe the land and its inhabitants
as utterly destroyed and the ruins as everlasting, yet limit the subjugation to only 70
years. He unambiguously did not intend for his word picture of destruction to be
pressed to absolute literalness. He goes on to describe what is to happen to Babylon at
the end of the seventy years using the same terms in Jeremiah 25:12-14.
Je 25:12 “‘But when the seventy years are over, I will punish the king of Babylon and
his nation for their sins. I will make the land of Babylon an everlasting ruin. I, the
LORD, affirm it. 25:13 I will bring on that land everything that I said I would. I will
bring on it everything that is written in this book. I will bring on it everything that Jere-
miah has prophesied against all the nations. 25:14 For many nations and great kings will
make slaves of the king of Babylon and his nation too. I will repay them for all they
have done!’”
Later, in Jeremiah 50:39-40, he also invokes the Sodom and Gomorrah image for Baby-
lon’s destruction, but without giving any indication that he meant that Fire and Brim-
stone would rain down on it from the heavens.
Je 50:39 Therefore desert creatures and jackals will live there.
Ostriches will dwell in it too.
But no people will ever live there again.
No one will dwell there for all time to come.
50:40 I will destroy Babylonia just like I did
Sodom and Gomorrah and the neighboring towns.
No one will live there.
No human being will settle in it,”
says the LORD.
1. Heater, JETS 41:1, p. 47-48
2. Clarke, Clarke’s Commentary: Isaiah.
Pulling It All Together
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 35
Jeremiah also used the exact same words to describe Edom in Jeremiah 49:18. This
illustrates how the word picture is a literary convention more than a “scientific” descrip-
tion.
Je 49:18 Edom will be destroyed like Sodom and Gomorrah
and the towns that were around them.
No one will live there.
No human being will settle in it,”
says the LORD.
De ja vue all over again! There is more concerning Babylon in Jeremiah 51:11, 26, 62.
Je 51:11 “Sharpen your arrows!
Fill your quivers!
The LORD will arouse a spirit of hostility in the kings of Media.
For he intends to destroy Babylonia.
For that is how the LORD will get his revenge—
how he will get his revenge for the Babylonians’ destruction of his temple.
Je 51:26 No one will use any of your stones as a cornerstone.
No one will use any of them in the foundation of his house.
For you will lie desolate forever,”
says the LORD.
Je 51:62 Then say, ‘O LORD, you have announced that you will destroy this place so
that no people or animals live in it any longer. Certainly it will lie desolate forever!’
Concerning Mount Seir (Edom), Ezekiel wrote about “perpetual desolation” [NET] in
Ezekiel 35:9.
Eze 35:9 I will make you a perpetual desolation, and your cities will never be inhabited
again. Then you will know that I am the LORD.
Zephaniah wrote concerning Moab and Ammon being “permanently desolate” [NET] in
Zephaniah 2:9.
Zeph 2:9 Therefore, as surely as I live,” says the LORD who commands armies, the God
of Israel,
“be certain that Moab will become like Sodom
and the Ammonites like Gomorrah.
They will be overrun by weeds,
filled with salt pits,
and permanently desolate.
Those of my people who are left will plunder their belongings;
those who are left in Judah will take possession of their land.”
Returning back to Isaiah, in a later prophesy, Isaiah 23:13, Isaiah was prophesying to
Tyre and referred to the Chaldean’s [Babylonia’s] destruction as having already hap-
pened. This was presumably written after Merodach-baladan was defeated and Babylon
reconquered in 710 or 703 BC.
Is 23:13 Look at the land of the Chaldeans,
these people who have lost their identity!
The Assyrians have made it a home for wild animals.
They erected their siege towers,
Pulling It All Together
36 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
demolished its fortresses,
and turned it into a heap of ruins.
We may summarize thusly: The language here is poetic, and not impassionate, clinical
prose. The poetic word pictures are conventional of the genre of prophecy of destruc-
tion — the same word pictures are used over and over by Isaiah and other prophets.
While the potential for absolute destruction was there, the original readers would have
understood the language as hyperbolic, as can be seen in Jeremiah’s use of the language,
immediately followed by a prophecy of restoration after 70 years! We may therefore
conclude that the Babylon being prophesied about by Isaiah was the Babylon of his day,
and that the prophesy was fulfilled in his day.
3.4 Compassion on Jacob (Isaiah 14:1-4a)
Is 14:1 The LORD will certainly have compassion on Jacob; he will again choose Israel
as his special people and restore them to their land. Resident foreigners will join them
and unite with the family of Jacob. 14:2 Nations will take them and bring them back to
their own place. Then the family of Jacob will make foreigners their servants as they
settle in the LORD’s land. They will make their captors captives and rule over the ones
who oppressed them. 14:3 When the LORD gives you relief from your suffering and
anxiety, and from the hard labor which you were made to perform, 14:4a you will taunt
the king of Babylon with these words:
Recall that in Isaiah 39:6, he had prophesied:
Is 39:6 ‘Look, a time is coming when everything in your palace and the things your
ancestors have accumulated to this day will be carried away to Babylon; nothing will be
left,’ says the LORD. [NET]
Here, Isaiah is looking past that to Judah’s restoration. Isaiah 13 is not the immediate
context of this prophecy as that passage does not deal with Judah going into exile.
Chapter 14 is positioned by Isaiah’s anthologist after chapter 13 only because both deal
with Babylon.
3.5 Taunt of the King of Babylon (Isaiah 14:4b-21)
Is 14:4b “Look how the oppressor has met his end!
Hostility has ceased!
14:5 The LORD has broken the club of the wicked,
the scepter of rulers.
14:6 It furiously struck down nations
with unceasing blows.
It angrily ruled over nations,
oppressing them without restraint.
14:7 The whole earth rests and is quiet;
they break into song.
14:8 The evergreens also rejoice over your demise,
as do the cedars of Lebanon, singing,
‘Since you fell asleep,
no woodsman comes up to chop us down!’
14:9 Sheol below is stirred up about you,
ready to meet you when you arrive.
Pulling It All Together
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 37
It rouses the spirits of the dead for you,
all the former leaders of the earth;
it makes all the former kings of the nations
rise from their thrones.
14:10 All of them respond to you, saying:
‘You’ve also become weak like us!
You’ve become just like us!
14:11 Your splendor has been brought down to Sheol,
as well as the sound of your stringed instruments.
You lie on a bed of maggots,
with a blanket of worms over you.
14:12 Look how you have fallen from the sky,
O shining one, son of the dawn!
You’ve been cut down to the ground,
O conqueror of the nations!
14:13 You said to yourself,
“I will climb up to the sky.
Above the stars of El
I will set up my throne.
I will rule on the mountain of assembly
on the remote slopes of Zaphon.
14:14 I will climb up to the tops of the clouds;
I will make myself like the Most High!”
14:15 But you were brought down to Sheol,
to the remote slopes of the pit.
14:16 Those who see you stare at you,
they look at you carefully, thinking:
“Is this the man who shook the earth,
the one who made kingdoms tremble?
14:17 Is this the one who made the world like a desert,
who ruined its cities,
and refused to free his prisoners so they could return home?”’
14:18 As for all the kings of the nations,
all of them lie down in splendor,
each in his own tomb.
14:19 But you have been thrown out of your grave
like a shoot that is thrown away.
You lie among the slain,
among those who have been slashed by the sword,
among those headed for the stones of the pit,
as if you were a mangled corpse.
14:20 You will not be buried with them,
because you destroyed your land
and killed your people.
The offspring of the wicked
will never be mentioned again.
14:21 Prepare to execute his sons
for the sins their ancestors have committed.
They must not rise up and take possession of the earth,
or fill the surface of the world with cities.”
This passage is an imaginative poem. Its content is a taunt. Just as the trees didn’t lit-
erally “get down and party” when the king of Babylon died (14:8), we shouldn’t read
the description of Sheol as a theological treatise on the afterlife.
Concluding Thought: The Experience of Jonah
38 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
The passage is clearly about the literal Babylon (14:4a, 22) and her human king (14:16).
As the epitome of evil, the language used to describe the arrogance of the king of Baby-
lon here was used by Paul to describe an eschatological “man of lawlessness” in 2 Thes-
salonians 2:4 (cf. Isaiah 14:13-14). But Paul was not interpeting this passage in Isaiah
as referring to him, but rather was using the language as a sort of cliche; at most, he was
treating the king of Babylon as a type of the man of lawlessness.
Historically, it has been a common practice to spiritualize this entire passage to be about
Satan rather than the human king of Babylon. This misinterpretation is behind much
popular mythology about Satan. The reference in 14:11 to his string instruments (which
in context would not refer to the king’s personal instruments, but the instruments of the
musicians at his court — compare with David playing the harp at Saul’s court) is behind
the myth of Satan originally being the chief musician of heaven until he attempted to
rebel and take over. Whatever the actual details of Satan’s fall from heaven1, this pas-
sage is not about that.
3.6 Babylon Condemned (Isaiah 14:22-23)
Is 14:22 “I will rise up against them,”
says the LORD who commands armies.
“I will blot out all remembrance of Babylon and destroy all her people,
including the offspring she produces,”
says the LORD.
14:23 “I will turn her into a place that is overrun with wild animals
and covered with pools of stagnant water.
I will get rid of her, just as one sweeps away dirt with a broom,”
says the LORD who commands armies.
If all remembrance of Babylon is to be blotted out, but Babylon is mentioned in scrip-
ture, and scripture can never pass away, isn’t remembrance of Babylon going to con-
tinue? Again, this is an example of poetic language that, while it has a serious point that
should not be “spiritualized” away, should also not be pressed too literally.
4.0 Concluding Thought: The Experience of Jonah
Consider also the experience of Jonah (See especially Jonah 1:2, Jonah 3:1-4, Jonah
3:10, Jonah 4:10-11).
Jon 1:2 “Go immediately to Nineveh, that large capital city, and announce judgment
against its people because their wickedness has come to my attention.”
Jon 3:1 The LORD said to Jonah a second time, 3:2 “Go immediately to Nineveh, that
large city, and proclaim to it the message that I tell you.” 3:3 So Jonah went immedi-
ately to Nineveh, as the LORD had said. (Now Nineveh was an enormous city—it
required three days to walk through it!) 3:4 When Jonah began to enter the city one
day’s walk, he announced, “At the end of forty days, Nineveh will be overthrown!”
1. See “Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon” on page 223.
Concluding Thought: The Experience of Jonah
Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon 39
Jon 3:10 When God saw their actions—they turned from their evil way of living!—God
relented concerning the judgment he had threatened them with and he did not destroy
them.
Jon 4:10 The LORD said, “You were upset about this little plant, something for which
you have not worked nor did you do anything to make it grow. It grew up overnight and
died the next day. 4:11 Should I not be even more concerned about Nineveh, this enor-
mous city? There are more than one hundred twenty thousand people in it who do not
know right from wrong, as well as many animals!”
The possibility of God’s mercy is ever present. So even if one presses the poetic figures
of speech to be literally understood, there is always the possibility that God will be mer-
ciful and spare people the full brunt of their deserved punishment.
4.1 Bibliography
Alden, Robert L. 1968. “Lucifer, Who or What?”, Journal of the Evangelical Theolog-
ical Society Vol 11:1. (Logos)
Allen, Kenneth W. Allen. 1976. “The Rebuilding and Destruction of Babylon”, Biblio-
theca Sacra Vol 133 #529. (Logos)
Calvin, John. (Rev. William Pringle, translator). Calvin’s Commentaries: Isaiah.
(Logos, 1998).
Chafer, Lews Sperry. 1942. “Angelology Part 3”, Bibliotheca Sacra Vol 99 #394.
(Logos)
Clarke, Adam. Clarke’s Commentary: Isaiah. (Logos, 1999).
Davison, Vernon G. 1975. “Merodach-baladan”, Wycliff Bible Encyclopedia. (Logos)
Elwell, Walter A. 1989. Evangelical Commentary on the Bible. (Logos, 1996).
Goehring, Harry. 1961. “The Fall of Babylon - Historial or Future? A Critical Mono-
graph on Isaih 13:19-20”, Grace Journal Vol 2 #1. (Logos)
Grayson, A. Kirk. 1992. “Mesopotamia, History of (History and Culture of Babylo-
nia”, Anchor Bible Dictionary. (Logos, 1996).
Heater, Homer, Jr. 1998. “Do the Prophets Teach That Babylonia Will Be Rebuilt In
the Eschaton?”, Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society Vol 41:1. (Logos)
Henry, Matthew. Matthew Henry’s Commentary on the Whole Bible. (Logos, 1996).
Hodge, Charles. Systematic Theology. (Logos, 1997).
Horn, Siegfried. Revised by McCarter, Kyle, Jr. 2002. “The Divided Monarchy: The
Kingdoms of Judah and Israel”, Shanks, Hershel (editor). Ancient Israel. (Logos).
Concluding Thought: The Experience of Jonah
40 Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon
Jamieson, Robert; Fausset, A. R.; and Brown David. 1871. Commentary Critical and
Explanatory on the Whole Bible. (Logos, 1997).
Keil,C. F. and Delitzsch, F. Commentary on the Old Testament. (Logos, 2002).
LaSor, W. S. 1988. “Merodach-Baladan”, International Standard Bible Encyclopedia,
Revised. (Logos, 2002).
Motyer, J. Alec. 1993. The Prophecy of Isaiah. (Logos).
Pfeiffer, Charles. F. 1962. The Wycliffe Bible Commentary: Old Testament. (Logos).
Prichard, James B. 1969. Ancient Near Eastern Texts.
Ryrie, Charles C. 1961. “Satan’s Counterfeit”, Grace Journal Vol 2 #3. (Logos).
Sack, Ronald H. 1992. “Merodach-baladan”, Anchor Bible Dictionary. (Logos, 1996)
Sawyer, John. F. A. 1984. Isaiah: Volume 1. (The Daily Study Bible Series). (Logos,
2001).
Sproul, R. C. and Packer, J. I. (contributing editors). 1995. New Geneva Study Bible.
(Logos, 1997).
Thiele, Edwin R. 1983. The Mysterious Numbers of the Hebrew Kings.
Wallace, Daniel B. 1996. Greek Grammar Beyond the Basics.
Walton, John H. 1985. “New Observations On The Date Of Isaiah”, Journal of the
Envangelical Society Vol 28:2. (Logos).
Watts, John. D. W. 2002. Word Biblical Commentary, Volume 24: Isaiah 1-33.
(Logos).
Wesley, John. Wesley’s Notes: Isaiah. (Logos, 1999).
Wiseman, D. J. 1988. “Chaldees”, International Standard Bible Encylopedia, Revised.
(Logos, 2002).
41
The Kingdom Visions in
Daniel
By comparing the parallels between Daniel’s
Kingdom Visions, we can determine with
certainty which kingdom is meant by each
symbol.
1.0 Introduction
The book of Daniel contains accounts of several visions. These visions predicted the
coming of four kingdoms, followed by the Kingdom of God. The visions were interre-
lated. Examining these interrelationships is an important hermeneutic for interpreting
them. Context is always important studying Scripture. In addition to the immediate his-
torical circumstances of each individual vision, the visions taken as a whole form a con-
text for each other.
These visions are usually described as being apocalyptic. The popular meaning of the
word is somewhat misleading here. In this context, “apocalyptic” does not mean “fore-
casting the ultimate destiny of the world”1 precisely. Rather, “apocalyptic” here
describes the form, not necessarily the content. The apocalyptic form has two parts.
The first part is the vision proper. It is an often strange or bizarre vision where the ele-
ments of the vision have symbolic meanings. The second part is an interpretation,
often, but not always, given by an angel who guides the prophet through the vision.
Space does not permit covering apologetic issues regarding the date of composition and
authorship of Daniel. However, the conclusions drawn from studying the relationships
between the visions are one factor (of many) pointing to a solution to the apologetic
issues.
1. Merriam-Webster. “Apocalyptic”
The Visions
42 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
2.0 The Visions
2.1 Daniel 2:31-45 — The Statue
Da 2:31 “You, O king, were watching as a great statue – one of impressive size and
extraordinary brightness – was standing before you. Its appearance caused alarm. 2:32
As for that statue, its head was of fine gold, its chest and arms were of silver, its belly
and thighs were of bronze. 2:33 Its legs were of iron; its feet were partly of iron and
partly of clay. 2:34 You were watching as a stone was cut out, but not by human hands.
It struck the statue on its iron and clay feet, breaking them in pieces. 2:35 Then the iron,
clay, bronze, silver, and gold were broken in pieces without distinction and became like
chaff from the summer threshing floors that the wind carries away. Not a trace of them
could be found. But the stone that struck the statue became a large mountain that filled
the entire earth. 2:36 This was the dream. Now we will set forth before the king its inter-
pretation.
Daniel Interprets Nebuchadnezzar’s Dream
2:37 “You, O king, are the king of kings. The God of heaven has granted you sover-
eignty, power, strength, and honor. 2:38 Wherever human beings, wild animals, and
birds of the sky live – he has given them into your power. He has given you authority
over them all. You are the head of gold. 2:39 Now after you another kingdom will arise,
one inferior to yours. Then a third kingdom, one of bronze, will rule in all the earth.
2:40 Then there will be a fourth kingdom, one strong like iron. Just like iron breaks in
pieces and shatters everything, and as iron breaks in pieces all of these metals, so it will
break in pieces and crush the others. 2:41 In that you were seeing feet and toes partly of
wet clay and partly of iron, so this will be a divided kingdom. Some of the strength of
iron will be in it, for you saw iron mixed with wet clay. 2:42 In that the toes of the feet
were partly of iron and partly of clay, the latter stages of this kingdom will be partly
strong and partly fragile. 2:43 And in that you saw iron mixed with wet clay, so people
will be mixed with one another without adhering to one another, just as iron does not
mix with clay. 2:44 In the days of those kings the God of heaven will raise up an ever-
lasting kingdom that will not be destroyed and a kingdom that will not be left to another
people. It will break in pieces and bring about the demise of all these kingdoms. But it
will stand forever. 2:45 You saw that a stone was cut from a mountain, but not by
human hands; it smashed the iron, bronze, clay, silver, and gold into pieces. The great
God has made known to the king what will occur in the future. The dream is certain, and
its interpretation is reliable.”
The first apocalyptic vision broke with the classical form somewhat. It wasn’t the
prophet of God who had the vision, but a pagan king. Instead of an angel providing the
prophet with an interpretation, it was the prophet who provided the pagan king an expla-
nation, although we probably wouldn’t be straying far from the truth if we presumed
that an angel gave Daniel the vision and explanation the night before.
The central symbol in this vision was a large statue divided into four sections. Each
was explicitly identified as a kingdom. Only the first was explicitly identified, as Neb-
uchadnezzar (i.e., the Babylonian Empire — note the interchangeability of the king with
the kingdom, here and elsewhere). The others were not identified, but they were termi-
nated with a fifth kingdom, the Kingdom of God, symbolized by a stone that destroyed
the statue, became a mountain and filled the whole earth.
The Visions
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 43
By comparing the scheme of four kingdoms followed by the Kingdom of God with
analogous symbols in other visions in Daniel (see the comparison chart below), we will
be able to positively identify the other three kingdoms.
2.2 Daniel 7:2-14, 17-18, 23-27 -- The Four Beasts
Daniel has a Vision of Four Animals Coming up from the Sea
... Da 7:2 Daniel explained: “I was watching in my vision during the night as the four
winds of the sky were stirring up the great sea. 7:3 Then four large beasts came up from
the sea; they were different from one another.
7:4 “The first one was like a lion with eagles’ wings. As I watched, its wings were
pulled off and it was lifted up from the ground. It was made to stand on two feet like a
human being, and a human mind was given to it.
7:5 “Then11 a second beast appeared, like a bear. It was raised up on one side, and there
were three ribs in its mouth between its teeth. It was told, ‘Get up and devour much
flesh!’
7:6 “After these things, as I was watching, another beast like a leopard appeared, with
four bird-like wings on its back. This beast had four heads, and ruling authority was
given to it.
7:7 “After these things, as I was watching in the night visions a fourth beast appeared –
one dreadful, terrible, and very strong. It had two large rows of iron teeth. It devoured
and crushed, and anything that was left it trampled with its feet. It was different from all
the beasts that came before it, and it had ten horns.
7:8 “As I was contemplating the horns, another horn – a small one – came up between
them, and three of the former horns were torn out by the roots to make room for it. This
horn had eyes resembling human eyes and a mouth speaking arrogant things.
7:9 “While I was watching,
thrones were set up,
and the Ancient of Days took his seat.
His attire was white like snow;
the hair of his head was like lamb’s wool.
His throne was ablaze with fire
and its wheels were all aflame.
7:10 A river of fire was streaming forth
and proceeding from his presence.
Many thousands were ministering to him;
Many tens of thousands stood ready to serve him.
The court convened
and the books were opened.
7:11 “Then I kept on watching because of the arrogant words of the horn that was
speaking. I was watching until the beast was killed and its body destroyed and thrown
into the flaming fire. 7:12 As for the rest of the beasts, their ruling authority had already
been removed, though they were permitted to go on living for a time and a season. 7:13
I was watching in the night visions,
“And with the clouds of the sky
one like a son of man was approaching.
He went up to the Ancient of Days
and was escorted before him.
The Visions
44 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
7:14 To him was given ruling authority, honor, and sovereignty.
All peoples, nations, and language groups were serving him.
His authority is eternal and will not pass away.
His kingdom will not be destroyed.
An Angel Interprets Daniel’s Vision
... 7:17 ‘These large beasts, which are four in number, represent four kings who will
arise from the earth. 7:18 The holy ones of the Most High will receive the kingdom and
will take possession of the kingdom forever and ever.’
...
7:23 “This is what he told me:
‘The fourth beast means that there will be a fourth kingdom on earth
that will differ from all the other kingdoms.
It will devour all the earth
and will trample and crush it.
7:24 The ten horns
mean that ten kings will arise from that kingdom.
Another king will arise after them,
but he will be different from the earlier ones.
He will humiliate three kings.
7:25 He will speak words against the Most High.
He will harass the holy ones of the Most High continually.
His intention will be to change times established by law.
They will be delivered into his hand
For a time, times, and half a time.
7:26 But the court will convene, and his ruling authority will be removed –
destroyed and abolished forever!
7:27 Then the kingdom, authority,
and greatness of the kingdoms under all of heaven
will be delivered to the people of the holy ones of the Most High.
His kingdom is an eternal kingdom;
all authorities will serve him and obey him.’
The second apocalyptic vision was purely of classical form. Daniel had a vision of four
beasts rising out of the sea, then an angel gave a partial explanation (that each beast was
a king), though without explicitly identifying the kingdoms.
The identity of the first beast is pretty clear: Babylon. The winged lion image was com-
mon in Babylonian iconography1. The reference to the beast being given a human mind
and standing up like a human being was certainly an allusion to Nebuchadnezzar’s men-
tal illness and recovery (Daniel 4). The sequence of kingdoms was terminated by the
Kingdom of God. As both envisioned a sequence of four kingdoms, starting with Baby-
lon, and terminated by the Kingdom of God, we may logically conclude that the 2nd,
3rd, and 4th kingdoms of each vision also corresponded. This is further confirmed by
the fact that the fourth kingdom in each vision had a number of parallels: both used the
iron image, the feet image, referred to crushing, and involved the number ten (toes and
horns respectively).
1.
The Visions
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 45
The vision of the statue provided few details for the second and third kingdoms, so there
weren’t any parallels readily identifiable for them, but the process of elimination should
make us confident they corresponded between the two visions. The second kingdom
would seem to have been the Medo-Persian Empire. That the bear was raised up
(taller?) on one side would symbolize the dominance of the Persians over the Medes,
and the three ribs would then symbolize the early victories that made the empire into a
‘super-power’. The third beast would then have to have been the Greek Empire of
Alexander the Great and the four kingdoms it split into after his death, the later symbol-
ized by the four heads and wings.
Many interpreters split the Medo-Persian empire into separate Median and Persian
empires1 (usually assuming that the real author of Daniel erred in his understanding of
history when he made the prophecies up). The effect is to understand the fourth beast as
representing the Seleucid Kingdom of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. It was during his reign
that these skeptics believe Daniel was written, and thus must not have any accurate
“prophecy” past that point in time. They hold that the author was predicting the defeat
of Antiochus followed immediately by a Messianic era, that of course didn’t actually
materialize. The third vision demonstrates the errors of the skeptical interpretations,
and confirms the traditional interpretation of the four kingdoms.
We’ll examine identity the fourth kingdom in more detail below.
2.3 Daniel 8:1-14, 19-26 — The Two Beasts
Daniel Has a Vision of a Goat and a Ram
Da 8:11 In the third year of King Belshazzar’s reign, a vision appeared to me, Daniel,
after the one that had appeared to me previously. 8:2 In this vision I saw myself in Susa
the citadel, which is located in the province of Elam. In the vision I saw myself at the
Ulai Canal. 8:3 I looked up and saw a ram with two horns standing at the canal. Its two
horns were both long, but one was longer than the other. The longer one was coming up
after the shorter one. 8:4 I saw that the ram was butting westward, northward, and
southward. No animal was able to stand before it, and there was none who could deliver
from its power. It did as it pleased and acted arrogantly.
8:5 While I was contemplating all this, a male goat was coming from the west over the
surface of all the land without touching the ground. This goat had a conspicuous horn
between its eyes. 8:6 It came to the two-horned ram that I had seen standing beside the
canal and rushed against it with raging strength. 8:7 I saw it approaching the ram. It
went into a fit of rage against the ram and struck it and broke off its two horns. The ram
had no ability to resist it. The goat hurled the ram to the ground and trampled it. No one
could deliver the ram from its power. 8:8 The male goat acted even more arrogantly. But
no sooner had the large horn become strong than it was broken, and there arose four
conspicuous horns in its place, extending toward the four winds of the sky.
1. Laymon. Interpreter’s, for example. P. 440 identifies the 2nd through 4th parts of the statue as
the Medes (which he points out as an error on Daniel’s part since the Medes were contempo-
rary of Babylon), the Persian Empire, and the Macedonian-Greek Empire without even consid-
ering alternatives. P. 445 make the same identifications for the four beasts, noting that the
second beast “represents the Median Empire, which the author [of Daniel] mistakenly believed
had savagely torn at Babylon” and struggles with guesses for the meaning of the four heads of
the third beast which similarly don’t fit the Persian Empire.
The Visions
46 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
8:9 From one of them came a small horn. But it grew to be very big, toward the south
and the east and toward the beautiful land. 8:10 It grew so big it reached the army of
heaven, and it brought about the fall of some of the army and some of the stars to the
ground, where it trampled them. 8:11 It also acted arrogantly against the Prince of the
army, from whom the daily sacrifice was removed and whose sanctuary was thrown
down. 8:12 The army was given over, along with the daily sacrifice, in the course of his
sinful rebellion. It hurled truth to the ground and enjoyed success.
8:13 Then I heard a holy one speaking. Another holy one said to the one who was
speaking, “To what period of time does the vision pertain – this vision concerning the
daily sacrifice and the destructive act of rebellion and the giving over of both the sanc-
tuary and army to be trampled?” 8:14 He said to me, “To 2,300 evenings and mornings;
then the sanctuary will be put right again.”
An Angel Interprets Daniel’s Vision
...
8:19 Then he said, “I am going to inform you about what will happen in the latter time
of wrath, for the vision pertains to the appointed time of the end. 8:20 The ram that you
saw with the two horns stands for the kings of Media and Persia. 8:21 The male goat is
the king of Greece, and the large horn between its eyes is the first king. 8:22 The horn
that was broken and in whose place there arose four others stands for four kingdoms
that will arise from his nation, though they will not have his strength. 8:23 Toward the
end of their rule, when rebellious acts are complete, a rash and deceitful king will arise.
8:24 His power will be great, but it will not be by his strength alone. He will cause terri-
ble destruction. He will be successful in what he undertakes. He will destroy powerful
people and the people of the holy ones. 8:25 By his treachery he will succeed through
deceit. He will have an arrogant attitude, and he will destroy many who are unaware of
his schemes. He will rise up against the Prince of princes, yet he will be broken apart –
but not by human agency. 8:26 The vision of the evenings and mornings that was told to
you is correct. But you should seal up the vision, for it refers to a time many days from
now.”
This vision had only two beasts representing two of the four kingdoms of the previous
visions, although different species were involved. The first beast was a ram and had
several parallels with the second beast of the Daniel 7 vision. The ram of this vision had
two horns, with one longer than the other, and corresponded to the bear of the previous
vision being raised up on one side (that is, one side being higher than the other). The
ram butted in three directions, corresponding to the three ribs in the bear’s mouth.
The interpretation phase of the apocalyptic vision tells us explicitly that this beast repre-
sented the Medo-Persian Empire. Interpreting the second and third beast as separate
Median and Persian empires as is popular in skeptical circles is simply not an option.
Persia dominated the Medians in the empire, hence one side of the bear being raised up
and one horn being longer than the other. The three ribs/three directions represented the
conquests of Cyrus to establish his empire: The Medes in 550 BC, Lydia in 547 BC,
and Babylon in 539 BC.1
1. Young, T. Cuyler. “Cyrus” in Anchor Bible Dictionary. Many interpreters, rather than citing
the defeat of Media, look to Egypt, which was conquered in 525 BC, as the third rib. This was
by a later king however. I think it better to look to just the activities of the founding king.
The Visions
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 47
The goat of this vision corresponded to the leopard of the previous vision. Although
the goat initially had a single horn, it was broken and replaced with four horns, corre-
sponding to the four heads and wings of the leopard. The interpretation tells us the first
horn represented the king of Greece, and that the four horns that replaced it represented
the four kingdoms that arose from his nation. The allusion to Alexander the Great, and
the four kingdoms headed by his generals after his death is clear. A single beast repre-
sented both phases of the Greek kingdom in both visions.
The vision went on to speak of a small horn growing from one of the four. The allusion
to Antiochus IV Epiphanes desecrating the temple and halting sacrifice for a period is
clear. See below on Daniel 11-12 and 9.
Thus we can see that Daniel’s vision represented the Medo-Persian Empire by a single
beast, and the Greek Empire and its successors by a single beast, and these corre-
sponded to the second and third beasts of the vision of chapter 7.
An interesting problem of interpretation is what does the phrase “the time of the end”
mean in Daniel. On the face of it, one would expect it to mean eschatological times.
However in Daniel 8:19, the angel said “the vision pertains to the appointed time of the
end”, yet the vision only dealt with the second and third kingdoms. There was yet the
fourth kingdom and the Kingdom of God. Here, “end” seems to have referred only to
the conclusion of specific divine sovereign plans, and not the end of “everything”
(eschatology).
2.4 Daniel 11-12 -- The Battles of Kings
This vision deviated significantly from the apocalyptic pattern — it only had the inter-
pretation phase. Daniel 10:1 indicates there was a vision behind it, but it was not
recorded in Scripture.
For the most part, it is outside the scope of this study to examine the details of the ful-
fillment of these predictions. We are interested primarily in how it relates to the other
visions. Only the briefest outline of the correspondences between the vision and secular
history will be given here.1
The Angel Gives a Message to Daniel
Da 11:2b “Three more kings will arise for Persia. Then a fourth king will be unusually
rich, more so than all who preceded him. When he has amassed power through his
riches, he will stir up everyone against the kingdom of Greece. 11:3 Then a powerful
king will arise, exercising great authority and doing as he pleases. 11:4 Shortly after his
rise to power, his kingdom will be broken up and distributed toward the four winds of
the sky – but not to his posterity or with the authority he exercised, for his kingdom will
be uprooted and distributed to others besides these.
Daniel 11:2 predicted three more kings of Persia, then a fourth who would enter in con-
flict with Greece. These are readily identified as Cyrus successors: Cambyses (530-522
BC), Pseudo-Smerdis (522 BC), Darius I Hystaspas (522-486 BC) and Xerxes I (486-
1. New Geneva Study Bible.
The Visions
48 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
465 BC). The correspondence here is with the second kingdom (the Medo-Persian
Empire).
There were more kings of Persia after Xerxes, but the vision jumps to the third king-
dom. Daniel 11:3-4 clearly referred to Alexander the Great (340-323 BC) and the
breakup of his kingdom into four after his death. Note that there was a little over a cen-
tury gap between verses 2 and 3. Verses 5-35 predicted various exploits between “the
king of the south” and “the king of the north”. These were not individual single kings,
but rather the Ptolomaic and Seleucid dynasties of Egypt and Syria respectively. The
individual kings are readily identifiable from secular history. Note that the text itself
gives little or no hint when the identity of “the king of the south” or “the king of the
north” changes from one individual to another. Little distinction was made between the
individual king, the office, and the kingdom in traditional despotic monarchies.
Da 11:5 “Then the king of the south and one of his subordinates will grow strong. His
subordinate will resist him and will rule a kingdom greater than his. [NET]
The king of south=Ptolemy I Soter, 322-285 BC; his subordinate=Seleucus I Nicator,
312-280 BC.
Da 11:6 After some years have passed, they will form an alliance. Then the daughter of
the king of the south will come to the king of the north to make an agreement, but she
will not retain her power, nor will he continu1 in his strength. She, together with the one
who brought her, her child, and her benefactor will all be delivered over at that time.
[NET]
Daughter=Berenice, daughter of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, 285-246 BC; alliance (c. 250
BC) between Antiochus II Theos (261-246 BC) and Ptolemy II.
Da 11:7 “There will arise in his place one from her family line who will come against
their army and will enter the stronghold of the king of the north and will move against
them successfully. 11:8 He will also take their gods into captivity to Egypt, along with
their cast images and prized utensils of silver and gold. Then he will withdraw for some
years from the king of the north. [NET]
Ptolemy III Euergetes, 246-221 BC (brother of Berenice).
Da 11:9 Then the king of the north will advance against the empire of the king of the
south, but will withdraw to his own land. [NET]
Seleuces II Callinicus (246-226 BC), unsuccessful campaign against Ptolemies 240 BC
Da 11:10 His sons will wage war, mustering a large army which will advance like an
overflowing river and carrying the battle all the way to the enemy’s fortress. [NET]
His sons=Seleuces III Ceraunus (226-223 BC), Antiochus III the Great (223-187 BC);
his fortress=Raphia (major battle in 217 BC).
Da 11:11 “Then the king of the south will be enraged and will march out to fight against
the king of the north, who will also muster a large army, but that army will be delivered
into his hand. 11:12 When the army is taken away, the king of the south will become
arrogant. He will be responsible for the death of thousands and thousands of people, but
he will not continue to prevail. [NET]
The Visions
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 49
King of the south=Ptolemy IV Philopator, 221-203 BC; king of the north=Antiochus III.
Da 11:13 For the king of the north will again muster an army, one larger than before. At
the end of some years he will advance with a huge army and enormous supplies.
11:14 “In those times many will oppose the king of the south. Those who are violent
among your own people will rise up in confirmation of the vision, but they will falter.
[NET]
Antiochus III in alliance with Philip V of Macedon; Ptolomy IV died under mysterious
circumstances, succeeded by 4-year-old Ptolemy V Epiphanes (203-181 BC).
Da 11:15 Then the king of the north will advance and will build siege mounds and cap-
ture a well-fortified city. The forces of the south will not prevail, not even his finest con-
tingents. They will have no strength to prevail. 11:16 The one advancing against him
will do as he pleases, and no one will be able to stand before him. He will prevail in the
beautiful land, and its annihilation will be within his power. [NET]
Antiochus III’s defeat over General Scopos in 198 BC - end of Ptolemaic rule in Pales-
tine.
Da 11:17 His intention will be to come with the strength of his entire kingdom, and he
will form alliances. He will give the king of the south a daughter in marriage in order to
destroy the kingdom, but it will not turn out to his advantage. [NET]
Cleopatra given in marriage to Ptolemy V by Antiochus III, sought Roman help against
her father.
Da 11:18 Then he will turn his attention to the coastal regions and will capture many of
them. But a commander will bring his shameful conduct to a halt; in addition, he will
make him pay for his shameful conduct. 11:19 He will then turn his attention to the for-
tresses of his own land, but he will stumble and fall, not to be found again. [NET]
Roman general Lucius Cornelius Scipio defeats Antiochus III, takes son (Antiochus IV)
hostage to Rome.
Da 11:20 There will arise after him one who will send out an exactor of tribute to
enhance the splendor of the kingdom, but after a few days he will be destroyed, though
not in anger or battle. [NET]
Seleucus IV Philopator (187-175 BC).
Da 11:21 “Then there will arise in his place a despicable person to whom the royal
honor has not been rightfully conferred. He will come on the scene in a time of prosper-
ity and will seize the kingdom through deceit. [NET]
Antiochus IV Ephiphanes (175-164 BC), but Seleucus IV had son who was legitimate
heir.
Da 11:22 Armies will be suddenly swept away in defeat before him; both they and a
covenant leader will be destroyed. 11:23 After entering into an alliance with him, he
will behave treacherously; he will ascend to power with only a small force. 11:24 In a
time of prosperity for the most productive areas of the province he will come and
accomplish what neither his fathers nor their fathers accomplished. He will distribute
The Visions
50 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
loot, spoils, and property to his followers, and he will devise plans against fortified cit-
ies, but not for long. [NET]
Covenant leader=high priest Onias III, assassinated by supporters of Antiochus IV in
171 BC.
Da 11:25 He will rouse his strength and enthusiasm against the king of the south with a
large army. The king of the south will wage war with a large and very powerful army,
but he will not be able to prevail because of the plans devised against him. 11:26 Those
who share the king’s fine food will attempt to destroy him, and his army will be swept
away; many will be killed in battle. 11:27 These two kings, their minds filled with evil
intentions, will trade lies with one another at the same table. But it will not succeed, for
there is still an end at the appointed time. 11:28 Then the king of the north will return to
his own land with much property. His mind will be set against the holy covenant. He
will take action, and then return to his own land. 11:29 At an appointed time he will
again invade the south, but this latter visit will not turn out the way the former one did.
[NET]
King of the south=Ptolemy VI Philometer.
Da 11:30 The ships of Kittim will come against him, leaving him disheartened. He will
turn back and direct his indignation against the holy covenant. He will return and honor
those who forsake the holy covenant. 11:31 His forces will rise up and profane the forti-
fied sanctuary, stopping the daily sacrifice. In its place they will set up the abomination
that causes desolation. 11:32 Then with smooth words he will defile those who have
rejected the covenant. But the people who are loyal to their God will act valiantly. 11:33
These who are wise among the people will teach the masses. However, they will fall by
the sword and by the flame, and they will be imprisoned and plundered for some time.
11:34 When they stumble, they will be granted some help. But many will unite with
them deceitfully. 11:35 Even some of the wise will stumble, resulting in their refine-
ment, purification, and cleansing until the time of the end, for it is still for the appointed
time. [NET]
Ships of Kittim=Roman armies under Gaius Popilius Laenas who forced Antiochus IV
to retreat from Egypt.
Of particular interest is Antiochus IV Epiphanes in Daniel 11:31 ff, who precipitated the
Maccabean revolt when he banned the Jewish religion, desecrated the temple, and
halted the sacrifices (temporarily).
Da 11:36 “Then the king will do as he pleases. He will exalt and magnify himself above
every deity and he will utter presumptuous things against the God of gods. He will suc-
ceed until the time of wrath is completed, for what has been decreed must occur. 11:37
He will not respect the gods of his fathers – not even the god loved by women. He will
not respect any god; he will elevate himself above them all. 11:38 What he will honor is
a god of fortresses – a god his fathers did not acknowledge he will honor with gold, sil-
ver, valuable stones, and treasured commodities. 11:39 He will attack1 mighty for-
tresses, aided by a foreign deity. To those who recognize him he will grant considerable
honor. He will place them in authority over many people, and he will parcel out land for
a price.
11:40 “At the time of the end the king of the south will attack1 him. Then the king of the
north will storm against him with chariots, horsemen, and a large armada of ships. He
will invade lands, passing through them like an overflowing river. 11:41 Then he will
The Visions
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 51
enter the beautiful land. Many will fall, but these will escape: Edom, Moab, and the
Ammonite leadership. 11:42 He will extend his power against other lands; the land of
Egypt will not escape. 11:43 He will have control over the hidden stores of gold and sil-
ver, as well as all the treasures of Egypt. Libyans and Ethiopians will submit to him.
11:44 But reports will trouble him from the east and north, and he will set out in a tre-
mendous rage to destroy and wipe out many. 11:45 He will pitch his royal tents between
the seas toward the beautiful holy mountain. But he will come to his end, with no one to
help him.
Up through 11:35, the correspondence with the third beast with its division into four
kingdoms is clear and the identification with historical persons is straightforward.
Daniel 11:36-45 present special difficulties though. Verse 36 reads “Then the king will
do as he pleases...” without specifying “king of the north”, “king of the south”, or “king
of whatever”. There are three views of how to interpret this. The Dispensational view
considers him to be the king of the north. In verse 40, “At the time of the end the king
of the south will attack him”, the pronoun “him” would refer to the king of the north
being attacked by the king of the south, and “then the king of the north will storm
against him”, the pronoun “him” would refer to the king of the south being stormed
against by the king of the north. In this view, the king of the north will be the eschato-
logical Antichrist. That is, the sequence of events predicted suddenly jumped forward
thousands of years. (But, for a contrary meaning of “the time of the end”, see above on
chapter 8.)
The skeptical view also treats “the king” in verse 36 as the king of the north. In this
view, the pseudo-prophet has “predicted” the events leading up to his own time during
the reign of Antiochus IV Epiphanes. He then proceeded to try to guess what was next,
but got the circumstances of Antiochus’ defeat wrong.
While it is possible grammatically, it is also awkward. Every single other reference to
the kings of the north and south included the “north” or “south” specification. Since
chapter 12 clearly looks forward to the Kingdom of God, and we’ve already seen that
the Greek kingdoms were the third beast, the skeptical view requires us to skip the
fourth kingdom. Thus, the most reasonable view is that “the king” in 11:36 was neither
the king of the north nor the south, but was a separate king, in conflict with both the
other kings (both pronouns in verse 40 would refer back to this third king). This is the
most straightforward reading of the passage. The king would then correspond to the
fourth beast. The obvious candidate for historical fulfillment of the fourth kingdom is
Rome.1
Da 12:1 “At that time Michael,
the great prince who watches over your people,
will arise.
There will be a time of distress
unlike any other from the nation’s beginning
up to that time.
But at that time your own people,
all those whose names are found written in the book,
will escape.
12:2 Many of those who sleep
1. Calvin. Commentary on Daniel
The Visions
52 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
in the dusty ground will awake –
some to everlasting life,
and others to shame and everlasting abhorrence.
12:3 But the wise will shine
like the brightness of the heavenly expanse.
And those bringing many to righteousness
will be like the stars forever and ever.
In chapter 12, verse 1’s description of a time of distress is similar to Jesus’ description
of suffering in the Olivet Discourse (see esp. Mark 13:19), which predicted the destruc-
tion of the temple in 70 AD. Verse 2 is difficult. It says “Many of those who sleep in
the dusty ground [ie, are dead] will awake”. This is an obvious resurrection reference,
but the difficulty is that it refers only to “many of” the dead, not all of the dead. “Many”
doesn’t necessarily even imply a majority of the dead. Some translations gloss over this
by translating “Multitudes who sleep in the dust of the earth will awake” [NIV] or “And
the multitude of those sleeping in the dust of the ground do awake” [YLT], but most
translations stick to what the Hebrew text actually says. If Daniel wasn’t referring to the
universal resurrection of all the dead, then what might he have been referring to? Does
the Bible anywhere teach about a pre-eschatological resurrection of a portion of the
dead? Yes! Matthew 27:50-531 says:
Mt 27:50 Then Jesus cried out again with a loud voice and gave up his spirit. 27:51 Just
then the temple curtain was torn in two, from top to bottom. The earth shook and the
rocks were split apart. 27:52 And tombs were opened, and the bodies of many saints
who had died were raised. 27:53 (They came out of the tombs after his resurrection and
went into the holy city and appeared to many people.) [NET]
Jesus’ teaching about the Kingdom of God was never about a political kingdom, but a
spiritual one. He proclaimed it as imminent at the beginning of his ministry (“Repent!
For the kingdom of heaven is near” [Matthew 4:17], “But if I cast out demons by the
finger of God, then the kingdom of God has already overtaken you” [Luke 11:20]), and
described it as an spiritual rather than political reality:
Lk 17:20 Now at one point the Pharisees asked Jesus when the kingdom of God was
coming, so he answered, “The kingdom of God is not coming with signs to be observed,
17:21 nor will they say, ‘Look, here it is!’ or ‘There!’ For indeed, the kingdom of God is
in your midst.”2 [NET]
2.5 Daniel 9:24-27 — Seventy Weeks
This vision, like Daniel 11-12, did not have an account of visual imagery, but just an
Angel conveying the message directly to Daniel. There are a number of translation and
interpretation difficulties with the passage that I want to briefly overview here.
Da 9:24 “Seventy weeks have been determined
concerning your people and your holy city
1. One might also look at Revelation 20:4, but interpretation of Revelation is difficult and well
beyond the scope of this essay. See “The First Resurrection and Second Death (Revelation
20:4-6)” on page 265.
2. ‘Traditionally “within you”, but as he was addressing Pharisees in opposition to him, he hardly
meant within them as individuals, but rather within them as a group: among you.’ [NET note]
The Visions
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 53
to put an end to rebellion,
to bring sin to completion,
to atone for iniquity,
to bring in perpetual righteousness,
to seal up the prophetic vision,
and to anoint a most holy place.
Contextually, Daniel had just prayed for the ending of 70 years captivity, as had been
prophesied by Jeremiah. Daniel was told that there are yet 70 “weeks” (literally “sev-
ens”; the usual word for “week” was not the word used here) to be fulfilled. These
“sevens” are usually understood to be weeks of years (ie, seven years). Something other
than a period of 490 24-hour days seems to be what was in view here. (Much ink has
been spilled in attempting to understand what each phrase in this verse means, but that
is beyond the scope of this paper. See the Bibliography for a sampling of literature on
the topic.)
9:25 So know and understand:
from the issuing of the command to restore and rebuild
Jerusalem until an anointed one, a prince arrives,
there will be a period of seven weeks and sixty-two weeks.
It will again be built, with plaza and moat,
but in distressful times.
The seventy “weeks” were split into three periods: 7, 62, and 1 “week(s)”. The signifi-
cance of the split between the 7 and the 62 “weeks” is enigmatic. Many interpreters
attach the 62 “weeks” to the following sentence, having “an anointed one1, a prince”
appear after 7 “weeks”, and the city built after an additional 62 “weeks”. But the
anointed one would still around after the 62 “weeks” (over 4 centuries later!) in the next
verse. Unless the 70 “weeks” are actually calendar weeks, this is very unlikely.
A second problem is that verse 25 seems to refer to one person, “an anointed one, a
prince”, while in verse 26, the anointed one and the prince appear to be two separate
people. It would seem a single letter, waw, that looks very similar to the adjacent letters,
het and nun, has dropped from the text (dygIën" x:yviäm' vs dygIën"w> x:yviäm'). Since they enter
the picture after the 62 “weeks”, it is the reconstruction of Jerusalem that would appear
to be what is happening after the 7 “weeks”.
Now, let’s review the history to see when these things occurred.
538 BC - Cyrus permitted the Jews to return to build the temple, but not Jerusalem
(Ezra 1:2-4). People settled in the surrounding ancestral cities (Ezra 2:1)
538 BC - 520 BC - Temple construction began but was frustrated by the Samaritans
until the second year of Darius (Ezra 4:5)
520 BC - Under the urging of the prophets Haggai and Zechariah, the temple con-
struction began again (Ezra 4:24). Note that Ezra 4:6-23 is chronologically dis-
placed - more on this below at 486 BC.
516 BC - The temple was completed and dedicated in the 6th year of Darius (Ezra
6:15).
1. messiah
The Visions
54 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
ca 487 BC - Reconstruction of the city of Jerusalem began shortly before the follow-
ing event (q.v.). This was the beginning of the 70 “weeks”.
486 BC - When Xerxes began to reign, the Samaritans filed an accusation against
the Jews (Ezra 4:6). This was evidently the same accusation as the one that would
be filed in the reign of Artaxerxes (464 BC), accusing the Jews of planning revolt by
rebuilding the fortifications of Jerusalem (Ezra 4:7, 12). The reconstruction must
have begun shortly beforehand.
464 BC - The Samaritans protested to Artaxerxes and halted construction of the city
(Ezra 4:7-23). That this material is in fact chronologically misplaced1 is demon-
strated by the difference in subject matter (construction of the city vs. construction
of the temple) and the fact that Zechariah dates the resumption of construction of the
temple to 70 years after the destruction of Jerusalem (Zechariah 1:12, 7:5), putting it
in the reign of Darius I before the events of Ezra 4:6-23 instead of the reign of Dar-
ius II afterward.
458 BC - Ezra came to Jerusalem in the 7th year of Artaxerxes (Ezra 7:7)
445 BC - Nehemiah came to Jerusalem with authorization to rebuild Jerusalem in
the 20th year of Artaxerxes. The walls were completed in 52 days (Nehemiah 6:15).
After that, the city was resettled.
ca. 438 BC - After 49 years (the end of the first 7 “sevens”), the city was finished
433 BC - Nehemiah returned to Artaxerxes in his 32nd year.
ca. 4 BC - This date is 62 times 7 years after 487 BC. Anyone answering to the title
of “Messiah” show up around then? This brings us to the end of the 62 “sevens”.
This interpretation of the first 69 “weeks” works out quite nicely (and precisely!) with-
out resorting to “prophetic years” and other such questionable devices one encounters in
many other attempts to interpret them. See the Bibliography for these other interpreta-
tions.
Da 9:26 Now after the sixty-two weeks,
an anointed one will be cut off and have nothing.
As for the city and the sanctuary,
the people of the coming prince will destroy them.
But his end will come speedily like a flood.
Until the end of the war that has been decreed
there will be desolations.
Many things take place after the 62 “weeks”. A messiah2 and a prince arrive. The mes-
siah is cut off. The city and sanctuary (temple) are destroyed. the sacrifices come to a
halt. Dispensationalist have long held there to be a gap between the end of the 62
“weeks” and the final “week”. I’m inclined to agree. But the final week is not eschato-
logical. It is the Jewish-Roman war, which lasted 7 years, and in the middle of which,
Jerusalem and the temple were destroyed. The prince would have been the Roman
emperor.
1. Perhaps the author simply wanted to gather all accounts of opposition together without regard
to chronology.
2. A Hebrew word meaning “anointed one”.
Comparison
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 55
Da 9:27 He will confirm a covenant with many for one week.
But in the middle of that week
he will bring sacrifices and offerings to a halt.
On the wing of a abomination will come one who destroys,
until the decreed end is poured out on the one who destroys.”
Jesus, in the Olivet Discourse (Mk 13 and parallels), cited the desolating abomination1
in Daniel (Mark 13:14, Luke 21:20-21, Matthew 24:15-16) and Luke’s version explic-
itly identifies it as Jerusalem being surrounded by armies (ie, the Roman armies), leav-
ing no doubt as to how this passage was interpreted by Jesus.2
3.0 Comparison
1. “abomination that causes desolation” Dan 9:27 NIV.
2. See “Abomination Of Desolation (Mark 13:14-20)” on page 151.
TABLE 1. Daniel’s Visions
Daniel 2 Daniel 7 Daniel 8 Daniel 11-12 Daniel 9
2:31-32 Statue; head of
gold; 2:37-38 Represents
Nebuchadnezzar
7:2-4 Beast like a lion with
eagles’ wings, wings
pulled off and made to
stand like a human being
and human mind given to
it; 7:17 Each beast repre-
sents a king
2:32 Chest and arms of sil-
ver; 2:39 An inferior king-
dom after the first
7:5 Beast like a bear,
raised up on one side, three
ribs in its mouth, told to
devour much flesh; 7:17
Each beast represents a
king
8:1-4 Ram with two horns,
one longer than the other,
butting west, north, and
south; 8:19-20 time of the
end, ram with two horns is
kings of Media and Persia
11:2 Next four kings of
Persia
Comparison
56 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
2:32 Belly and thighs of
brass; 2:39 A third king-
dom
7:6 Beast like a leopard,
four wings, four heads,
ruling authority; 7:17 Each
beast represents a king
8:5-14 Goat from the west,
horn between eyes,
defeated ram, horn broken,
replaced with four horns,
extending to the four
winds, from one horn a
small horn grew, great airs,
halted sacrifice, desolat-
ing transgression, then
sanctuary vindicated;
8:21-26 Goat is king of
Greece, single horn is first
king, four horns are four
kings arising from first
king’s nation, little horn is
rash and duplicitous king,
will rise up against the
Prince of princes, but will
be broken
11:3-35 Powerful king,
kingdom distributed to
others, exploits of the
kings of the south and
north
9:24 Seventy “weeks”
TABLE 1. Daniel’s Visions
Daniel 2 Daniel 7 Daniel 8 Daniel 11-12 Daniel 9
The Kingdoms
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 57
4.0 The Kingdoms
Now we’ve looked at each vision one at a time and related it to the others briefly. We’ll
now recap by examining each kingdom in turn.
4.1 First Kingdom — Babylon
In the vision of the statue, Daniel explicitly identified the first of the four kingdoms (the
head of gold) as Babylon. Allusions to Babylonian iconography and Nebuchadnezzar
are evident in the lion, the first beast of the vision of four beasts, also. Babylon was not
dealt with in the remaining visions. This is because they date to near the end of the
Babylonian Empire (Daniel 8:1) or to the Medo-Persian period (Daniel 9:1, 11:1):
Babylon was waning or gone then.
2:33 Legs of iron, feet of
iron mixed with clay;
2:40-43 A fourth kingdom,
strength of iron to break
and crush others, divided,
toes part iron and part clay
indicate part strong and
part weak, people mixed
and not adhering to one
another
7:7-8 Dreadful beast, teeth
of iron, devoured and
crashed and trampled with
its feet, different from pre-
vious beasts, ten horns,
another horn comes up and
tears out three of the previ-
ous horns, horn has human
eyes and arrogant mouth;
7:17 Each beast repre-
sents a king; 7:23-25
fourth kingdom different
from all the others, devour,
trample, and crush the
earth, ten horns are ten
kingdoms, another king
arises who humiliates
three others, speaks words
against Most High,
harasses holy ones who are
delivered to him time,
times, and half a time
11:36-45 A king exalts
himself above Deity, wor-
ships foreign god, god of
fortresses, attacked by
kings of north and south,
the king invades the land
of beauty, Edom, Moab
and Ammonite leadership
escape, Egypt does not, He
will come to an end.
9:25-26 Messiah and
prince come after the 7+62
weeks, sacrifice ended,
desolating abomination
2:34-35 Stone cut without
human hands stuck statute
and pulverized it, stone
becomes large mountain
filling entire earth; 2:44-
45 God will bring an ever-
lasting kingdom
7:9-14 Theophany, beast
destroyed, son of man
approaches Ancient of
Days with the clouds of
the sky, given eternal king-
dom; 7:18 holy ones
receive eternal kingdom;
7:26-27 fourth kings rul-
ing authority removed,
kingdom delivered to the
holy ones, eternal kingdom
12:1-13 Time of distress,
many of the dead awake,
book to be sealed, enig-
matic time references
TABLE 1. Daniel’s Visions
Daniel 2 Daniel 7 Daniel 8 Daniel 11-12 Daniel 9
The Kingdoms
58 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
4.2 Second Kingdom — Medo-Persia
The chest and arms of silver were not identified in the vision of the statue: only that it
would be a kingdom that would follow the Babylonian kingdom. It corresponded to the
bear, the second beast in the vision of four kingdoms, and the ram, the first beast in the
vision of two beasts. The ram was explicitly identified as the Medo-Persian Empire.
The parallels between the bear and the ram confirm that they were symbolizing the
same kingdom.
The ram had two horns, one longer than the other, representing the Persian domination
of the Medians; the bear was raised up on one side (a rather odd posture as a bear would
normally be thought of as raising up on its hind legs) representing the same imbalance.
The ram was butting in three directions while the bear held three ribs in its mouth; these
would appear to symbolize the conquests of Cyrus to establish his empire.
The vision of the battles between kings briefly mentioned the Medo-Persian empire by
enumerating four kings before the Persians enter into conflict with the Greeks. At that
point, the vision skipped the remainder of the Persian period, jumping directly to Alex-
ander the Great.
Clearly, we can’t split the Median and Persian empires into two in the visions. Not only
is it historically inaccurate (what Median kingdom there was had been concurrent with
the Babylonian empire, not its successor) but it is forced onto the text only with great
violence to its meaning and integrity.
4.3 Third Kingdom — The Greek Empires
The parallels between the third beast, the leopard, of the vision of four beasts, and the
second beast, the goat, of the vision of two beasts, make their identity secure. The goat
was explicitly identified as the Greek Empire which was divided between four subse-
quent kings. The allusion to Alexander the Great and the division of his empire among
four of his generals is unmistakable. The leopard with four heads clearly symbolized
the same division into four simultaneous leaders. The vision of the battles between
kings provided remarkable details of the interactions between two of them (Syria and
Egypt).
4.4 Fourth Kingdom — The Roman Empire
The fourth beast was not identified in scripture: neither its species nor its national iden-
tity. Rather we identify it partially be the process of elimination (it is the kingdom
between the Greeks and Christ) and partly by discovering parallels between Rome and
the symbols in the visions.
The fourth beast was different from all that came before it (7:7). Further it had ten horns
at the same time (7:7). The horns did not represent a series of kings, but contemporane-
ous rulers. Three of the horns are supplanted by an additional horn (7:8). Rome was
different from all previous empires in that it was a Republic. Instead, it was ruled by a
senate. The supplanting of three horns by one represented the transition from the gov-
ernment head being a triumvirate to being a single emperor. It is no coincidence that the
The Kingdoms
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 59
ten toes of the statue in the first vision are explicitly mentioned. They represented the
same thing.
Skeptics try to equate the eleventh horn with Antiochus IV Epiphanes, but his circum-
stances ill fit the description of multiple contemporaneous rulers implied by the horns.
Compare this with the horn symbolism in the vision of two beasts where the first beast
had two horns of different size representing the imbalance between the Medes and Per-
sians, and the second beast had one horn, which was replaced by four horns, represent-
ing Alexander the Great, and after his death, the four contemporaneous kingdom created
by his four generals.
Dispensationalists propose a gap between the third and fourth kingdoms not alluded to
in scripture and regard the fourth kingdom as a future kingdom of the Antichrist. But
even they often regard that kingdom as a Roman Empire reborn. The text provides no
such hint of a multi-millennia gap. Rather, we must side with Calvin who clearly saw
the Roman Empire reflected through out the description of the fourth empire.1
4.5 The Kingdom of God
The Kingdom of God is not an eschatological concept, limited to a future millennium
with Christ ruling physically on the earth. As noted earlier, Christ preached an immi-
nent Kingdom of God.
In the vision of the statue, the stone that struck the statue then changed into a mountain
that filled the whole earth (Daniel 2:35). This more aptly matches the post-millennial
expectation of Christianity eventually spreading over the whole earth through a more
gradual process than the cataclysmic advent expected by Dispensationalists or even
amillennialists.
In the vision of four beasts, the theophany of Daniel 7:9-10 was not an eschatological
judgment scene. Daniel 7:12 made it clear that life goes on afterwards. New Testament
references to Daniel 7:13-14 are especially informative. The “coming” of “one like a
son of man” was a coming of the son of man to the “Ancient of Days”. That is, he was
coming to heaven, not to earth in the Parousia. Two things Jesus said illustrated what
event was actually in view here. After the first time he predicted his death and resurrec-
tion he said:
Mt 16:28 I tell you the truth, there are some standing here who will not experience death
before they see the Son of Man coming in his kingdom. [NET]
During his trial, Jesus made the following statement to the high priest.
Mt 26:64..., “You have said it yourself. But I tell you, from now on you will see the Son
of Man sitting at the right hand of the Power and coming on the clouds of heaven.”
[NET]
In these statements, we see Jesus explicitly claiming fulfillment of the predictions of the
Kingdom of God in the events occurring then in about 30 AD.
1. Calvin. Commentary on Daniel.
Bibliography
60 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
Daniel 12 also looked to the inauguration of the Kingdom of God. It looked to the great
distress to the Jewish people experienced in the Jewish revolt, as Jesus also spoke about
in the Olivet Discourse. It also made a remarkable prediction about the resurrection of
many of the dead, an event we see happening when Jesus was resurrected.
Daniel 9 made the most remarkable prediction. It pointed to the actual date of the incar-
nation! It was these predictions that fueled the Messianic expectations of the first cen-
tury Jews1 2. Jesus also cited these predictions in the Olivet Discourse, and Luke made
it certain that it was the Roman armies surrounding Jerusalem that were the “desolating
abomination”.
5.0 Bibliography
Archer, Gleason L., Jr. (Apr-Jun 1979). “Modern Rationalism and the Book of Daniel”.
Bibliotheca Sacra, Vol 136 #542.
Armerding, Carl. (Apr-Jun 1964). “Daniel 12:1-3: Asleep in the Dust”. Bibliotheca
Sacra, Vol 121 #482.
Barker, Kenneth L. (Spring 1993). “Premillennialism in the Book of Daniel”. Master’s
Seminary Journal, Vol 4:1.
Beale, G. K. (December 1984). “The Influence Of Daniel Upon The Structure And The-
ology Of John’s Apocalypse”. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol
27:4.
Bullock, C. H. (1986). An introduction to the Old Testament prophetic books. Moody
Press
Calvin, John. (1561). Daniel. Calvin’s Commentaries. Ages Software.
Collins, John J. “Daniel, Book of”. in Freedman, D. N. (1992). The Anchor Bible Dic-
tionary. Doubleday
Enns, P. P. (1989). The Moody Handbook of Theology. Moody Press.
Fox, Doublas E. (Fall 1987). “Ben Sira on OT Canon Again: The Date of Daniel”. West-
minster Theological Journal, Vol 49:2.
Gangel, Kenneth O. (Fall 1985). “A Vision of Future World History”. Grace Theologi-
cal Journal, Vol 6:2.
1. Daniel. Word Biblical Commentary. p. xxvii “Partly on the basis of Dan 9 the Essenes were
actually expecting the messiah between 3 B.C. and A.D. 2.” p. xxix 2 Esdr. identifies the
fourth empire as Rome. Josephus also believed that Daniel wrote of Rome.
2. Walton. “The Four Kingdoms of Daniel”. JETS 20. p. 26 “There is no question that the earliest
Jewish interpreters favored the Roman view.... The evidence in the writings of the Church
fathers is massive and in unison in favor of the Roman view.”
Bibliography
The Kingdom Visions in Daniel 61
Goldingay, J. E. (2002). Daniel. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol 30. Word.
Harton, George M. (Fall 1983). “An Interpretation of Daniel 11:36-45”. Grace Theolog-
ical Journal, Vol 4:2.
Hayford, J. W., & Curtis, G. (1994). Until the End of Time : Revealing the Future of
Humankind: A study of Daniel and Revelations. Spirit-Filled Life Bible Discovery
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Hippolytus “On Daniel” in Roberts, A., Donaldson, J., & Coxe, A. C. The Ante-Nicene
Fathers Vo l. V
Hoehner, Harold W. (Jan-Mar 1975). “Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ”.
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VI
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The Chronology Of The Seventy ‘Sevens’”. Journal of the Evangelical Theological
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bath-Year Cycle”. Journal of the Evangelical Theological Society, Vol. 16:4.
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toms of the Bible. Thomas Nelson.
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62 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
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64 The Kingdom Visions in Daniel
65
Zechariah
Zechariah, along with Daniel, formed much
of the apocalyptic vocabulary used in the
book of Revelation. So even where it is not
eschatological, its use of symbolism is
important in developing an understanding
of Revelation.
1.0 Preface
To understand the eschatological passages (alleged and actual) of Zechariah, it is neces-
sary to examine the whole book. However, it is not the intent of this essay to produce a
complete verse-by-verse commentary. The approach of this study will be to examine
the higher level structures of Zechariah, then delve down to the details of individual
verses selectively. In addition to studying the eschatology of Zechariah, some select
hermeneutic principles will also be illustrated.
The greater context is always important in understanding an individual verse. One
should not only examine the paragraph or pericope of a verse, but the book as a whole
and its position in history, canon, and literature. It is important to read a book as a
whole and also to study other parts of scripture and even secular history that illustrate its
historical context. Identify pericopes in the book and relate them in an outline structure.
Meditate on the genre and form of the literature and how the author’s intent shapes it.
2.0 Introductory Pericope (Zechariah 1:1-6)
Introduction
Zech 1:1 In the eighth month of Darius’ second year, the word of the LORD came to the
prophet Zechariah, son of Berechiah son of Iddo, as follows:
1:2 The LORD was very angry with your ancestors. 1:3 Therefore say to the people: The
LORD who rules over all says, “Turn to me,” says the LORD who rules over all, “and I
will turn to you,” says the LORD who rules over all. 1:4 “Do not be like your ancestors,
to whom the former prophets called out, saying, ‘The LORD who rules over all says,
“Turn now from your evil wickedness,”’ but they would by no means obey me,” says
the LORD. 1:5 “As for your ancestors, where are they? And did the prophets live for-
The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
66 Zechariah
ever? 1:6 But have my words and statutes, which I commanded my servants the proph-
ets, not outlived your fathers? Then they paid attention and confessed, ‘The LORD who
rules over all has indeed done what he said he would do to us, because of our sinful
ways.’”
The very first verse identifies the point in history the prophecy was given and the
prophet. In the Bible, God is a god who acts within actual history, and not some mythi-
cally distant past. The importance of this is borne out by the frequent chronological
notes in scripture. History is even the theme of this introductory oracle. God had spoke
to the former prophets and their words had come to pass. The ethical teachings of these
former prophets is a theme Zechariah returns to multiple times.
A brief time line of events of this period will be instructive here:1
520 BC, August 29 - Haggai’s first message (Haggai 1:1)
520 BC, September 21 - Building of temple resumed (Haggai 1:12f, Ezra 5:2)
520 BC, October 17 - Haggai’s second message (Haggai 2:1)
520 BC, October/November - Zechariah’s first message (Zechariah 1:1)
520 BC, December 18 - Haggai’s third and fourth messages (Haggai 2:10, 20)
ca. 519-518 - Tattenai’s letter to Darius, etc. (Ezra 5:3f)
519 BC, February 19 - Zechariah’s night vision(s) (Zechariah 1:7)
518 BC, December 7 - Question about fasting (Zechariah 7:1)
516 BC, March 12 - Dedication of the temple (Ezra 6:15f)
after 516 BC(?) - Zechariah’s final prophecies (Zechariah 9-14)
3.0 The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
The next block of pericopes is a series of visions. Each is structurally introduced by
some indication that Zechariah “saw”. In form, these visions are apocalyptic. That is
not to say that they are necessarily eschatological or judgmental in content. Rather, it
indicates that what is seen in the vision is a set of visual symbols and that there is an
angel present to provide some degree of explanation or narration.2
The first verse, Zechariah 1:7, sets the historical context as about three months later than
the very first oracle. Commenters generally assume the eight visions happened in one
night. This is not explicitly stated, but neither are there any chronological markers indi-
cating multiple nights. This point does not effect interpretation of the apocalyptic
visions, so there is no point in being dogmatic about it.
1. Table adapted from Barker. “Zechariah”. EBC. p. 598
2. See “Introduction” on page 41.
The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
Zechariah 67
3.1 First Vision (Zechariah 1:7-17)
The Introduction to the Visions
Zech 1:7 On the twenty-fourth day of the eleventh month, the month Shebat, in Darius’
second year, the word of the LORD came to the prophet Zechariah son of Berechiah son
of Iddo, as follows:
The Content of the First Vision
1:8 I was attentive that night and saw a man seated on a red horse that stood among
some myrtle trees in the ravine. Behind him were red, sorrel, and white horses.
The Interpretation of the First Vision
1:9 Then I asked one nearby, “What are these, sir?” The angelic messenger who replied
to me said, “I will show you what these are.” 1:10 Then the man standing among the
myrtle trees spoke up and said, “These are the ones whom the LORD has sent to walk
about on the earth.” 1:11 The riders then agreed with the angel of the LORD, who was
standing among the myrtle trees, “We have been walking about on the earth, and now
everything is at rest and quiet.” 1:12 The angel of the LORD then asked, “LORD who
rules over all, how long before you have compassion on Jerusalem and the other cities
of Judah which you have been so angry with for these seventy years?” 1:13 The LORD
then addressed good, comforting words to the angelic messenger who was speaking to
me. 1:14 Turning to me, the messenger then said, “Cry out that the LORD who rules over
all says, ‘I am very much moved for Jerusalem and for Zion. 1:15 But I am greatly dis-
pleased with the nations that take my grace for granted. I was a little displeased with
them, but they have only made things worse for themselves.
The Oracle of Response
1:16 “‘Therefore,’ says the LORD, ‘I have become compassionate toward Jerusalem and
will rebuild my temple in it,’ says the LORD who rules over all. ‘Once more a surveyor’s
measuring line will be stretched out over Jerusalem.’ 1:17 Speak up again with the mes-
sage of the LORD who rules over all: ‘My cities will once more overflow with prosper-
ity, and once more the LORD will comfort Zion and validate his choice of Jerusalem.’”
The first vision was of a horseman and some horses. The exact count was not specified,
though they are of three colors. As is typical in the apocalyptic genre, there was an
angel nearby for Zechariah to talk to and get some explanation. The horses and horse-
men (the “riders” of verse 11 were presumably on the horses behind the man seated on a
red horse of verse 81) were agents of the LORD who went about the earth and report
back to Him what they observe. They are a symbolic representation. Angels don’t go
around riding on literal horses, but such would be a culturally relevant symbol as that
would be the method kings of the time would monitor and control their empires. A
modern equivalent might be a pilot in a U2 spy plane.
The report that the nations were “at rest and quiet”, a Pax Persia if you will, is one we
will see a few more times. Zechariah further learned from the angels that God was
going to have compassion on Jerusalem and would rebuild the temple (note that the sub-
ject of that verb is “I”, that is, God), work on which had been temporarily halted until
1. e.g., Barker, p. 611; Craigie, p. 164; Hartman, loc. cit., etc.
The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
68 Zechariah
shortly before this vision. God was also displeased with the Gentile nations, which
were at rest and quiet and had taken His grace for granted.
The rebuilding of the temple was something that happened in Zechariah’s time. We are
not looking to an eschatological temple in this passage.
3.2 Second Vision (Zechariah 1:18-21)
Vision Two: The Four Horns
Zech 1:18 (2:1) Once again I looked and this time I saw four horns. 1:19 So I asked the
angelic messenger who spoke with me, “What are these?” He replied, “These are the
horns that have scattered Judah, Israel, and Jerusalem.” 1:20 Next the LORD showed me
four blacksmiths. 1:21 I asked, “What are these going to do?” He answered, “These
horns are the ones that have scattered Judah so that there is no one to be seen. But the
blacksmiths have come to terrify Judah’s enemies and cut off the horns of the nations
that have thrust themselves against the land of Judah in order to scatter its people.”
The symbols seen in this vision are four horns and four blacksmiths. The four horns
(usually a symbol of strength or power1) were the enemies “that have scattered Judah,
Israel, and Jerusalem”. It is too much to equate the four horns with the four empires of
Daniel2: the horns were spoken of in the past tense, but two of Daniel’s empires were
still yet to come. More likely, the number four represents the four cardinal directions:
the enemies were all around Israel. We see the four winds, and four colors of horses
going off in different directions in a later passage as well. Perhaps this relates to the four
horns of the altar as well (Exodus 27:2). The blacksmiths were not identified beyond
that they “cut off the horns of the nations that... scatter [Judah’s] people”. It is probably
best to just see them as representing God’s supernatural help through whatever agents it
was accomplished without getting more specific. Babylon had been banished and the
surrounding peoples were not going to be successful in preventing the temple and Jerus-
alem from being rebuilt, although they would try.
3.3 Third Vision (Zechariah 2:1-13)
Vision Three: The Surveyor
Zech 2:1 (2:5) I looked again, and there was a man with a measuring line in his hand.
2:2 I asked, “Where are you going?” He replied, “To measure Jerusalem in order to
determine its width and its length.” 2:3 At this point the angelic messenger who spoke
to me went out, and another messenger came to meet him 2:4 and said to him, “Hurry,
speak to this young man as follows: ‘Jerusalem will no longer be enclosed by walls
because of the multitude of people and animals there. 2:5 But I (the LORD says) will be
a wall of fire surrounding Jerusalem and the source of glory in her midst.’”
2:6 “You there! Flee from the northland!” says the LORD, “for like the four winds of
heaven I have scattered you,” says the LORD. 2:7 “Escape, Zion, you who live among
the Babylonians!” 2:8 For the LORD who rules over all says to me that for his own glory
1. “Horn” in Ryken, Dictionary of Biblical Imagery
2. Barker, p. 615, and Clarke, loc. cit., mention this view. Hartman, loc. cit., accepts and devel-
ops it.
The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
Zechariah 69
he has sent me to the nations that plundered you – for anyone who touches you touches
the pupil of his eye. 2:9 “I am about to punish them in such a way,” he says, “that they
will be looted by their own slaves.” Then you will know that the LORD who rules over
all has sent me.
2:10 “Sing out and be happy, Zion my daughter! For look, I have come; I will settle in
your midst,” says the LORD. 2:11 “Many nations will join themselves to the LORD on
the day of salvation, and they will also be my people. Indeed, I will settle in the midst of
you all.” Then you will know that the LORD who rules over all has sent me to you. 2:12
The LORD will take possession of Judah as his portion in the holy land and he will
choose Jerusalem once again. 2:13 Be silent in the LORD’s presence, all people every-
where, for he is being moved to action in his holy dwelling place.
Verse 11 looked forward to the day many nations “join themselves to the LORD”, an
event quintessentially realized in the church. To the Christian, the promise “I will settle
in the midst of you all” goes beyond the Shekinah glory dwelling in the temple. It was
realized in Jesus’ incarnation, and further in the Holy Spirit being given to the church.
Adam Clarke on 2:10 wrote “This must chiefly refer to the Christian church, in which
God ever dwells by the power of his Spirit, as he had done by the symbol of his pres-
ence in the first Jewish temple.”
The NET note is wrong in verse 61 to suggest that, because the Jews of the Babylonian
Diaspora had already returned, the scattered Jews will be those of eschatological times.
Ezra brought back many more (Ezra 8:1-14), and there were still many still left behind,
such as Nehemiah who came later yet (and then returned to Susa).
3.4 Fourth Vision (Zechariah 3:1-10)
Vision Four: The Priest
Zech 3:1 Next I saw Joshua the high priest standing before the angel of the LORD, with
Satan standing at his right hand to accuse him. 3:2 The LORD said to Satan, “May the
LORD rebuke you, Satan! May the LORD, who has chosen Jerusalem, rebuke you! Isn’t
this man like a burning stick snatched from the fire?” 3:3 Now Joshua was dressed in
filthy clothes as he stood there before the angel. 3:4 The angel spoke up to those stand-
ing all around, “Remove his filthy clothes.” Then he said to Joshua, “I have freely for-
given your iniquity and will dress you in fine clothing.” 3:5 Then I spoke up, “Let a
clean turban be put on his head.” So they put a clean turban on his head and clothed
him, while the angel of the LORD stood nearby. 3:6 Then the angel of the LORD exhorted
Joshua solemnly: 3:7 “The LORD who rules over all says, ‘If you live and work accord-
ing to my requirements, you will be able to preside over my temple and attend to my
courtyards, and I will allow you to come and go among these others who are standing
by you. 3:8 Listen now, Joshua the high priest, both you and your colleagues who are
sitting before you, all of you are a symbol that I am about to introduce my servant, the
Branch. 3:9 As for the stone I have set before Joshua – on the one stone there are seven
eyes. I am about to engrave an inscription on it,’ says the LORD who rules over all, ‘to
the effect that I will remove the iniquity of this land in a single day. 3:10 In that day,’
says the LORD who rules over all, ‘everyone will invite his friend to fellowship under
his vine and under his fig tree.’”
1. “These are the scattered Jews of eschatological times (as four winds of heaven makes clear)
and not those of Zechariah’s time who have, for the most part, already returned by 520 b.c.
This theme continues and is reinforced in vv. 10–13.”
The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
70 Zechariah
Satan’s role here was a reprise of his role in Job. But the filthy clothes, symbolizing
Joshua’s iniquity were replaced. God forgave him. Verse 8 is especially important.
Joshua and his colleagues are a symbol of the Branch, that is, for the Messiah. Interest-
ingly, the Branch was also called a servant, combining the two Messianic symbols.1
The stone is another Messianic symbol (1 Peter 2:7, Isaiah 8:14, 28:16)2, and the seven
eyes may represent the Holy Spirit (Revelation 5:6, Zechariah 4:10). Also compare with
2 Chronicles 16:9, “the eyes of the LORD move quickly through all the earth” (NET
note). It is tempting, with some commentator, to see the inscription on the stone as rep-
resenting the wounds of the passion of Jesus.3
3.5 Fifth Vision (Zechariah 4:1-14)
Vision Five: The Menorah
Zech 4:1 The angelic messenger who had been speaking with me then returned and
woke me, as a person is wakened from sleep. 4:2 He asked me, “What do you see?” I
replied, “I see a menorah of pure gold with a receptacle at the top and seven lamps, with
fourteen pipes going to the lamps. 4:3 There are also two olive trees beside it, one on the
right of the receptacle and the other on the left.” 4:4 Then I asked the messenger who
spoke with me, “What are these, sir?” 4:5 He replied, “Don’t you know what these are?”
So I responded, “No, sir.” 4:6 Therefore he told me, “These signify the word of the
LORD to Zerubbabel: ‘Not by strength and not by power, but by my Spirit,’ says the
LORD who rules over all.”
Oracle of Response
4:7 “What are you, you great mountain? Because of Zerubbabel you will become a level
plain! And he will bring forth the temple capstone with shoutings of ‘Grace! Grace!’
because of this.” 4:8 Moreover, the word of the LORD came to me as follows: 4:9 “The
hands of Zerubbabel have laid the foundations of this temple, and his hands will com-
plete it.” Then you will know that the LORD who rules over all has sent me to you. 4:10
For who dares make light of small beginnings? These seven eyes will joyfully look on
the tin tablet in Zerubbabel’s hand. (These are the eyes of the LORD, which constantly
range across the whole earth.)
4:11 Next I asked the messenger, “What are these two olive trees on the right and the
left of the menorah?” 4:12 Before he could reply I asked again, “What are these two
extensions of the olive trees, which are emptying out the golden oil through the two
golden pipes?” 4:13 He replied, “Don’t you know what these are?” And I said, “No,
sir.” 4:14 So he said, “These are the two anointed ones who stand by the Lord of the
whole earth.”
It is not clear how the menorah signifies “Not by strength and not by power, but by my
Spirit”. But, the phrase itself seems to signify that God’s redemption of Israel will not
be by military conquest. That is an aspect of the Messiah that many Jews had difficulty
1. NET cites these passages: Isaiah 41:8, 9; 41:10; 41:1-2, 21; Psalms 132:17; Jeremiah 23:5,
33:15.
2. “Stone” in Dictionary of Biblical Imagery.
3. Henry, p. 1115-1116.
The Eight Night Visions (Zechariah 1:7-6:8)
Zechariah 71
grasping1. Compare this with Jesus’ concept of the Kingdom of God as a non-political,
but very real and present, entity that he was inaugurating.
The use of symbolism continues. Zerubbabel did not literally turn a mountain into a
level plain, but he did overcome all the obstacles to building the temple. The image of
seven eyes (of the LORD) also appears here, perhaps referring to the seven lamps2.
The difficulty in understanding how the menorah represents its interpretation should
serve as a caution when we attempt to interpret other symbols. The symbolism probably
made sense within the cultural context of the 6th century BC, but we are not in full pos-
session of that context.
3.6 Sixth Vision (Zechariah 5:1-4)
Vision Six: The Flying Scroll
Zech 5:1 Then I turned to look, and there was a flying scroll! 5:2 Someone asked me,
“What do you see?” I replied, “I see a flying scroll thirty feet long and fifteen feet
wide.” 5:3 The speaker went on to say, “This is a curse traveling across the whole earth.
For example, according to the curse whoever steals will be removed from the commu-
nity; or on the other hand (according to the curse) whoever swears falsely will suffer the
same fate.” 5:4 “I will send it out,” says the LORD who rules over all, “and it will enter
the house of the thief and of the person who swears falsely in my name. It will land in
the middle of his house and destroy both timber and stones.”
The scroll is a symbol of the same message to turn from wickedness as encountered in
Zechariah 1:4 and other passages in the book.
3.7 Seventh Vision (Zechariah 5:5-11)
Vision Seven: The Ephah
5:5 After this the angelic messenger who had been speaking to me went out and said,
“Look, see what is leaving.” 5:6 I asked, “What is it?” And he replied, “It is a basket for
measuring grain5 that is moving away from here.” Moreover, he said, “This is their
‘eye’ throughout all the earth.” 5:7 Then a round lead cover was raised up, revealing a
woman sitting inside the basket. 5:8 He then said, “This woman represents wicked-
ness,” and he pushed her down into the basket and placed the lead cover on top. 5:9
Then I looked again and saw two women going forth with the wind in their wings (they
had wings like those of a stork) and they lifted up the basket between the earth and the
sky. 5:10 I asked the messenger who was speaking to me, “Where are they taking the
basket?” 5:11 He replied, “To build a temple for her in the land of Babylonia. When it is
finished, she will be placed there in her own residence.”
This vision symbolically represents evil being removed from the land and banished to
“Babylon” as a reversal of the late exile of Israel.
1. See “Messianic Expectations” on page 87. Compare with John the Baptist questioning Jesus
in Luke 7:18-35.
2. Some translators think a portion of text has become displaced here, and this reference to seven
eyes should be placed with the previous one. See NEB for example.
Words of the LORD
72 Zechariah
3.8 Eighth Vision (Zechariah 6:1-8)
Vision Eight: The Chariots
Zech 6:1 Once more I looked, and this time I saw four chariots emerging from between
two mountains of bronze. 6:2 Harnessed to the first chariot were red horses, to the sec-
ond black horses, 6:3 to the third white horses, and to the fourth spotted horses, all of
them strong. 6:4 Then I asked the angelic messenger who was speaking with me, “What
are these, sir?” 6:5 The messenger replied, “These are the four spirits of heaven that
have been presenting themselves before the LORD of all the earth. 6:6 The chariot with
the black horses is going to the north country and the white ones are going after them,
but the spotted ones are going to the south country. 6:7 All these strong ones are scatter-
ing; they have sought permission to go and walk about over the earth.” The Lord had
said, “Go! Walk about over the earth!” So they are doing so. 6:8 Then he cried out to
me, “Look! The ones going to the northland have brought me peace about the north-
land.”
The symbolism here is enigmatic; some text-critical questions beyond the scope of this
essay don’t make things any clearer. The idea seems to be that the Persians’ conquest of
Babylonia had brought peace to the nations. (Although Babylon is somewhat east of the
land of Israel, the roads from there come into Israel from the north, hence the reference
to the northland here). Compare the reference to peace in verse 8 with “rest and quiet”
in Zechariah 1:11 and “Be silent ... all people everywhere” in Zechariah 2:12. It proba-
bly served to encourage the Jews that there would not be further interference in con-
struction of the temple. Contrary to the note in the NET on verse 81, there is nothing to
suggest that this peace has an eschatological dimension.
4.0 Words of the LORD
The next five pericopes are each characterized by the phrase “the word of the LORD” in
contrast to the previous eight, characterized by phrases such as “I looked” or “I saw”.
Only one is dated. Because of the obvious grouping by form, one should be cautious
about assuming chronological ordering.
4.1 The Crown (Zechariah 6:9-15)
A Concluding Oracle
Zech 6:9 The word of the LORD came to me as follows: 6:10 “Choose some people from
among the exiles, namely, Heldai, Tobijah, and Jedaiah, all of whom have come from
Babylon, and when you have done so go to the house of Josiah son of Zephaniah. 6:11
Then take some silver and gold to make a crown and set it on the head of Joshua son of
Jehozadak, the high priest. 6:12 Then say to him, ‘The LORD who rules over all says,
“Look – here is the man whose name is Branch, who will sprout up from his place and
build the temple of the LORD. 6:13 Indeed, he will build the temple of the LORD, and he
will be clothed in splendor, sitting as king on his throne. Moreover, there will be a priest
1. “The immediate referent of peace about the northland is to the peace brought by Persia’s con-
quest of Babylonia, a peace that allowed the restoration of the Jewish people (cf. 2 Chr 36:22-
23; Isa 44:28; 45:1-2). However, there is also an eschatological dimension, referring to a time
when there will be perfect and universal peace.”
Words of the LORD
Zechariah 73
with him on his throne and they will see eye to eye on everything. 6:14 The crown will
then be turned over to Helem, Tobijah, Jedaiah, and Hen son of Zephaniah as a memo-
rial in the temple of the LORD. 6:15 Then those who are far away will come and build
the temple of the LORD so that you may know that the LORD who rules over all has sent
me to you. This will all come to pass if you completely obey the voice of the LORD your
God.”’”
Understand verse 12 in light of the fourth vision. Neither Joshua nor Zerubbabel were
the Branch; they are symbolic of the Branch. Note that Joshua is the Hebrew form of
the Greek name Jesus! But Jesus built a very different temple: the body of believers1,
an action symbolized by Joshua and Zerubbabel constructing the literal temple. In the
immediate context, “those who are far away” refers to Jews in exile, but this symbolizes
the Gentiles entering the church in the Messianic age.
4.2 Inquiry about Fasting (Zechariah 7:1-7)
The Hypocrisy of False Fasting
Zech 7:1 In King Darius’ fourth year, on the fourth day of Kislev, the ninth month, the
word of the LORD came to Zechariah. 7:2 Now the people of Bethel had sent Sharezer
and Regem-Melech and their companions to seek the LORD’s favor 7:3 by asking both
the priests of the temple of the LORD who rules over all and the prophets, “Should we
weep in the fifth month, fasting as we have done over the years?” 7:4 The word of the
LORD who rules over all then came to me, 7:5 “Speak to all the people and priests of the
land as follows: ‘When you fasted and lamented in the fifth and seventh months through
all these seventy years, did you truly fast for me – for me, indeed? 7:6 And now when
you eat and drink, are you not doing so for yourselves?’” 7:7 Should you not have
obeyed the words that the LORD cried out through the former prophets when Jerusalem
was peacefully inhabited and her surrounding cities, the Negev, and the Shephelah were
also populated?
Only some of Zechariah’s prophecies are dated. Zechariah’s anthologist probably only
recorded the dates when he knew them. Zechariah used the opportunity of the question
about fasting (fasts which commemorated the destruction of the temple 70 years earlier
— a round number... it was closer to 68 years earlier) to rail against hypocrisy and to
once again cite the former prophets.
4.3 Justice (Zechariah 7:8-14)
Zech 7:8 Again the word of the LORD came to Zechariah: 7:9 “The LORD who rules
over all said, ‘Exercise true judgment and show brotherhood and compassion to each
other. 7:10 You must not oppress the widow, the orphan, the foreigner, or the poor, nor
should anyone secretly plot evil against his fellow human being.’
7:11 “But they refused to pay attention, turning away stubbornly and stopping their ears
so they could not hear. 7:12 Indeed, they made their heart as hard as diamond, so that
they could not obey the Torah and the other words the LORD who rules over all had sent
by his Spirit through the former prophets. Therefore, the LORD who rules over all had
poured out great wrath.
1. See “Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor” on page 19.
Words of the LORD
74 Zechariah
7:13 “‘It then came about that just as I cried out, but they would not obey, so they will
cry out, but I will not listen,’ the LORD LORD who rules over all had said. 7:14 ‘Rather,
I will sweep them away in a storm into all the nations they are not familiar with.’ Thus
the land had become desolate because of them, with no one crossing through or return-
ing, for they had made the fruitful land a waste.”
Zechariah again repeated the message of the former prophets.
4.4 Concern for Jerusalem (Zechariah 8:1-17)
The Blessing of True Fasting
Zech 8:1 Then the word of the LORD who rules over all1 came to me as follows: 8:2
“The LORD who rules over all says, ‘I am very much concerned for Zion; indeed, I am
so concerned for her that my rage will fall on those who hurt her.’ 8:3 The Lord says, ‘I
have returned to Zion and will live within Jerusalem. Now Jerusalem will be called
“truthful city,” “mountain of the LORD who rules over all,” “holy mountain.”’ 8:4 More-
over, the LORD who rules over all says, ‘Old men and women will once more live in the
plazas of Jerusalem, each one leaning on a cane because of advanced age. 8:5 And the
streets of the city will be full of boys and girls playing. 8:6 And,’ says the LORD who
rules over all, ‘though such a thing may seem to be difficult in the opinion of the small
community of those days, will it also appear difficult to me?’ asks the LORD who rules
over all.
8:7 “The LORD who rules over all asserts, ‘I am about to save my people from the lands
of the east and the west. 8:8 And I will bring them to settle within Jerusalem. They will
be my people, and I will be their God, in truth and righteousness.’
8:9 “The LORD who rules over all also says, ‘Gather strength, you who are listening to
these words today from the mouths of the prophets who were there at the founding of
the house of the LORD who rules over all, so that the temple might be built. 8:10 Before
that time there was no compensation for man or animal, nor was there any relief from
adversity for those who came and went, because I had pitted everybody – each one –
against everyone else. 8:11 But I will be different now to this remnant of my people
from the way I was in those days,’ says the LORD who rules over all, 8:12 ‘for there will
be a peaceful time of sowing, the vine will produce its fruit and the ground its yield, and
the skies will rain down dew. Then I will allow the remnant of my people to possess all
these things. 8:13 And it will come about that just as you (both Judah and Israel) were a
curse to the nations, so I will save you and you will be a blessing. Do not be afraid!
Instead, be strong!’
8:14 “For the LORD who rules over all says, ‘As I had planned to hurt you when your
fathers made me angry,’ says the LORD who rules over all, ‘and I was not sorry, 8:15 so,
to the contrary, I have planned in these days to do good to Jerusalem and Judah – do not
fear! 8:16 These are the things you must do: Speak the truth, each of you, to one
another. Practice true and righteous judgment in your courts. 8:17 Do not plan evil in
your hearts against one another. Do not favor a false oath – these are all things that I
hate,’ says the LORD.”
In verse 3, God’s return to Zion was a completed act. This wasn’t the eschatological
Parousia. This pericope is only talking about return from exile and the establishment of
a bustling Jewish community in the holy land again.
Two Oracles
Zechariah 75
Contrary to the NET note on verse 51 and various commentators, verses 4-5 are not
about eschatological idealism in a millennial kingdom2. They are simply about a return
to normal life in Jerusalem where people are born and live all their lives.
The ethical preaching of the former prophets was again repeated (verses 16-17).
4.5 Fasts Turned to Feasts (Zechariah 8:18-23)
Zech 8:18 The word of the LORD who rules over all came to me as follows: 8:19 “The
LORD who rules over all says, ‘The fast of the fourth, fifth, seventh, and tent months
will become joyful and happy, pleasant feasts for the house of Judah, so love truth and
peace.’ 8:20 The LORD who rules over all says, ‘It will someday come to pass that peo-
ple – residents of many cities – will come. 8:21 The inhabitants of one will go to
another and say, “Let’s go up at once to ask the favor of the LORD, to seek the LORD
who rules over all. Indeed, I’ll go with you.”’ 8:22 Many peoples and powerful nations
will come to Jerusalem to seek the LORD who rules over all and to ask his favor. 8:23
The LORD who rules over all says, ‘In those days ten people from all languages and
nations will grasp hold of – indeed, grab – the robe of one Jew and say, “Let us go with
you, for we have heard that God is with you.”’”
As a sequel to 7:1-7, Zechariah next said that the four fasts kept in honor of various
phases of the destruction of Jerusalem —
•tenth month = siege of Jerusalem, Jan. 15, 588 BC (2 Kings 25:1)
•fourth month = breach of the city walls, ca. July 18, 586 BC (Jeremiah 39:2-5)
•fifth month = destruction of the temple, Aug. 14, 586 BC (2 Kings 25:8)
•seventh month = assassination of Gedaliah, governor of Judah, ca. 581 BC (Jeremiah
40:13-14; 41:1) 3
— would turn into feasts. He further said that many peoples and nations would seek the
LORD, a reality that found its fulfillment in Christianity. People tend to forget that the
apostles were Jews. We should see the fulfillment of verse 23 in passages such as Acts
2:37-41; 8:12, 38; 10:44-48 (especially); etc.
5.0 Two Oracles
Each of these oracles is actually a collection of prophecies. The two collections share a
similar structure.
1. “The references to longevity and to children living and playing in peace are eschatological in
tone. Elsewhere the millennial kingdom is characterized in a similar manner (cf. Isa 65:20; Jer
31:12-13)”
2. Although, as a post-millennialist, I am certainly sympathetic to anything that might indicate
such an idealistic time, we don’t do scripture justice by shoehorning every passage possible
into our pet theologies.
3. NET notes, loc. cit.
Two Oracles
76 Zechariah
5.1 First Oracle (Zechariah 9:1-11:17)
5.1.1 Syria to Philistia Invaded, Jerusalem protected (Zechariah 9:1-8)
The Coming of the True King
Zech 9:1 An oracle of the word of the LORD concerning the land of Hadrach, with its
focus on Damascus:
The eyes of all humanity, especially of the tribes of Israel, are toward the LORD, 9:2 as
are those of Hamath also, which adjoins Damascus, and Tyre and Sidon, though they
consider themselves to be very wise. 9:3 Tyre built herself a fortification and piled up
silver like dust and gold like the mud of the streets! 9:4 Nevertheless the Lord will evict
her and shove her fortifications into the sea – she will be consumed by fire. 9:5 Ash-
kelon will see and be afraid; Gaza will be in great anguish, as will Ekron, for her hope
will have been dried up. Gaza will lose her king, and Ashkelon will no longer be inhab-
ited. 9:6 A mongrel people will live in Ashdod, for I will greatly humiliate the Philis-
tines. 9:7 I will take away their abominable religious practices; then those who survive
will become a community of believers in our God, like a clan in Judah, and Ekron will
be like the Jebusites. 9:8 Then I will surround my temple to protect it like a guard from
anyone crossing back and forth; so no one will cross over against them anymore as an
oppressor, for now I myself have seen it.
Josephus told a story about Alexander the Great1. When he was in Macedonia, he had a
vision of a man telling him that he would conquer Persia. Alexander defeated Darius’
army and took Syria, Damascus, and Sidon, and besieged Tyre. He sent a message to
Jerusalem and the High Priest Jaddua demanding provisions. Jaddua refused, saying he
had sworn an oath to Darius, and could not break it as long as Darius was alive.
This infuriated Alexander, and when Tyre fell, he marched on Jerusalem. Jaddua was
told in a vision to simply go out with the priests, all dressed in their priestly attire, and
meet with Alexander. To everyone’s amazement, Alexander approached the High Priest
and saluted him. It had been the image of Jaddua who had appeared to him in his vision
in Macedonia. So Jerusalem was not only spared Alexander’s wrath, but was allowed
to not pay tribute every seven years (when the land wasn’t sown on the Sabbath year),
and all the Jews in his domain were allowed to live by their own laws.
However much of this story might be embellished legend, the fact remains that Alex-
ander bypassed sacking Jerusalem on his march to conquer the world. Most commenta-
tor see this as the fulfillment of the subject passage.
5.1.2 Messianic Kingdom (Zechariah 9:9-17)
Zech 9:9 Rejoice greatly, daughter of Zion!
Shout, daughter of Jerusalem!
Look! Your king is coming to you:
he is legitimate and victorious,
humble and riding on a donkey –
on a young donkey, the foal of a female donkey.
9:10 I will remove1 the chariot from Ephraim
and the warhorse from Jerusalem,
1. Antiquities of the Jews, Book XI, Chapter VIII.
Two Oracles
Zechariah 77
and the battle bow will be removed.
Then he will announce peace to the nations.
His dominion will be from sea to sea
and from the Euphrates River to the ends of the earth.
9:11 Moreover, as for you, because of our covenant relationship secured with blood, I
will release your prisoners from the waterless pit. 9:12 Return to the stronghold, you
prisoners, with hope; today I declare that I will return double what was taken from you.
9:13 I will bend Judah as my bow; I will load the bow with Ephraim, my arrow! I will
stir up your sons, Zion, against yours, Greece, and I will make you, Zion, like a war-
rior’s sword.
9:14 Then the LORD will appear above them, and his arrow will shoot forth like light-
ning; the Lord GOD will blow the trumpet and will sally forth on the southern storm
winds. 9:15 The LORD who rules over all will guard them, and they will prevail and
overcome with sling stones. Then they will drink, and will become noisy like drunk-
ards, full like the sacrificial basin or like the corners of the altar. 9:16 On that day the
LORD their God will deliver them as the flock of his people, for they are the precious
stones of a crown sparkling over his land. 9:17 How precious and fair! Grain will make
the young men flourish and new wine the young women.
Zechariah 9:9 is quoted in Matthew 21:5 and John 12:15 in reference to Jesus’ entry into
Jerusalem. Jesus, as the Messiah, not only acted this passage out literally, but also ful-
filled the symbolic meaning of the passage: that of his humility in coming as the suffer-
ing servant instead of a bold conquering warlord. His message of peace was universal
(verse 10). More on this will be discussed in the next chapter. The image of the king on
a donkey calls to mind David’s fleeing on a donkey from the rebellion of Absalom (who
in contrast rode in a chariot behind horses).1
Verses 11-17 are full of symbolic language: the waterless pit, prisoners, Judah a bow,
Ephraim an arrow, Zion a sword, etc. The mention of Greece here should not be too sur-
prising. It was not far removed from the wars between Persia and Greece of the second
half of the 5th century BC.2 After the coming of Alexander the Great, seen in the begin-
ning of this chapter, the whole of the eastern Mediterranean was Hellenized. The con-
flict predicted here is not literal warfare — rather it’s talking about the Holy Spirit the
spread of the Gospel.
The reference to overcoming with sling stones in verse 15 is another Davidic reference3.
The meaning is not the literally throwing of stones, but that they would overcome, “not
by strength and not by power, but by my Spirit” (Zechariah 4:6). The references to
blood and grain find meaning in Jesus’ sacrifice and in communion done in remem-
brance of it.
There is nothing strictly eschatological about this. It finds its realization in the King-
dom of God that Jesus preached, although it does perhaps suggest an eventual victory of
the Gospel within history (post-millennialism).
1. 2 Sam 15-19, esp. 16:1 and 15:1; Word Biblical Commentary, loc. cit.
2. “Greece (Place)” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
3. Calvin, loc cit.
Two Oracles
78 Zechariah
5.1.3 Restoration of Judah (Zechariah 10:1-5)
The Restoration of the True People
Zech 10:1 Ask the LORD for rain in the season of the late spring rains – the LORD who
causes thunderstorms – and he will give everyone showers of rain and green growth in
the field. 10:2 For the household gods have spoken wickedness, the soothsayers have
seen a lie, and as for the dreamers, they have disclosed emptiness and give comfort in
vain. Therefore the people set out like sheep and become scattered because they have no
shepherd. 10:3 I am enraged at the shepherds and will punish the lead-goats.
For the LORD who rules over all has brought blessing to his flock, the house of Judah,
and will transform them into his majestic warhorse. 10:4 From him will come the cor-
nerstone, the wall peg, the battle bow, and every ruler. 10:5 And they will be like war-
riors trampling the mud of the streets in battle. They will fight, for the LORD will be
with them, and will defeat the enemy cavalry.
The pagan religion of the Canaanites regarded Baal as a storm god. After deprecating
the leaders who lead Judah astray (verse 3), we have another messianic prediction.
Verse 4 uses several images that are used symbolically throughout scripture. The cor-
nerstone is especially a messianic symbol (Isaiah 28:16; Psalm 118:22; and NT quota-
tions of these). What NET translates as wall peg here may also be translated tent peg.
In Ezra’s prayer it was used as a metaphor for security. Isaiah used it similarly in a met-
aphor where Jerusalem is a tent (Isaiah 33:20). Etc. Given that symbol was stacked
upon symbol here, the fight being referenced was most likely a symbolic fight as well.
5.1.4 Restoration of Joseph (Zechariah 10:6-12)
Zech 10:6 “I (says the LORD) will strengthen the kingdom of Judah and deliver the peo-
ple of Joseph and will bring them back because of my compassion for them. They will
be as though I had never rejected them, for I am the LORD their God and therefore I will
hear them. 10:7 The Ephraimites will be like warriors and will rejoice as if they had
drunk wine. Their children will see it and rejoice; they will celebrate in the things of the
LORD. 10:8 I will signal for them and gather them, for I have already redeemed them;
then they will become as numerous as they were before. 10:9 Though I scatter them
among the nations, they will remember in far-off places – they and their children will
sprout forth and return. 10:10 I will bring them back from Egypt and gather them from
Assyria. I will bring them to the lands of Gilead and Lebanon, for there will not be
enough room for them in their own land. 10:11 The LORD will cross the sea of storms
and will calm its turbulence. The depths of the Nile will dry up, the pride of Assyria will
be humbled, and the domination of Egypt will be no more. 10:12 Thus I will strengthen
them by my power, and they will walk about in my name,” says the LORD.
The northern kingdom of Israel (AKA Ephraim AKA Joseph) was carried away into
captivity by Assyria long before Judah’s captivity, and other peoples were settled into
the land. Those who remained intermingled with the other peoples and became the
Samaritans. They were all that was left of Ephraim. What Zechariah suggested here,
the reunification of Ephraim and Judah, was simply unthinkable. We read in Ezra that
the Samaritans offered to help build the temple, but were rebuffed by Zerubbabel and
Jeshua (Ezra 4:1-5): “You have no right to help us build the temple of our God.” This
set in motion a pattern of conflict between them. The Samaritans frustrated the efforts
to build the temple, which is what occasioned Haggai and Zechariah to begin prophesy-
ing in the first place. After the temple was built, they frustrated the construction of the
Two Oracles
Zechariah 79
city walls (Ezra 4:6-23). Later, when Ezra came to Jerusalem and learned some of the
Jews had taken Samaritan wives, he made them divorce them and send them and their
children away! (Ezra 9-10).
5.1.5 Annulment of the Covenant (Zechariah 11:1-17)
The History and Future of Judah’s Wicked Kings
Zech 11:1 Open your gates, Lebanon,
so that the fire may consume your cedars.
11:2 Howl, fir tree,
because the cedar has fallen;
the majestic trees have been destroyed.
Howl, oaks of Bashan,
because the impenetrable forest has fallen.
11:3 Listen to the howling of shepherds,
because their magnificence has been destroyed.
Listen to the roaring of young lions,
because the thickets of the Jordan have been devastated.
11:4 The LORD my God says this: “Shepherd the flock set aside for slaughter. 11:5
Those who buy them slaughter them and are not held guilty; those who sell them say,
‘Blessed be the LORD, for I am rich.’ Their own shepherds have no compassion for
them. 11:6 Indeed, I will no longer have compassion on the people of the land,” says the
LORD, “but instead I will turn every last person over to his neighbor and his king. They
will devastate the land, and I will not deliver it from them.”
11:7 So I began to shepherd the flock destined for slaughter, the most afflicted of all the
flock. Then I took two staffs, calling one “Pleasantness” and the other “Binders,” and I
tended the flock. 11:8 Next I eradicated the three shepherds in one month, for I ran out
of patience with them and, indeed, they detested me as well. 11:9 I then said, “I will not
shepherd you. What is to die, let it die, and what is to be eradicated, let it be eradicated.
As for those who survive, let them eat each other’s flesh!”
11:10 Then I took my staff “Pleasantness” and cut it in two to annul my covenant that I
had made with all the people. 11:11 So it was annulled that very day, and then the most
afflicted of the flock who kept faith with me knew that that was the word of the LORD.
11:12 Then I said to them, “If it seems good to you, pay me my wages, but if not, forget
it.” So they weighed out my payment – thirty pieces of silver. 11:13 The LORD then said
to me, “Throw to the potter that exorbitant sum at which they valued me!” So I took the
thirty pieces of silver and threw them to the potter at the temple of the LORD. 11:14
Then I cut the second staff “Binders” in two in order to annul the covenant of brother-
hood between Judah and Israel.
11:15 Again the LORD said to me, “Take up once more the equipment of a foolish shep-
herd. 11:16 Indeed, I am about to raise up a shepherd in the land who will not take heed
to the sheep headed to slaughter, will not seek the scattered, and will not heal the
injured. Moreover, he will not nourish the one that is healthy but instead will eat the
meat of the fat sheep and tear off their hooves.
11:17 Woe to the worthless shepherd
who abandons the flock!
May a sword fall on his arm and his right eye!
May his arm wither completely away,
and his right eye become completely blind!”
Two Oracles
80 Zechariah
Zechariah’s solution to the problem was the annulment of the old covenant. He enacted
his message by being a shepherd to an afflicted flock destined for slaughter (verse 7).
He was detested (verse 8), and broke a staff to symbolize the annulment of the covenant
(verses 10-11). He was paid off for with the price a slave for his effort (verse 12-13).
He then broke another staff symbolizing the brotherhood between Judah (the Jews) and
Israel (the Samaritans). He then acted out the part of a foolish shepherd (verses 15-17).
This whole passage is a symbolic telling of the first century AD history of the Suffering
Servant, the Messiah. The application of verses 11-13 to Judas’ betrayal and the rejec-
tion of Jesus by the Jewish leadership is well known. The covenant between God and
the Jews was ended. The devastation spoken of here (including literal cannibalism! cf.
verse 9) happened in AD 70.
This is not anti-Semitism however. It is not that the Jews were irrevocably rejected.
Otherwise, the prophecies of chapter 10 could not be fulfilled. It only means that the
Jews, and Samaritans, stand before God now as no different (neither better, nor worse)
than the Gentiles. Paul expressed it as the Jews having been cut off from the olive tree,
and Gentiles grafted in, and that the Jews may be grafted in in the same way (Romans
11:13-24). Everyone, Jews, Samaritans, and Gentiles alike, may now be united to God
through the blood sacrifice of Jesus Christ — see the communion imagery in Zechariah
9:15-17.
5.2 Second Oracle (Zechariah 12:1-14:21)
Note that there is a structure in common with the second oracle. A pre-Messianic
prophecy (9:1-8 || 12:1-9) followed by a positive Messianic prophecy (9:9-10:12 ||
12:10-13:6) followed by a negative judgment prophecy (11:1-17 || 13:7-14:21).
5.2.1 Jerusalem Will Be Protected From A Siege (Zechariah 12:1-9)
The Repentance of Judah
Zech 12:1 The revelation of the word of the LORD concerning Israel: The LORD – he
who stretches out the heavens and lays the foundations of the earth, who forms the
human spirit within a person – says, 12:2 “I am about to make Jerusalem a cup that
brings dizziness to all the surrounding nations; indeed, Judah will also be included
when Jerusalem is besieged. 12:3 Moreover, on that day I will make Jerusalem a heavy
burden for all the nations, and all who try to carry it will be seriously injured; yet all the
peoples of the earth will be assembled against it. 12:4 In that day,” says the LORD, “I
will strike every horse with confusion and its rider with madness. I will pay close atten-
tion to the house of Judah, but will strike all the horses of the nations with blindness.
12:5 Then the leaders of Judah will say to themselves, ‘The inhabitants of Jerusalem are
a means of strength to us through their God, the LORD who rules over all.’ 12:6 On that
day I will make the leaders of Judah like an igniter among sticks and a burning torch
among sheaves, and they will burn up all the surrounding nations right and left. Then
the people of Jerusalem will settle once more in their place, the city of Jerusalem. 12:7
The LORD also will deliver the homes of Judah first, so that the splendor of the kingship
of David and of the people of Jerusalem may not exceed that of Judah. 12:8 On that day
the LORD himself will defend the inhabitants of Jerusalem, so that the weakest among
them will be like mighty David, and the dynasty of David will be like God, like the
angel of the LORD before them. 12:9 So on that day I will set out to destroy all the
nations that come against Jerusalem.”
Two Oracles
Zechariah 81
This passage prophecies the Maccabees defeating the Seleucids. This is not the millen-
nial age1. Phrases like “all the peoples of the earth will be assembled against it [Jerusa-
lem]” in verse 3 are hyperbolic2. Compare with 1 Maccabees 3:7, “He [Judas
Maccabeus] embittered many kings, but he made Jacob glad by his deeds”; 1 Macca-
bees 12:13, “But as for ourselves, many trials and many wars have encircled us; the
kings around us have waged war against us”; 1 Maccabees 14:13, “No one was left in
the land to fight them, and the kings were crushed in those days”.3
5.2.2 Kingship of David (Zechariah 12:10-13:6)
Zech 12:10 “I will pour out on the kingship of David and the population of Jerusalem a
spirit of grace and supplication so that they will look to me, the one they have pierced.
They will lament for him as one laments for an only son, and there will be a bitter cry
for him like the bitter cry for a firstborn. 12:11 On that day the lamentation in Jerusalem
will be as great as the lamentation at Hadad-Rimmon in the plain of Megiddo. 12:12
The land will mourn, clan by clan – the clan of the royal household of David by itself
and their wives by themselves; the clan of the family of Nathan by itself and their wives
by themselves; 12:13 the clan of the descendants of Levi by itself and their wives by
themselves; and the clan of the Shimeites by itself and their wives by themselves –
12:14 all the clans that remain, each separately with their wives.”
The Refinement of Judah
13:1 “In that day there will be a fountain opened up for the dynasty of David and the
people of Jerusalem to cleanse them from sin and impurity. 13:2 And also on that day,”
says the LORD who rules over all, “I will remove the names of the idols from the land
and they will never again be remembered. Moreover, I will remove the prophets and the
unclean spirit from the land. 13:3 Then, if anyone prophesies in spite of this, his father
and mother to whom he was born will say to him, ‘You cannot live, for you lie in the
name of the LORD.’ Then his father and mother to whom he was born will run him
through with a sword when he prophesies.
13:4 “Therefore, on that day each prophet will be ashamed of his vision when he proph-
esies and will no longer wear the hairy garment of a prophet to deceive the people. 13:5
Instead he will say, ‘I am no prophet – indeed, I am a farmer, for a man has made me his
indentured servant since my youth.’ 13:6 Then someone will ask him, ‘What are these
wounds on your chest?’ and he will answer, ‘Some that I received in the house of my
friends.’
John cited Zechariah 12:10 as receiving fulfillment at the crucifixion:
Jn 19:33 But when they came to Jesus and saw that he was already dead, they did not
break his legs. 19:34 But one of the soldiers pierced his side with a spear, and blood and
water flowed out immediately. 19:35And the person who saw it has testified (and his
testimony is true, and he knows that he is telling the truth), so that you also may believe.
19:36 For these things happened so that the scripture would be fulfilled, “Not a bone of
1. Contrary to the claims of the NET note in 12:8 — “The statement the dynasty of David will be
like God is hyperbole to show the remarkable enhancements that will accompany the inaugura-
tion of the millennial age.”
2. See “Context in Literature and Language” on page 27.
3. NRSV
Two Oracles
82 Zechariah
his will be broken.” 19:37 And again another scripture says, “They will look on the one
whom they have pierced.”
The mourning (12:10-14) has two dimensions. First, those who followed or at least
admired Jesus (and they were no small number, else the leadership would not have felt
threatened) were certainly mournful of his death. Second, the rejection of Jesus resulted
in judgment on the nation and the revocation of the covenant (Zechariah 11), culminat-
ing in the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD.
The fountain in 13:1 is not a literal fountain. It is a symbol for cleansing from “sin and
impurity”. Isaiah used a similar metaphor in Isaiah 12:3, “Joyfully you will draw water
from the springs of deliverance”. Ezekiel 47:1-12 also saw in his vision a symbolic
river welling up under the threshold of the temple.1 The image here is Messianic, look-
ing forward to the Son of David. See Jesus’ use of the image in the story of the Samari-
tan woman, esp. John 4:13-14:
Jn 4:13 Jesus replied, “Everyone who drinks some of this water will be thirsty again.
4:14 But whoever drinks some of the water that I will give him will never be thirsty
again, but the water that I will give him will become in him a fountain of water spring-
ing up to eternal life.”
The remainder of this passage, verses 13:2-6, deals with the removal of idolatry and
prophecy. After the Apostolic age, prophecy ceased and the canon of scripture was
closed. However the focus is not on true prophecy, but on false prophecy. The wounds
in verse 6 probably refer to self-inflicted wounds that were the custom of prophets of
Baal (1 Kings 18:28, see also Leviticus 19:28, Deuteronomy 14:1). The timing of the
fulfillment of this is difficult, as it doesn’t follow on immediately to the 1st century ful-
fillment of the preceding verses. Millennial eschatologies (pre- and post-) would see it
ultimately being fulfilled in the future millennium. I’m not clear what an amillennialist
could do with this passage. A post-general-resurrection/judgment time frame is ruled
out by verse 3. That is, a fulfillment within ordinary human history before the “last
day” is required by the idea of there still being an occasional false prophet.
5.2.3 Strike The Shepherd That The Flock May Be Scattered (Zechariah 13:7-9)
Zech 13:7 “Awake, sword, against my shepherd,
against the man who is my associate,”
says the LORD who rules over all.
Strike the shepherd that the flock may be scattered;
I will turn my hand against the insignificant ones.
13:8 It will happen in all the land, says the LORD,
that two-thirds of the people in it will be cut off and die,
but one-third will be left in it.
13:9 Then I will bring the remaining third into the fire;
I will refine them like silver is refined
and will test them like gold is tested.
They will call on my name and I will answer;
I will say, ‘These are my people,’
and they will say, ‘The LORD is my God.’”
1. See “Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple” on page 15.
Two Oracles
Zechariah 83
Jesus cited this passage just before going to Gethsemane:
Mk 14:27 Then Jesus said to them, “You will all fall away, for it is written
‘I will strike the shepherd,
and the sheep will be scattered.’ [NET]
The shepherd is the Messiah. Compare the remainder of the passage to Ezekiel 5:1-4:
Eze 5:1 “As for you, son of man, take a sharp sword and use it as a barber’s razor. Shave
off some of the hair from your head and your beard. Then take scales and divide up the
hair you cut off. 5:2 Burn a third of it in the fire inside the city when the days of your
siege are completed. Take a third and slash it with a sword all around the city. Scatter a
third to the wind, and I will unleash a sword behind them. 5:3 But take a few strands of
hair from those and tie them in the ends of your garment. 5:4 Again, take more of them
and throw them into the fire, and burn them up. From there a fire will spread to all the
house of Israel. [NET]
Ezekiel is one of the “former prophets” that Zechariah refers to several times (Zechariah
1:4, et al). The Jews went through a great catastrophe after the crucifixion in the Jewish
war of 66-73 AD. But one should never forget there were thousands who joined the
church (Acts 2:41, 4:41, 21:20).
5.2.4 A Day Of The LORD (Zechariah 14:1-21)
The Sovereignty of the Lord
Zech 14:1 A day of the LORD is about to come when your possessions will be divided as
plunder in your midst. 14:2 For I will gather all the nations against Jerusalem to wage
war; the city will be taken, its houses plundered, and the women raped. Then half of the
city will go into exile, but the remainder of the people will not be taken away.
14:3 Then the LORD will go to battle and fight against those nations, just as he fought
battles in ancient days. 14:4 On that day his feet will stand on the Mount of Olives
which lies to the east of Jerusalem, and the Mount of Olives will be split in half from
east to west, leaving a great valley. Half the mountain will move northward and the
other half southward. 14:5 Then you will escape through my mountain valley, for the
mountains will extend to Azal. Indeed, you will flee as you fled from the earthquake in
the days of King Uzziah of Judah. Then the LORD my God will come with all his holy
ones with him. 14:6 On that day there will be no light – the sources of light in the heav-
ens will congeal. 14:7 It will happen in one day (a day known to the LORD); not in the
day or the night, but in the evening there will be light. 14:8 Moreover, on that day living
waters will flow out from Jerusalem, half of them to the eastern sea and half of them to
the western sea; it will happen both in summer and in winter.
14:9 The LORD will then be king over all the earth. In that day the LORD will be seen as
one with a single name. 14:10 All the land will change and become like the Arabah
from Geba to Rimmon, south of Jerusalem; and Jerusalem will be raised up and will
stay in its own place from the Benjamin Gate to the site of the First Gate and on to the
Corner Gate, and from the Tower of Hananel to the royal winepresses. 14:11 And peo-
ple will settle there, and there will no longer be the threat of divine extermination –
Jerusalem will dwell in security.
14:12 But this will be the nature of the plague with which the LORD will strike all the
nations that have fought against Jerusalem: Their flesh will decay while they stand on
their feet, their eyes will rot away in their sockets, and their tongues will dissolve in
Two Oracles
84 Zechariah
their mouths. 14:13 On that day there will be great confusion from the LORD among
them; they will seize each other and attack one another violently. 14:14 Moreover,
Judah will fight at Jerusalem, and the wealth of all the surrounding nations will be gath-
ered up – gold, silver, and clothing in great abundance. 14:15 This is the kind of plague
that will devastate horses, mules, camels, donkeys, and all the other animals in those
camps.
14:16 Then all who survive from all the nations that came to attack Jerusalem will go up
annually to worship the King, the LORD who rules over all, and to observe the Feast of
Tabernacles. 14:17 But if any of the nations anywhere on earth refuse to go up to Jerus-
alem to worship the King, the LORD who rules over all, they will get no rain. 14:18 If
the Egyptians will not do so, they will get no rain – instead there will be the kind of
plague which the LORD inflicts on any nations that do not go up to celebrate the Feast of
Tabernacles. 14:19 This will be the punishment of Egypt and of all nations that do not
go up to celebrate the Feast of Tabernacles.
14:20 On that day the bells of the horses will bear the inscription “Holy to the LORD.”
The cooking pots in the LORD’s temple will be as holy as the bowls in front of the altar.
14:21 Every cooking pot in Jerusalem and Judah will become holy in the sight of the
LORD who rules over all, so that all who offer sacrifices may come and use some of
them to boil their sacrifices in them. On that day there will no longer be a Canaanite in
the house of the LORD who rules over all.
Interpretations of this chapter vary greatly. It is probably too much to reach definitive
conclusions in this brief study. Rather, we can probably only summarize some interpre-
tive alternatives and set some limits and principles for how the chapter might be
approached.
Dispensational interpretation generally takes the images contained very literally. How-
ever, the use of symbols in the rest of the book should caution us in this regard. The
geographic upheavals described lack plausibility of literal fulfillment. This is not
because God couldn’t perform such as miracles, but because of the logistics that would
be involved. An earthquake violent enough to split a mountain in two would not likely
leave any survivors in the vicinity to escape between the two mountains. Rather than
dwelling securely (verse 1), Jerusalem would be wiped from the map. An interpretation
that must pile miracles upon miracles that aren’t explicitly claimed in the text in order to
be plausible isn’t a likely interpretation.
These images also appear symbolically elsewhere. Two mountains of bronze occur in
Zechariah 6:1. Isaiah 2:2 and Micah 4:1 forecast Mt. Zion being lifted up above all
other hills1. In contrast to the mountains, Zechariah 14:10 describes the land becoming
a plain (i.e., like the Arabah). The image of a plain is used in Isaiah’s Messianic proph-
ecy in Isaiah 40:3-4. Zechariah himself already used it as a metaphor in Zechariah 4:7.
Ezekiel also has a symbolic river flowing from the Temple in Jerusalem to the whole
world (Ezekiel 47:1-12). See similar imagery in the poetry of Joel 3:182.
Phrases such as “all the nations” in verse 2 do not help in ruling out the period of the
Maccabees, or the Romans (two common preterist interpretations) as such a phrase is
1. Cited by Calvin, loc. cit.
2. Cited by Keil-Delitzsh, loc. cit.
Concluding Thoughts
Zechariah 85
often hyperbolic. Verse 8, I think does rule out a pre-Christian interpretation. The
image of “living water” flowing out from Jerusalem into the seas is Messianic. In
Hebrew idiom, the gentiles are across the seas — Gentile nations are often called the
isles of the Gentiles. The disciples had initially settled in Jerusalem after the crucifix-
ion, but after the persecution that started with Stephen’s execution, they scattered, tak-
ing the Gospel far afield of Jerusalem (Acts 8:1). The destruction of Jerusalem in 70
AD completed this by removing all Christians from Jerusalem. See Jesus’ warning to
flee the city to the mountains in the Olivet Discourse (Mark 13:14), and Eusebius’
account of them doing precisely that (Church History 3.5.2).
Verse 9 does not necessarily imply an eschatological time (like the millennium). Jesus’
teaching of the Kingdom of God was that of it being an immanent reality; however, a
future millennium does nicely account for the Edenic description of the following
verses. It is interesting that the worship cites the Feast of Tabernacles, which comes at
the end of the agricultural year in the autumn1, and thus celebrates the harvest (in addi-
tion to its historic association the wilderness wanderings), and not the Day of Atone-
ment. After the sacrifice of the Messiah, the latter is no longer necessary, but giving
thanks to God for his bounteous provision is still relevant. But even with a millennial
interpretation, this passages says nothing about the bodily return of Christ being before
or after it.
Verses 20-21 are not implying an eschatological temple. Quite the contrary, because all
the vessels of Jerusalem are holy like the vessels of the temple, the idea of a temple is
reduced in relevence. The reality of this in the church age is that the body of believers is
the temple and we are all holy before God.2
6.0 Concluding Thoughts
One is faced with a sort of chicken-and-egg problem in Bible study. To understand an
individual verse one must understand its context. But to understand the context, one
must understand the individual verses. To break the dilemma, two approaches may be
taken. First a good commentary will help provide the context needed for individual
verses, and explain how individual verses make up the context. Second, one must use
an iterative approach. Dive in and read the whole book. Alternate between studying
individual verses and the whole context. With each iteration, more of the individual
verses will make sense once you understand more of the context, and more of the over-
all context will make sense as you understand the individual verses. It is easy to get
caught up with exegeting individual verses and phrases, and forget to look at the larger
picture
1. “Harvest” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
2. See “Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor” on page 19.
Bibliography
86 Zechariah
7.0 Bibliography
Barker, Kenneth L. (1985). “Zechariah” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. The Expositor’s
Bible Commentary. Zondervan.
Calvin, John. Calvin’s Commentaries: Zechariah. Ages Software (1998).
Clarke, Adam. Clarke’s Commentary: Zechariah. Ages Software (1999).
Craigie, P. C. (1984). Twelve Prophets: Volume 2. The Daily Study Bible Series. West-
minster John Knox Press. Logos (2001).
Hartman, F. H. (1994). Zechariah: Israel’s Messenger of the Messiah’s Triumph.
Friends of Israel Gospel Ministry.
Henry, Matthew. (1712). Commentary on the Whole Bible, Volume 4: Isaiah to Malachi.
Hendrickson (1991).
Keil, C. F., & Delitzsh, F. (1866-91). Commentary on the Old Testament. Hendrickson
(2002).
Ryken, L., et al (1998). Dictionary of Biblical Imagery. IVP.
Smith, R. L. (2002). Micah-Malachi. Word Biblical Commentary, Vol. 32. Word.
Whiston, William, trans. (1867). Josephus: Complete Works. Kregel (1981).
87
Messianic Expectations
Understanding Jewish Messianic
exectations around the time of Jesus may
help us in understanding the eschatological
vocabulary of the New Testament.1
1.0 Introduction
What did a first century Jew expect eschatologically? If we wanted to ask that question
of Jews in Israel today, one would hire Gallup or some similar polling organization.
They would create a questionaire, then scientifically select a random sample of the pop-
ulation group to survey. The answers would be collated and complicated statistical
analysis techniques would be applied to let us know what they expected and how that
correlated with various demographic variables, etc.
Unfortunately we can’t go back in time and do this survey in Judea and Galilee in 27
AD. Nor did anyone who was alive in 27 AD do such a survey (at least, if they did, the
results are not extant). Instead we must examine the remains of the era to look for clues
as to what those expectations were. Primarily, this means looking at the writings of the
era. This has several drawbacks; foremost is that it is not a proper random sample. The
accidents of history can leave some writings abundantly extant, while eliminating oth-
ers. Those who held one belief may have be more likely to write about it (for a variety
of reasons) then those who held another. The writings of some groups may have been
actively suppressed. We engage in this survey of the extant writings, therefore, with
caution.
1.This study was originally done as background for a study on John the Baptist’s ques-
tioning of Jesus in Luke 7:18-35. Since it touches on eschatological expectations of the
milieu, it seems appropriate to extract that portion of the previous study for this series.
The Dead Sea Scrolls
88 Messianic Expectations
2.0 The Dead Sea Scrolls
The Dead Sea Scrolls are a cache of scrolls discovered hidden in caves in the Qumran
region by the Dead Sea. They were hidden there in 68 AD from the onslaught of the
Roman soldiers putting down the Jewish rebellion. It would appear that they constituted
the library of the Essenes (some scholars dispute this, but if not the Essenes, then a sect
very similar to the Essenes).
From the writings we find that they were a very apocalyptic cult. They expected a
future war in which Israel (that is, themselves) would conquer their oppressers, the Kit-
tim (that is, Rome) and establish a Messianic kingdom on earth. Some scrolls contain
elaborate battle plans and outline laws for the restored eschatological community.
Much of the material is now fragmentary, but we do find references to one or more Mes-
siahs in them. We don’t find one single well-developed Messianic belief system in the
scrolls. Some seem to have expected a single Davidic Messiah. Others expected two
Messiahs: the Messiah of Aaron and the Messiah of Israel, and, some, even a third fig-
ure who would be a prophet.
The Rule of War quotes the messianic text Isaiah 10:34-11:1, then interprets it saying
4Q285, fr. 5 [...] the Branch of David and they will enter into judgement with [...] and
the Prince of the Congregation, the Br[anch of David] will kill him [... by strok]es and
by wounds.1
The Commentaries on Isaiah cites an overlapping passage (Isaiah 11:1-3) and then
goes on to say:
4Q161, frs. 5-6 [Interpreted, this concerns the Branch] of David who shall arise at the
end [of days] ... God will uphold him with [the spirit of might, and will give him] a
throne of glory and a crown of [holiness] and many-coloured garments ... [He will put a
sceptre] in his hand and he shall rule over all the [nations]. And Magog .. and his sword
shall judge [all] the peoples.
And as for that which he said, He shall not [judge by what his eyes see] or pass sen-
tence by what his ears hear: interpreted, this means that ... [the Priests] ... As they teach
him, so will he judge; and as they order, [so will he pass sentence]. .... 2
The War Scroll (1QM, xi.5) sites Numbers 24:17-19 (“A star shall come out of
Jacob...”) which was evidently understood to be Messianic.3 Another document, the
Florilegium, aka Midrash on the Last Days, sites some passages from 2 Samuel and
Amos and associates the future Messiah with another character called the Interpreter of
the Law. It is not clear if these two were equated with the Messiahs of Israel and of
Aaron respectively.
4Q174, i.10 The Lord declares to you that He will build you a House (2 Sam. vii, 11c).
I will raise up your seed after you (2 Sam. vii, 12). I will establish the throne of his kng-
1. CDSSE, p. 189
2. CDSSE, p. 467
3. CDSSE, p. 174
The Dead Sea Scrolls
Messianic Expectations 89
dom [for ever] (2 Sam. vii, 13). [I will be] his father and he shall be my son (2 Sam. vii,
14). He is the Branch of David who shall arise with the Interpreter of the Law [to rule]
in Zion [at the end] of time. As it is written, I will raise up the tent of David that is
fallen (Amos ix, 11). That is to say, the fallen tent of David is he who shall arise to save
Israel.1
Works which explicitly mention two Messiahs do so incidentally, so we don’t get much
clue as to what the theological reasoning was behind them or how they related to the
Davidic Messiah. Were there competing Messianic theologies in the community
throughout its history or did one belief suppant the other? The Messianic Rule is typi-
cal of these fragments, giving rules for the future Messianic banquet:
1QSa ii ... When God engenders (the Priest-) Messiah, he shall come with them [at] the
head of the whole congregation of Israel with all [his brethern, the sons] of Aaron the
Priests, [those called] to the assembly, the men of renown; and they shall sit [before
him, each man] in the order of his dignity. And then [the Mess]iah of Israel shall
[come], and the chiefs of the [clans of Israel] shall sit before him, [each] in the order of
his dignity, according to [his place] in their camps and marches....
... let no man extend his hand over the firstfruits of bread and wine before the Priest....
Thereafter, the Messiah of Israel shall extend his hand over the bread.....2
Another document, the Community Rule mentions also a third, prophetic figure:
1QS, ix.10 They shall depart from none of the counsels of the Law to walk in all the
stubbornness of their hearts, but shall be ruled by the primitive precepts in which the
men of the Community were first instructed until there shall come the Prophet and the
Messiahs of Aaron and Israel.3
The Damascus Document refers to “CD B ii the Messiah out of Aaron and Israel”4. It is
ambiguous whether it refers to one or two Messiahs.
One very intriguing fragment is from an Aramaic Apocalypse. This fragment refers to
someone as the “son of God” and the “son of the Most High”. Its interpretation is
highly debated. Some hold it is a reference to a Messiah, others that it refers to more of
an Antichrist like figure.
4Q246 ii The son of God he will be proclaimed (or: proclaim himself) and the son of
the Most High they will call him. Like the sparks of the vision, so will be their king-
dom. They will reign for years on the earth and they will trample all.... until the people
of God will arise and all will rest from the sword. Their (the people of God’s) kingdom
will be an eternal kingdom...5
In summary, the sect of the Dead Sea Scrolls looked forward to an apocalyptic future
where God would aid them in conquering the foreign occupier of the land and establish
1. CDSSE, p. 494
2. CDSSE, p. 159
3. CDSSE, p. 110
4. CDSSE, p. 134
5. CDSSE, p. 577
Early Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha
90 Messianic Expectations
an ideal Israelite kingdom. They expected one to three leaders in this time, either a
Davidic Messiah, or a pair of Messiahs (of Aaron and Israel) and sometimes a third,
prophetic figure. These figures would be men annointed by God for these roles in the
last days.
3.0 Early Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha
Great caches of literature from the other branches of early first century Judaism have,
unfortunately, not been discovered. However there are some works from this time
known as the Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha that have been preserved.
One such work is the called the Psalms of Solomon. Dispite the title, the book makes
no pretensions about being actually written by Solomon. In fact it contains explicit his-
toric allusions to the Roman General Pompey conquering Jerusalem in 63 BC and to his
death in 48 BC.1 The collection was probably completed shortly afterwards, in the sec-
ond half of the first century BC. The ascription “of Solomon” should be understood as
describing the work’s character as wisdom literature rather than as ascribing its author-
ship, much as in English we might refer to any complex mechanism as a “Rube Gold-
berg Device”.
In the first part of the 17th Psalm of Solomon, the psalmist recalled the promise to
David and how Israel’s sins had caused David’s kingdom to end:
17:4 Lord, you chose David to be king over Israel,
and swore to him about his descendants forever,
that his kingdom should not fail before you.
17:5 But (because of) our sins, sinners rose up against us,
they set upon us and drove us out......2
Then the psalmist prayed for a new king:
17:21 See, Lord, and raise up for them their king,
the son of David, to rule over your servant Israel
in the time known to you, O God.
17:22 Undergird him with the strength to destroy the unrightious rulers,
to purge Jerusalem from gentiles
who trample here to destruction;
17:23 in wisdom and in righteousness to drive out
the sinners from the inheritance;
17:24 To shatter all their substance with an iron rod;
to destroy the unlawful nations with the word of his mouth;
17:25 At his warning the nations will flee from his presence;
and he will condemn sinners by the thoughts of their hearts.
...
17:32 And he will be a righteous king over them, taught by God.
There will be no unrighteousness among them in his days,
1. OTP, p. 2:640-641
2. OTP, p. 2:665-666
Early Pseudepigrapha and Apocrypha
Messianic Expectations 91
for all shall be holy,
and their king shall be the Lord Messiah.1
The psalmist was clearly expecting a political figure who would reestablish the Davidic
kingdom and continue the Davidic dynasty. In contrast to the Dead Sea Scroll commu-
nity, the psalmist was not expecting this to be established by war:
17:33 (For) he will not rely on horse and rider and bow,
nor will he collect gold and silver for war.
Nor will he build up hope in a multitude for a day of war.
.....
17:35 He will strike the earth with the word of his mouth forever;
he will bless the Lord’s people with wisdom and happiness.
17:36 ....
He will expose officials and drive out sinners
by the strength of his word.2
There was a fad among Jewish doomsday cults to write books of apocalyptic visions in
the name of Enoch. One such collection of works, originally written in Hebrew and/or
Aramaic, but preserved primarily in Ethiopic, is called the Ethiopic Apocalypse of
Enoch, or 1 Enoch, to distinguish it from other similar works. Parts of this work have
been found with the Dead Sea Scrolls, but it probably didn’t originate with the Qumran
community. One very symbolic vision describes the whole of Israelite history up to the
Maccabean revolt (prophecy after the fact) and then describes the rise a something like a
Messianic figure, symbolized by a horn.
90:9 I kept seeing till those lambs grew horns; but the ravens crushed their horns. Then
I kept seeing till one great horn sprouted on one of those sheep, and he opened their
eyes; and they had vision in them and their eyes were opened. ... 90:12 Those ravens
gather and battle with him (the horned ram) and seek to remove his horn, but without
success.
90:13 I saw thereafter the shepherds coming; and those vultures and kites cried aloud to
the ravens so that they should smash the horn of that ram. But he battled with them, and
they fought each other; and he cried aloud, while battling with them, so that (God’s)
help should come.3
A similar fad was to write in the name of the Greek mythical Sibyl. There are several
books of these Sibylline Oracles extant. The third book, dating to the second century
BC contains a prediction of a Messianic king and eschatological prophetic figures.
(3:652-656)
And then God will send a King from the sun
who will stop the entire earth from evil war,
killing some, imposing oaths of loyalty on others;
and he will not do all these things by his private plans
but in obedience to the noble teachings of the great God.
1. OTP, p. 2:667
2. OTP, p. 2:668
3. OTP, p. 1:69-70
Historical Revolts
92 Messianic Expectations
(3:767-771)
And then, indeed, he will raise up a kingdom for all
ages among men, he who once gave the holy Law
to the pious, to all of whom he promised to open the earth
and the world and the gates of the blessed and all joys
and immortal intellect and eternal cheer.
(3:781-782)
Prophets of the great God will take away the sword
for they themselves are judges of men and righteous kings.1
In the intertestmental period there was a conciousness that prophecy of the Old Testa-
ment kind had ceased. In the Dead Sea Scrools we saw a eschatological prophetic fig-
ure along side the Messiahs in some texts. The apocryphal 1 Maccabees also contains a
couple of allusions to a future prophet.
4:45 And they thought it best to tear it down, so that it would not be a lasting shame to
them that the Gentiles had defiled it. So they tore down the altar, 4:46 and stored the
stones in a convenient place on the temple hill until a prophet should come to tell what
to do with them.
14:41 The Jews and their priests have resolved that Simon should be their leader and
high priest forever, until a trustworthy prophet should arise...
The Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs was originally a Jewish work, but was taken
over and reworked by a Christian cult. Some fragments of this work were found among
the Dead Sea Scrolls. This work provides some of the background for the idea of two
Messiahs because it heavily emphasises the dual leadership role of Levi and Judah. For
example the Testament of Gad 8:1 reads “Tell these things to your children as well, so
that they will honor Judah and Levi, because from them the Lord will raise up a Savior
for Israel.” The prophetic figure is found too. Testament of Benjamin 9:2 reads “But in
your allotted place will be the temple of God, and the later temple will exceed the
former glory. The twelve tribes shall be gathered there and all the nations, until such
time as the Most High shall send forth his salvation through the ministration of the
unique prophet.”
4.0 Historical Revolts
We can find several clues about Messianic expectations from the various Jewish revolts,
and attempts at revolts of the Roman era. I will first discuss the revolt of Simon bar
Kosiba in 132-135 AD because it is the most explicitly Messianic. Then we’ll examine
some revolts recounted by Josephus.
Simon bar Kosiba was the leader of the Second Jewish Revolt of 132-135 AD (The First
being the one of 66-73 AD when the temple was destroyed). To be sure, there were
more than two revolts while Rome occupied Judea, these two were the only ones to
meet any measure of success. Unlike the first revolt, which is documented in so much
detail by Josephus, there is no extensive account of the second revolt. We know that
1. OTP, p. 1:360, 376-379
Historical Revolts
Messianic Expectations 93
Simon managed to secure a good piece of Judea, although there is some uncertainty if
he ever conquered Jerusalem. His government was able to mint coins and carry on other
governmental functions.
What interests us here is the fact that Rabbi Akiba declared Simon to be “King Mes-
siah”, and his followers knew him by the Messianic title “bar Kokhba”, which means
“son of a star” (Numbers 24:17 “I see him, but not now / I behold him, but not close at
hand, / A star will march forth out of Jacob, / and a scepter will rise out of Israel. / He
will crush the skulls of Moab, / and the heads of all the sons of Sheth.”).1
Josephus records accounts of several earlier insurrectionists, many of which appear to
have had Messianic pretensions. Josephus avoids the use of the word Messiah (or
Christ) in conjunction with them, for reasons that will be discussed below. A selection
of these insurrectionists are presented here:2
Antiquities 18.4.1. (85) But the nation of the Samaritans did not escape without
tumults. The man who excited them to it, was one who thought lying a thing of little
consequence, and who contrived everything so, that the multitude might be pleased; so
he bade them get together upon Mount Gerizzim, which is by them looked upon as the
most holy of all mountains, and assured them that, when they were come thither, he
would show them those sacred vessels which were laid under that place, because Moses
put them there. (86) So they came thither armed, and thought the discourse of the man
probable; and as they abode at a certain village, which was called Tirathaba, they got
the rest together to them, and desired to go up the mountain in a great multitude
together. (87) But Pilate prevented their going up, by seizing upon the roads with a great
band of horsemen and footmen, who fell upon those that were gotten together in the vil-
lage; and when they came to an action, some of them they slew, and others of them they
put to flight, and took a great many alive, the principal of whom, and also the most
potent of those that fled away, Pilate ordered to be slain.
Antiquities 20.5.1. (97) Now it came to pass, while Fadus was procurator of Judea,
that a certain magician, whose name was Theudas, persuaded a great part of the people
to take their effects with them, and follow him to the river Jordan; for he told them he
was a prophet, and that he would, by his own command, divide the river, and afford
them an easy passage over it; (98) and many were deluded by his words. However,
Fadus did not permit them to make any advantage of his wild attempt, but sent a troop
of horsemen out against them; who, falling upon them unexpectedly, slew many of them
and took many of them alive. They also took Theudas alive, and cut off his head, and
carried it to Jerusalem. (99) This was what befell the Jews in the time of Cuspius
Fadus’s government.
Antiquities 20.8.6. (167) These works, that were done by the robbers, filled the city
with all sorts of impiety. And now these impostors and deceivers persuaded the multi-
tude to follow them into the wilderness, (168) and pretended that they would exhibit
manifest wonders and signs, that should be performed by the providence of God. And
many that were prevailed on by them suffered the punishments of their folly; for Felix
brought them back, and then punished them. (169) Moreover, there came out of Egypt
about this time to Jerusalem, one that said he was a prophet, and advised the multitude
1. “Bar Kokhba”, “Bar Kokhba Letters”, and “Messianic Movements in Judaism” in ABD.
“Revolutionary Movements” in DJG.
2. Whiston’s translation.
Justin’s Dialog with Trypho
94 Messianic Expectations
of the common people to go along with him to the Mount of Olives, as it was called,
which lay over against the city, and at the distance of five furlongs. (170) He said far-
ther, that he would show them from hence, how, at his command, the walls of Jerusalem
would fall down; and he promised that he would procure them an entrance into the city
through those walls, when they were fallen down. (171) Now when Felix was informed
of these things, he ordered his soldiers to take their weapons, and came against them
with a great number of horsemen and footmen, from Jerusalem, and attacked the Egyp-
tian and the people that were with him. He also slew four hundred of them, and took two
hundred alive. (172) But the Egyptian himself escaped out of the fight, but did not
appear any more. And again the robbers stirred up the people to make war with the
Romans, and said they ought not to obey them at all; and when any persons would not
comply with them, they set fire to their villages, and plundered them.
Rejecting this flavor of Messianism, Josephus instead reinterprets the Messianic expec-
tation to refer to the Roman Emperor Vespasian, who was proclaimed Emperor while he
was in Judea putting down the Jewish Revolt of 66-73 AD.
Wars 6.5.4 ... (312) But now, what did most elevate them in undertaking this war, was
an ambiguous oracle that was also found in their sacred writings, how, “about that time,
one from their country should become governor of the habitable earth.” (313) The Jews
took this prediction to belong to themselves in particular and many of the wise men
were thereby deceived in their determination. Now, this oracle certainly denoted the
government of Vespasian, who was appointed emperor in Judea. (314) However, it is
not possible for men to avoid fate, although they see it beforehand. (315) But these men
interpreted some of these signals according to their own pleasure; and some of them
they utterly despised, until their madness was demonstrated, both by the taking of their
city, and their own destruction.
5.0 Justin’s Dialog with Trypho
Written in the mid second century AD, this is an account of Justin, a Christian, debating
Trypho, a Jew about Christianity. It gives some hints of what Jews believed about the
Messiah. By that time, Jews regarded the Messiah to be a man who won’t even know he
is the Messiah until Elijah announces him.
[Trypho speaking] Chapter VIII: “...But Christ -- if He has indeed been born, and exists
anywhere -- is unknown, and does not even know Himself, and has no power until Elias
come to anoint Him, and make Him manifest to all. And you, having accepted a
groundless report, invent a Christ for yourselves, and for his sake are inconsiderately
perishing.”1
Chapter XLIX: And Trypho said, “Those who affirm him to have been a man, and to
have been anointed by election, and then to have become Christ, appear to me to speak
more plausibly than you who hold those opinions which you express. For we all expect
that Christ will be a man [born] of men, and that Elijah when he comes will anoint him.
But if this man appear to be Christ, he must certainly be known as man [born] of men;
but from the circumstance that Elijah has not yet come, I infer that this man is not He
[the Christ].”2
1. ANF, p. 1:198
2. ANF, p. 1:219
Late Pseudepigrapha
Messianic Expectations 95
[Justin speaking about Mic. 4] Chapter CX: And when I had finished these words, I
continued: “Now I am aware that your teachers, sirs admit the whole of the words of
this passage to refer to Christ; and I am likewise aware that they maintain He has not yet
come; or if they say that He has come, they assert that it is not known who He is; but
when He shall become manifest and glorious, then it shall be known who He is. And
then, they say, the events mentioned in this passage shall happen, just as if there was no
fruit as yet from the words of the prophecy.”1
6.0 Late Pseudepigrapha
Except for the Dead Sea Scrolls, which represent only a single sect of Jews, the amount
of early first century material is obviously very scarce, although it does have some con-
sistency in expecting one or more political figures that would rule Israel as Messiah(s)
and free Israel from its oppressors, either by war, or by the force of their word. After the
destruction of the temple in 70 AD, we begin to find a larger number of extant writings
of various cults. These cults typically have a non-political Messiah. Their Messiah is
usually some sort of transcendent heavenly figure. It is likely that it is purely an acci-
dent of history that none of the early first century documents contain such a view
(assuming none of these documents actually date that early, which some may).
A number of pseudepigrapha (and apocrypha) were written in the name of Baruch (Jer-
emiah’s scribe) and Ezra. This is because these figures were prominant in the 6th cen-
tury BC Babylonian captivity. Babylon was often used as a code word for talking about
Rome without being overtly subversive. One such work is called 2 Baruch, to distin-
quish it from other works attributed to Baruch. In it, Baruch claimed that it had been
revealed to him that he would live till the end of the world, although he kept this secret
from his contemporaries, even his own son.
13:2 Stand upon your feet, Baruch, and hear the word of the mighty God. 13:3 Because
you have been astonished at that which has befallen Zion, you will surely be preserved
until the end of times to be for a testimony...
25:1 And he answered and said to me: You also will be preserved until that time,
namely until that sign which the Most High will bring about before the inhabitants of
the earth at the end of days....
43:1 You, however, Baruch, strengthen your heart with a view to that which has been
said to you, and understand that which has been revealed to you because you have many
consolations which will last forever. 43:2 For you will go away from this place and
leave the regions which are now before your eyes. And you shall forget that which is
corruptible and not again remember that which is among the mortal ones....
44:2 Behold, I go to my fathers in accordance with the way of the whole earth....
46:7 But with regard to the word that I shall be taken up, I did not let it be known to
them at that time, not even to my son....
It is likely that the cult leader himself claimed to be Baruch. Several passages describe
a Utopic vision of the Messianic kingdom:
1. ANF, p. 1:253
Late Pseudepigrapha
96 Messianic Expectations
29:3 And it will happen that when all which should come to pass in these parts has been
accomplished, the Anointed One will begin to be revealed... 29:5 The earth will also
yield fruits then thousandfold.... 29:6 And those who are hungry will enjoy themselves
and they will, moreover, see marvels every day.
30:1 And it will happen after these things when the time of the appearance of the
Annointed One has been fulfulled and he returns with glory, that then all who sleep in
home of him will rise... 30:4 But the souls of the wicked will the more waste away when
they shall see all these things. 30:5 For they know that their torment has come and that
their perditions have arrived....
39:5 After that a fourth kingdom arises whose power is harsher and more evil than those
which were before it, and it will reign a multitude of times like the trees on the plain,
and will rule the times and exalt itself more than the cedars of Lebanon.... 39:7 And it
will happen when the time of its fulfillment is approaching in which it will fall, that at
that time the dominion of my Anointed One which is like the fountain and the vine, will
be revealed. And when it has revealed itself, it will uproot the multitude of its host....
40:1 The last ruler who is left alive at that time will be bound, whereas the entire host
will be destroyed. And they will carry him on Mount Zion, and my Anointed One will
convict him of all his wicked deeds and will assemble and set before him all the works
of his hosts. 40:2 And after these things he will kill him and protect the rest of my peo-
ple who will be found in the place that I have chosen. 40:3 And his dominion will last
forever until the world of corruption has ended and until the times which have been
mentioned before have been fulfilled...
72:2 After the signs have come of which I have spoken to you before, when the nations
are moved and the time of my Anointed One comes, he will call all nations, and some of
them he will spare, and otheres he will kill... 72:6 All those, now, who have ruled over
you or have known you, will be delivered up to the sword.
73:1 And it will happen that after he has brought down everything which is in the world,
and has sat down in eternal peace on the throne of the kingdom, then joy will be
revealed and rest will appear. 73:2 And then health will descend in dew, and illness will
vanish, and fear and tribulation and lamentation will pass away from among men, and
joy will encompass the earth... 73:7 And women will no longer have pain when they
bear, nor will they be tormented when they yield fruits of their womb.1
The Messiah (Anointed One) that Baruch proclaimed appears to be a pre-existant figure
who will be “revealed” in the end times. He will “sit down in eternal peace on the
throne of the kingdom”. With the elimination of illness and lamentation, it appears that
everyone in this eschatological kingdom will be immortal.
4 Ezra, like 2 Baruch above, was written in the name of a hero of the earlier Babylonian
captivity, but was actually about the Roman occupation. Scholars regard the reference
to the thirtieth year and Babylon to be not about the thirtieth year after Babylon captured
and destroyed Jerusalem in 586 BC, but about Rome having destroyed Jerusalem and
the temple in 70 AD. Accordingly, the date this book was actually written was about
100 AD.
3:1 In the thirtieth year after the destruction of our city, I Salathiel, who am also called
Ezra, was in Babylon. I was troubled as I lay on my bed, and my thoughts welled up in
1. OTP, p. 1:615-652
Late Pseudepigrapha
Messianic Expectations 97
my heart, 3:2 because I saw the desolation of Zion and the wealth of those who lived in
Babylon. ...
The cult leader here was concious that his pseudepigraphon’s existence needed explain-
ing because it had not been known for the previous six and a half and more centuries as
the canonical books had. So he created an origins myth for his “scripture”. In the cap-
tivity, Israe’ls scriptures had been lost, so he claimed, and Ezra was given a miraculous
memory and redictated all scripture again. First the twenty-four canonical books that
had been openly known (remember that 1-2 Samual, etc are a single book in Hebrew),
then another seventy books that were entrusted to “the wise among your people”. The
cult leader, naturally, would have claimed to be of that secret order of the wise and was
inducting his followers into its secrets and mysteries.
...14:41 and my mouth was opened, and was no longer closed. 14:42 And the Most
High gave understanding to the five men, and by turns they wrote what was dicted, in
characters which they did not know. They sat forty days, and wrote during the daytime,
and ate their bread at night. 14:43 As for me, I spoke in the daytime and was not silent
at night. 14:44 So during the forty days ninety-four books were written. 14:45 And
when the forty days were ended, the Most High spoke to me, saying, “Make public the
twenty-four books that you wrote first and let the worthy and the unworthy read them;
14:46 but keep the seventy that were written last, in order to give them to the wise
among your people....
4 Ezra’s Messiah is paradoxically both a being “kept until the end of days ... for many
ages” and also “from the posterity of David”. When he is revealed, the nations will stop
fighting each other and gang up on him. He will reprove the nations and “destroy them
without effort by the law”. Afterwards, the world will live in an Eden-like paradise for
four hundred years. At the end of the four hundred years, the Messiah and everyone on
earth will die, and remain dead for seven days. Afterwards, is the resurrection of all the
dead.
7:27 And everyone who has been delivered from the evils that I have foretold shall see
my wonders. 7:28 For my son the Messiah shall be revealed with those who are with
him, and those who remain shall rejoice four hundred years. 7:29 And after these years
my son the Messiah shall die, and all who draw human breath. 7:30 And the world shall
be turned back to primeval silence for seven days, as it was at the first beginnings; so
that no one shall be left. 7:31 And after seven days the world, which is not yet awake,
shall be roused, and that which is corruptible shall perish. 7:32 And the earth shall give
up those who are alseep in it; and the chambers shall give up the souls which have been
committed to them...
... 12:11 The eagle which you saw coming up from the sea is the fourth kingdom which
appeared in a vision to your brother Daniel...
12:31 And as for the lion that you saw rousing up out of the forest and roaring and
speaking to the eagle and reproving him for his unrighteousness, and for all his words
that you have heard, 12:32 this is the Messiah whom the Most High has kept until the
end of days, who will arise from the posterity of David, and will come and speak to
them; he will denounce them for their ungodliness and for their wickedness, and will
cast up before them their comoptemptuous dealings. 12:33 For first he will set them
living before his judgment seat, and when he has reproved them, then he will detroy
them. 12:34 But he will deliver in mercy the remnant of my people those who have been
saved throughout my borders, and he will make them joyful until the end comes, the day
of judgment, of which I spoke to you at the beginning....
Late Pseudepigrapha
98 Messianic Expectations
13:25 This is the interpretation of the vision: As for your seeing a man come up from
the heart of the sea, 13:26 this is he whom the Most High has been keeping for many
ages, who will himself deliver his creation; and he will direct those who are left. 13:27
And as for your seeing wind and fire and a store coming out of his mouth, 13:28 and as
for his not holding spear or weapon of war, yet destroying the onrushing multitude
which came to conquer him, this is the interpretation: 13:29 Behold, the days are com-
ing when the Most High will deliver those who are on the earth. 13:30 And bewilder-
ment of mind shall come over those who dwell on the earth. 13:31 And they shall plan
to make war against one another, city against city, place against place, people against
people, and kingdom against kingdom. 13:32 And when these things come to pass and
the signs occur which I showed you before, then my son will be relealed, whom you
saw as a man coming up from the sea. 13:33 And when all the nations hear his voice,
every man shall leave his own land and the warfare that they have against one another;
13:34 and an innumerable multitude shall be gathered together, as you saw, desiring to
come and conquer him. 13:35 But he will stand on top of Mount Zion. 13:36 And Zion
will come and be made manifest to all people, prepared and built, as you saw the moun-
tain carved out with hands. 13:37 And he, my Son, will reprove the assembled nations
for their ungodliness (this was symbolized by the storm), 13:38 and will reproach them
to their face with their evil thoughts and with the torments with which they are to be tor-
tured (which were symbolized by the flames); and he will destroy them without effort
by the law (which was symbolized by the fire)....1
Enoch is another figure that was used as a pseudonym by the authors of pseudepigraphic
apocalypses. We first encountered this book earlier because fragments of it had also
been found amoung the Dead Sea Scrolls. One section of it, 1 Enoch 37-71, has not
been found at Qumran. However, it is not clear if this is simply because it was written
later or because the Messianism of it was not compatibile with Essene theology.
In it, the Messiah was clearly a preexistant heavenly being who would be sent to the
earth to dwell among men.
45:4 On that day, I will cause my Elect One to dwell among them
I will transform heaven and make it a blessing of light forever
45:5 I shall (also) transform the earth and make it a blessing,
and cause my Elect One to dwell in her.
Then those who have committed sin and crime shall not set foot in here...
The author expanded greatly on the “one like a son of man” in Daniel, and made exten-
sive use of the Son of Man title for the Messiah.
47:4 This Son of Man whom you have seen is the One who would remove the kings and
the mighty ones from their confortable seats and the strong ones from their thrones. He
shall loosen the reigns of the strong and crush the teeth of the sinners. 46:5 He shall
depose the kings from their thrones and kingdoms. For they do not extol and glorify
him, and neither do they obey him, the source of their kingship. (See also 47:1-6).
48:5 All those who dwell upon the earth shall fall and worship before him; they shall
glorify, bless, and sing the name of the Lord of the Spirits. 48:6 For this purpose he
became the Chosen One; he was concealed in the presence of (the Lord of the Spirits)
prior to the creation of the world, and for eternity. 48:7 And he has revealed the wisdom
of the Lord of the Spirits to the righteous and the holy ones, ...48:9 I shall deliver them
1. OTP, p. 517-559
Summary
Messianic Expectations 99
into the hands of my elect ones like grass in the fire and like lead in the water, so they
shall burn before the face of the holy ones and sink before their sight, and no place will
be found for them. 48:10 On the day of their weariness, there shall be an obstacle on the
earth and they shall fall on their faces; and they shall not rise up (again), nor anyone (be
found) who will take them with his hands and raise them up. For they have denied the
Lord of the Spirits and his Messiah. Blessed by the name of the Lord of the Spirits!
(See also 48:2-49:4, 51:1-4)
52:4 And he said to me, “All these things which you have seen happened by the author-
ity of his Messiah so that he may give orders and be praised upon the earth.”...
62:7 For the Son of Man was concealed from the beginning, and the Most High One
preserved him in the presence of his power; then he revealed him to the holy and the
elect ones....
69:27 (Then) there came to them a great joy. And they blessed, glorified, and extolled
(the Lord) on account of the fact that the name of that (Son of) Man was revelaed to
them. He shall never pass away or perish from before the face of the earth.... 69:29
Thenceforth nothing that is corruptible shall be found; for that Son of Man has appeared
and has seated himself upon the throne of his glory; and all evil shall disappear from
before his face....1
One intriguing passage at the conclusson may indicate that this eschatological Son of
Man is Enoch himself. M. A. Knibb translates it:
71:14 And that angel came to me, and greeted me with his voice, and said to me, You
are the Son of Man who was born to righteousness, and righteousness remains over you,
and the righteousness of the Head of Days will not leave you.2
Another book of Sibyline oracles, 5 Sibyl, which dates to the early second century has a
passage which seems to refer to a similar sort of Messianic figure, coming from the
heavens.
(414-417)
For a blessed man came from the expanses of heaven
with a scepter in his hands which God gave him,
and he gained sway over all things well, and gave back the wealth
to all the good, which previous men had taken.3
7.0 Summary
The accidents of history dictate what is and is not preserved of the written documents of
the first century. We must therefore be cautious about how we interpret those docu-
ments that do survive as they may not accurately reflect the actual demographics of first
century Jewry.
1. OTP, p. 5-12, 29-50
2. AOT, p. 256
3. OTP, p. 390-405
Bibliography
100 Messianic Expectations
We see significant variety in the documents. One, two, or even three human figures are
predominate in the earliest ones. The simple mortal human Messiah was seen as being
another David, a political figure estabilishing a political kingdom and reestablishing a
Davidic dynasty ruling over it. In some surviving literary documents, he establishes his
rule by his word rather than his sword. In the Dead Sea scrolls, the Messianic age is
establish by warfare, although no extant document places the Messiah in charge Israel’s
armies during this conflict. However, it is not necessarily so that a non-warrior Messiah
was the dominate expectation. The fact that David himself was a warrior would suggest
to most otherwise. The long series of leaders of revolts had Messianic overtones,
played down by Josephus, but explicitly seen in the records of the last, bar Kockba.
They show that a would-be warrior Messiah would find no shortage of followers. The
disasterous lack of success of these false Messiahs prompted Josephus to downplay
their Messianic claims and proclaim the Roman Emperor Vespasian as the fulfilment of
the Messianic prophecies instead.
At some point a different view of the Messiah became popular, especially common in
literature that could be described as cultic. Based on Danial’s “one like a son of man”,
these cult leaders, seeking to avoid the political disasters of those who claimed to be
Messiah themselves, proclaimed a future Messiah who was something more than a mere
human, either an angelic being of some sort, or perhaps even the translated Enoch.
Although we know this view only from post 70 AD documents we can’t rule it out from
early first century or before since such a small amount of material exists from that time.
Jesus himself used the “son of man” terminology and the Daniel passage to speak of his
own role. Books such as 1 Enoch don’t seem to be derivative from Christian belief in
other ways, and so we may presume this belief extends back to the early first century
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Vermes, Geza. 1997. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English. (Penguin).
Whiston, William. 1867. Josephus: Complete Works.
Wise, Michael, et al. 1996. The Dead Sea Scrolls: A New Translation. (Harper).
Wright, N. T. 1992. The New Testament and the People of God. (Fortress).
Wright, N. T. 1996. Jesus and the Victory of God. (Fortress).
Bibliography
102 Messianic Expectations
8.1 Abbreviations
ANF. Ante-Nicene Fathers. (Roberts and Donaldson).
AOT. The Apocryphal Old Testament. (Sparks).
CDSSE. The Complete Dead Sea Scrolls in English. (Vermes).
DJG. Dictionary of Jesus and the Gospels. (Green).
NET. New English Translation. (Biblical Studies Foundation).
OTP. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha. (Charlseworth).
103
The Day of the LORD
“The Day of the LORD” is a technical term
whose meaning changed between the Old
and New Testaments.
1.0 Introduction
The phrase “the day of the LORD” and some variations will be used to illustrate some
hermeneutical principals in the study of the Bible. It is important to take into account
history, linguistics and context. When a phrase such as this has a technical meaning
beyond the simple meaning of the words and syntax involved, it is important to deter-
mine that the context demands the technical meaning and to determine if its usage in
technical contexts didn’t evolve over time, as language is never static: the Bible was
written over a period of a millennium and a half in three different languages.
2.0 The Literal Phrase
The phrase as typeset (with small capitals) in the title is as it appears in the most English
versions of the Old Testament. In the New Testament, some variation will be seen and
discussed later in this essay. First, we will examine the individual words’ meanings as
well as the meaning contributed by the syntax in isolation of the context.
2.1 Day
The Hebrew word for “day” is yom (rhymes with dome). The basic meaning is the
period of daylight (as opposed to night). When counting periods of time, it can refer to a
full 24-hour day-night cycle. It can also be used for a more general period of time much
like its English counterpart. Phrases like “day of ...” often mean not a particular day on
the calendar, but rather something like “the time of” or “when”. As time keeping
became more precise, smaller units of time were used similarly (hour in Greek, minute,
second, or even instant in modern idiom).
Old Testament Usage
104 The Day of the Lord
2.2 The LORD
In Hebrew, this is actually the Divine Name: YHWH (Yahweh). Most translations fol-
low the tradition of substituting the phrase “the LORD” for the name and printing the
word “LORD” using small capitals for the lower case letters. Thus the phrase is really
the “day of Yahweh”. In the New Testament, the Greek word for “Lord” (ku,rioj) is
used (the tradition of substituting the word “Lord” for the Divine Name is pre-Christian)
as well as references to Jesus and/or Christ (Day of the Lord Jesus).
2.3 Of
There is no word for “of” in Hebrew. The idea is expressed syntactically. The phrase X
of Y is expressed by simply saying X' Y where X' is a (usually) shortened form of the
word X called the Construct Form. X' also has the definite article prefix stripped off, so
the word “the” isn’t actually present either. It is added by the translator to English
because of the demands of English syntax and style. Thus in Hebrew, the phrase is only
two words: yom YHWH.
2.4 Syntax
What does it mean to say “the day of the LORD”? It is surprisingly ambiguous. It can
express the simple possessive: the day that He owns. Ultimately every day belongs to
God of course, so unless that is the point of the context, the phrase probably means
something beyond that. In English, we refer to the Sabbath as the Lord’s Day. That is,
a day the especially belongs to God, or is dedicated to God. However, that, as we shall
see, isn’t the point of the contexts it is used in the Old Testament.
“Of” can also specify origin. Of course, every day is from God. So unless that is the
specific point of the context, “of” as origin must mean that a day that is from God in
some special way. Most occurrences of the phrase will be in this latter sense. However
in what way the day is specially from God can only be determined by context. The
phrase in isolation does not denote the meaning that precisely.
3.0 Old Testament Usage
3.1 Isaiah
Although the language is universal in scope, the context of Isaiah 13:6-9 is an “oracle
concerning Babylon” (Isaiah 13:1 NASB). Verse 6 says the day is “near” and describes
it as a time of destruction. As we saw in a previous study1, these prophecies concerning
Babylon are already fulfilled.
1. See “Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon” on page 25.
Old Testament Usage
The Day of the Lord 105
3.2 Lamentations
Lamentations is a collection of laments concerning the destruction of Jerusalem by
Babylon in 586 BC. Lamentations 2:21-22 refers to this past event as “the day of Your/
the LORD’s anger”.
3.3 Ezekiel
In Ezekiel 13:1-7, the day of the LORD was the then current situation (the Babylonian
conquest) that the false prophets had done nothing to protect Israel from (esp. Ezekiel
1:5). Ezekiel 30:1-10 describes the day of the LORD as near (Ezekiel 30:1) and explic-
itly identifies it with the “hand of Nebuchadnezzar” (Ezekiel 30:10).
3.4 Joel
Joel’s prophecy opened with a description of a recent foreign invasion (Joel 1:6), which
was metaphorically described as a series of locust invasions (Joel 1:4). In Joel 1:15, he
proclaimed the nearness of the day of the LORD, whose destruction would be even
worse than what had come so far. Joel 2:1-2 also proclaims its nearness and that it will
be worse than anything that has happened before then, and than anything that will hap-
pen for many generations to come. Thus we see that the day of the LORD that Joel pro-
claimed was something of his own time, and not eschatological: it was near, and there
would be many generations afterwards. Further, Joel 2:28-32 records a prophecy
regarding “after all of this” that Peter, in Acts 2:16-21, proclaimed as fulfilled at Pente-
cost.
3.5 Amos
In Amos 5:18-20, the day of the LORD was a day some people were mistakenly looking
forward too. Amos proclaimed that it would be a day of “darkness and not light”, but
gave no indication that an eschatological judgment was in view.
3.6 Obadiah
Obadiah, in verse 15, repeated the common refrain that the day of the LORD was draw-
ing near.
3.7 Zephaniah
Zephaniah, in 1:7, also proclaimed the day of the LORD to be near. Although
Zephaniah 1:2-3 makes this sound like an eschatological judgment (“I will destroy
everything from the face of the earth ... people and animals ... the birds ... and the fish in
the sea ... I will remove humanity from the face of the earth”), comparison against
Zephaniah 2:3, 7 (“... Maybe you will be protected on the day of the LORD’s angry judg-
ment.... Those who are left from the kingdom of Judah....”), which holds out hope of a
remnant surviving, shows that Zephaniah 1:2-3 is typical prophetic-poetic hyperbole.1
New Testament Usage
106 The Day of the Lord
3.8 Malachi
Malachi 4:5-6, one of the latest of the prophets, shows some hint of an eschatological
meaning. In this passage, the phrase was loaded with superlatives, “the great and terri-
ble day of the LORD”, and was an event that was said to be after Elijah would be sent to
Israel. Jesus proclaimed this later prophecy to be fulfilled in the person of John (Mt
11:14). But even at that, Malachi 4:6 indicates that “Elijah’s” ministry would avert the
judgment, presumably to a much more distant time.
4.0 New Testament Usage
When the Old Testament was translated into Greek, the divine name YHWH (Yahweh)
was translated by ku,rioj, “lord”. In the New Testament, this title is applied to Jesus and
the phrase “the day of the Lord Jesus Christ”, and permutations thereof. There, it takes
on a different technical meaning that is eschatological.
4.1 Gospels
Jesus himself does not appear to have used the phrase “day of the Lord”, but some of his
sayings may have influenced later usage of the term in the New Testament.
In a parable in Matthew 24:42-44, Jesus says “you do not know which day your Lord is
will come” [NET]. Here the use of the word “day” is idiomatic for “when”... see verse
44 where the word “hour” is used similarly. Nonetheless, the phrasing does call to mind
the Old Testament phrase in a possibly eschatological context.1
In Luke 17:22-37, Jesus uses the phrase “days of the Son of Man” in an interesting con-
text:
Lk 17:22 Then he said to the disciples, “The days are coming when you will desire to
see one of the days of the Son of Man, and you will not see it. [NET]
The phrase appears to refer to the time of Jesus’ earthly ministry before the crucifixion
and resurrection. The next verse then warns to not go after false messiahs as a result of
their longing.
Lk 17:23 Then people will say to you, ‘Look, there he is!’ or ‘Look, here he is!’ Do not
go out or chase after them. [NET]
In the next two verses, Jesus refers to “his [the Son of Man’s] day” as a future event that
comes after his suffers and is rejected.
Lk 17:24 For just like the lightning flashes and lights up the sky from one side to the
other, so will the Son of Man be in his day. 17:25 But first he must suffer many things
and be rejected by this generation. [NET]
1. See “Context in Literature and Language” on page 27.
1. See page 127.
New Testament Usage
The Day of the Lord 107
The exact meaning of “his day” is not obvious, but it is suggestive of the Old Testament
phrase “day of the LORD”. The following verses use the phrases “days of Noah” and
“days of Lot” meaning their earthly lifetimes, analogous to the “days of the Son of
Man” above, which also occurs in this passage. The temporal horizon in verse 22 and
25 is the lifetimes of the disciples being addressed.
Lk 17:26 Just as it was in the days of Noah, so too it will be in the days of the Son of
Man. 17:27 People were eating, they were drinking, they were marrying, they were
being given in marriage—right up to the day Noah entered the ark. Then the flood came
and destroyed them all. 17:28 Likewise, just as it was in the days of Lot, people were
eating, drinking, buying, selling, planting, building; 17:29 but on the day Lot went out
from Sodom, fire and sulfur rained down from heaven and destroyed them all. [NET]
Although the days of Noah and Lot led up to destruction, the destruction itself is inci-
dental to his point. The point of these verses is the event took people by surprise... they
were not expecting it. So, too, the Son of Man ... “in his day” (v. 24) will be something
unexpected.
Lk 17:30 It will be the same on the day the Son of Man is revealed. [NET]
This is commonly taken as a reference to the second coming, but this makes no sense of
what the “days of the Son of Man” would mean. The revelation of the Son of Man that
will take people, even the disciples, by surprise, his suffering, rejection (v. 25), crucifix-
ion, death, burial, and resurrection. The conquering Messiah that many people had
expected, or at least hoped for, was one who would defeat the Romans and set up a
political kingdom, not the Messiah who conquered death and ruled from heaven, as
Jesus told the High Priest1:
Mt 26:64 Jesus said to him, “You have said it yourself. But I tell you, from now on you
will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Power and coming on the clouds
of heaven.” [Underline added for emphases] [NET]
Admittedly this leaves the following verses even more enigmatic that they were to begin
with.
Lk 17:31 On that day, anyone who is on the roof, with his goods in the house, must not
come down to take them away, and likewise the person in the field must not turn back.
17:32 Remember Lot’s wife! 17:33 Whoever tries to keep his life will lose it, but who-
ever loses his life will preserve it. 17:34 I tell you, in that night there will be two people
in one bed; one will be taken and the other left. 17:35 There will be two women grind-
ing grain together; one will be taken and the other left.” [NET]
Who is being taken? the sinner in judgment? the saved to heaven? some of each taken
by an invading army? The disciples were equally perplexed, but Jesus’ response was
even more enigmatic.
Lk 17:37 Then the disciples said to him, “Where, Lord?” He replied to them, “Where
the dead body is, there the vultures will gather.” [NET]
1. See “Messianic Expectations” on page 87.
New Testament Usage
108 The Day of the Lord
As enigmatic as this is, it certainly sounds as if those who are “taken” are not taken
someplace pleasant. I suggest that the import of these verses is actually evangelistic,
and those who are taken are those who die without accepting Jesus. The image of the
vultures (or, eagles, the word means both in Greek), may be evocative of the Romans
destroying Jerusalem in AD 70 after the Christians had fled the city.
In John 8:56, Jesus refers to “my day”, but the meaning there is clearly the time of his
earthly ministry.
We’ve seen in these passages that Jesus did not use a phrase analogous to the “day of the
LORD”. There is the idea of a day that is uniquely his, but this seems to refer to the res-
urrection. However, there is also a passage where he refers to the “last day” when the
general resurrection will occur:
Jn 6:39 Now this is the will of the one who sent me—that I should not lose one person
of every one he has given me, but raise them all up at the last day. 6:40 For this is the
will of my Father—for everyone who looks on the Son and believes in him to have eter-
nal life, and I will raise him up at the last day.” [NET]
He also used the phrase “day of judgment” similarly: Matthew 10:15, 11:22-24, 12:36.
Mt 10:15 I tell you the truth, it will be more bearable for the region of Sodom and
Gomorrah on the day of judgment than for that town!
Mt 11:22 But I tell you, it will be more bearable for Tyre and Sidon on the day of
judgment than for you! 11:23 And you, Capernaum, will you be exalted to heaven? No,
you will be thrown down to Hades! For if the miracles done among you had been done
in Sodom, it would have continued to this day. 11:24 But I tell you, it will be more
bearable for the region of Sodom on the day of judgment than for you!”
Mt 12:36 I tell you that on the day of judgment, people will give an account for every
worthless word they speak.
4.2 Paul
In what may be the earliest epistles, Paul applies the Greek phrase “day of the Lord”
(the usual translation of the Hebrew phrase “day of the LORD”) to the day of judgment
(1 Thessalonians 5:2, 4; 2 Thessalonians 2:2-3). In the latter letter, he refutes a false
letter going around claiming that the day of the Lord had already come. What was
meant by that is not clear since a literal judgment had not taken place (such as the
destruction of Jerusalem)1. Perhaps a spiritual resurrection in contrast to a physical res-
urrection, as Paul had refuted in 1 Corinthians 15, was the nature of the false teaching.
In later letters, Paul expands the familiar expression from the LXX to include the name
Jesus and/or the title Christ. In 1 Corinthians 1:8, “[Jesus] who will also confirm you to
the end, blameless in the day of our Lord Jesus Christ”. Referring back to this day in 1
Corinthians 3:13, “each man’s work will become evident; for the day will show it...”. 1
Corinthians 5:5, “... so that his spirit may be saved in the day of the Lord Jesus.” (See
also 2 Corinthians 1:14). The eschatological meaning is particularly clear in Philippi-
1. See “Warning of a Heresy (2 Thessalonians 2:1-3a)” on page 170.
Conclusion
The Day of the Lord 109
ans 1:6, 10: “For I am confident of this very thing, that he who began a good work in
you will perfect it until the day of Christ Jesus... so that you may approve the things that
are excellent, in order to be sincere and blameless until the day of Christ”. In Romans
2:5, 16, Paul described this day as a day of judgment.
Rom 2:5 But because of your stubbornness and your unrepentant heart, you are storing
up wrath for yourselves in the day of wrath, when God’s righteous judgment is
revealed!
Rom 2:16 on the day when God will judge the secrets of human hearts, according to my
gospel through Christ Jesus.
4.3 Peter
Peter also uses the phrase eschatologically: “But the day of the Lord will come like a
thief; when it comes, the heavens will disappear with a horrific noise, and the celestial
bodies will melt away in a blaze, and the earth and every deed done on it will be laid
bare.” (2 Peter 3:10).
5.0 Conclusion
The phase “day of the Lord” is not in itself eschatological. It tends to be a technical
term whose usage changed between the Old and New Testaments. In the Old Testa-
ment, it is nearly always described as a day that was “near” and even associated explic-
itly with then contemporaneous foreign incursions. Only in the last book of the Old
Testament, Malachi, does it take on a hint of eschatological meaning.
Jesus himself did not use the term, but he did use the phrases “last day” and “day of
judgment” eschatologically. When the title “Lord” was applied to Jesus, the phrase
“day of the Lord” with “Jesus” and/or “Christ” was adapted and applied to eschatology
by both Paul and Peter.
While Old Testament descriptions of the day of the Lord may be applied typologically
to the eschatological judgment, their primary meaning is always to history. Those pas-
sages should not be taken as prophetic of eschatology.
Conclusion
110 The Day of the Lord
111
Mark 13: Introduction
Rarely does the so-called “Synoptic
Problem” have an actual effect on
interpretation, but it does for Mark 13, so we
first discuss this issue in detail.
1.0 How The Gospels Came To Be
apol·o·get·ics \-tiks\ noun plural but singular or plural in construction
(circa 1733)
1 : systematic argumentative discourse in defense (as of a doctrine)
2 : a branch of theology devoted to the defense of the divine origin and authority of
Christianity1
1.1 Importance of Synoptic Study
A comparison of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke shows that they often recount
the same events and sayings of Jesus. Comparison also shows there are often differ-
ences between these parallel accounts. These differences are often exploited by skeptics
to argue against the reliability of the Gospels in producing an accurate picture of the his-
torical Jesus. It is important for the Bible student of today, especially one entering the
secular college environment, to be versed in these issues to be able to mount a defense
against such an attack.
1.2 Synopsis of the Synoptics
The Gospels of Matthew, Mark, and Luke often present the same events and same say-
ings of Jesus in nearly the same words. The following chart2 shows the approximate
breakdown of the overlap as measured in verses (approximate because what is one verse
in one Gospel might be two verses in the parallel passage):
1. Merriam Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary.
2. Derived from Robert C. Newman. “The Synoptic Problem! A Proposal for Handling both
Internal & External Evidence”. Westminster Theological Journal Vol 43 #1. p. 137.
How The Gospels Came To Be
112 Mark 13: Introduction
(And you thought those
Venn diagrams you stud-
ied in math class would
never have any useful
purpose!) Some interest-
ing patterns emerge here.
One is that nearly all of
Mark is contained in the
other two synoptic Gos-
pels. Another is that
there is a sizable chunk
of verses shared by Luke
and Matthew that aren’t
in Mark. The closeness
of the wording of the
individual verses has
suggested to many schol-
ars that there is a literary relationship between the Gospels. That is, the author of a
given Gospel had in his possession one, the other, or both of the others and freely quoted
from it, or them. For a variety of reasons, none of which are absolutely conclusive indi-
vidually, It is usually assumed that Mark is the first of the three and the other two
quoted extensively from it. The verses shared by Luke and Matthew but not in Mark are
mostly sayings of Jesus, rather than a mix of sayings and stories that much of the three
synoptic Gospels themselves are. This strongly suggests that they were copied from a
hypothetical source document that consisted primarily of sayings. This hypothetical
document is called Q, probably from the German word for “source”. Materials unique
to Matthew and Luke are referred to as Special Matthew and Special Luke and are often
symbolized by the letters M and L, respectively.
One would think that this theory would be referred to as the Four-Source Theory, and
sometimes it is. But in practice, skeptical scholarship disparages the Special Matthew
and Luke material and calls
it the Two-Source Theory.
Most commentaries,
whether evangelical, lib-
eral, or secular will adopt
this view point. Others
have turned this around
and argued that Mark is a
condensed version of Mat-
thew, Luke, or both (a la
Readers Digest), but they
are a minority. Mark’s ver-
sion of pericopes are often
more detailed than Matthew’s or Luke’s.
How The Gospels Came To Be
Mark 13: Introduction 113
1.3 Dating The Gospels
Skeptical scholars approach source analysis with an ideological ax to grind. Specifi-
cally, they are seeking to come up with a developmental view of the Gospels. It is here
that much discussion of the “historical Jesus” centers. The developmental view of the
Gospels argues that as Christian theology developed, these developments were written
back into the sayings and stories of Jesus. Thus any difference between, say, Mark and
Matthew arises because the community out of which Matthew was written had devel-
oped additional or different beliefs and then put these words into Jesus’ mouth to give
them authority: words never spoken by the historical Jesus.
Intrinsic in this approach is a late dating of the Gospels. Because the Olivet Discourse
so clearly refers to the destruction of Jerusalem, it is assumed that all the Gospels date to
about AD 70 at the earliest. Mark is usually placed at shortly after AD 70 while Mat-
thew and Luke are dated towards the end of the 1st century. The significance of this is
that they were written long after most of the original apostles were dead, giving ample
time for the orally preserved traditions to be shaped and rewritten in light of theological
and ideological development. Once written down, they became less mutable.
Now, the question is, once you shed this anti-supernatural bias and accept that the Olivet
Discourse could be spoken by the Son of God 40 years before the event itself, what evi-
dence is there to indicate when it was really written? Evidences for a pre-AD 70 date
are totally ignored by those with an anti-supernatural bias because it is assumed a priori
that accurate predictions can’t predate the events predicted.
1.3.1 Mark
Papias is an early 2nd century writer quoted by Eusebius who said the following regard-
ing the Gospel of Mark:
14 Papias gives also in his own work other accounts of the words of the Lord on the
authority of Aristion who was mentioned above, and traditions as handed down by the
presbyter John; to which we refer those who are fond of learning. But now we must add
to the words of his which we have already quoted the tradition which he gives in regard
to Mark, the author of the Gospel.
15 “This also the presbyter said: Mark having become the interpreter of Peter, wrote
down accurately, though not in order, whatsoever he remembered of the things said or
done by Christ. For he neither heard the Lord nor followed him, but afterward, as I said,
he followed Peter, who adapted his teaching to the needs of his hearers, but with no
intention of giving a connected account of the Lord’s discourses, so that Mark commit-
ted no error while he thus wrote some things as he remembered them. For he was care-
ful of one thing, not to omit any of the things which he had heard, and not to state any of
them falsely.” These things are related by Papias concerning Mark.1
The “presbyter John” referred to here was probably either the apostle John or a disciple
of one of the apostles. There is also the following comment in the writings of Justin in
the mid 2nd century:
And when it is said that He changed the name of one of the apostles to Peter; and when
it is written in the memoirs of Him that this so happened, as well as that He changed the
1. Eusebius. Church History. Book 3, Chapter 39.
How The Gospels Came To Be
114 Mark 13: Introduction
names of other two brothers, the sons of Zebedee, to Boanerges, which means sons of
thunder;1
The referent of the pronoun in “memoirs of Him” could refer to Peter as well as to
Christ. If Mark, who is the only one of the Gospels to record the change of name of the
sons of Zebedee, was writing Peter’s teaching, then it might be that Justin here is refer-
ring to the gospel of Mark as the memoirs of Peter. One final ancient reference is pre-
served by Eusebius. Here, Clement claimed:
The Gospel according to Mark had this occasion. As Peter had preached the Word pub-
licly at Rome, and declared the Gospel by the Spirit, many who were present requested
that Mark, who had followed him for a long time and remembered his sayings, should
write them out. And having composed the Gospel he gave it to those who had requested
it.
7 When Peter learned of this, he neither directly forbade nor encouraged it.2
The weight of these traditions, combined with their consistency with modern analysis
that Mark was written independently of the other Gospels (rather than being a con-
densed version of Matthew and/or Luke) suggests that they are most probably correct.
We know that Peter was martyred in Rome in the mid-60’s AD, so Mark would have to
be written sometime before that, but since we don’t know when, or on how many occa-
sions Peter had visited Rome, we can’t really say for sure when before then, but see
below on Luke. Since Peter was still in Jerusalem in AD 49, for the council meeting
that validated Paul’s teaching (Acts 15:1-35), it couldn’t have been earlier than the 50’s.
The idea that Mark was written before Luke and Matthew is often referred to as the “pri-
ority of Mark”: ie, Mark is prior to the others. However the word “priority” also carries
with it the idea of more importance, which is especially significant here because
because of the skeptic’s concept of development of the gospel. I prefer the term “inde-
pendence of Mark” as I believe all four Gospels accurately depict the historical Jesus.
1.3.2 Luke
The opening verses of Luke read:
Lk 1:1 Now many have undertaken to compile an account of the things that have been
fulfilled among us, 1:2 like the accounts passed on to us by those who were eyewit-
nesses and servants of the word from the beginning. 1:3 So it seemed good to me as
well, because I have followed all things carefully from the beginning, to write an
orderly account for you, most excellent Theophilus, 1:4 so that you may know for cer-
tain the things you were taught. [NET]
This makes several important points. First Luke was aware of many written accounts
already in existence. Second, Luke was not himself an eyewitness of Jesus’ life. He
obtained his data from careful investigation. Given the parallels between the Gospels of
Luke and Mark and that Mark most likely was written without the use of written
1. Justin. Dialogue 106.
2. Eusebius. Church History. Book 6, Chapter 14
How The Gospels Came To Be
Mark 13: Introduction 115
sources, we can safely say that Luke had Mark’s gospel and made use of it in writing
his. We can also pinpoint when Luke was written fairly closely. Note this verse in Acts:
Ac 1:1 I wrote the former account, Theophilus, about all that Jesus began to do and
teach 1:2 until the day he was taken up to heaven, after he had given orders by the Holy
Spirit to the apostles he had chosen. [NET]
Clearly Luke and Acts are two volumes of a single literary work, both written by the
same author. From the first person passages towards the end of Acts, we know that the
author was with Paul in the journey to Rome. The last even recorded in Acts is Paul
being under house arrest for two years, where it ends abruptly without giving any indi-
cation of what happened to Paul (Acts 28:30-31). It seems most likely that Luke-Acts
was written and published at this time, i.e. AD 62. Since Luke made use of Mark, this
gives us another clue when Mark was written: in order for Luke to have it available,
Mark must have been written some time in the 50’s (or earlier).
1.3.3 Matthew
Matthew’s Gospel has some complicated issues. Papias said the following:
16 But concerning Matthew he writes as follows: “So then Matthew wrote the oracles in
the Hebrew language, and every one interpreted them as he was able.”1
Irenaeus, in the late second century also says
Matthew also issued a written Gospel among the Hebrews in their own dialect, while
Peter and Paul were preaching at Rome, and laying the foundations of the Church.2
There are a number of problems with this tradition. First, Matthew, as we know it, is
written in Greek and quotes extensively from Mark, which was also written in Greek.
Second, the Greek of Matthew doesn’t read like a translation (translations frequently
reflect the source language in idioms, syntax, and loan words). This Aramaic gospel
(Aramaic being the language of the Hebrews at that time) was almost certainly not the
Gospel of Matthew that we know today. If the Aramaic gospel cited above had relation-
ship to the Gospel we know, then it would be as one of the sources, either Q or some or
all of Special Matthew. However, it is possible that the Aramaic gospel that Irenaeus
knew was actually a translation of the canonical Gospel back into Aramaic, and he mis-
takenly assumed that it was the original.
A case can be made for dating Matthew to before the destruction of the Temple, how-
ever. For one thing, Matthew often points point how aspects of Jesus’ life was fulfil-
ment of Old Testament prophecy. If it was written after 70AD, one might reasonably
expect it to point out how Jesus’ prophecy regarding the Temple was fulfilled. Another
thing to note is that comparison of the synoptic Gospels shows that Matthew’s author
tended to combine topically related sayings of Jesus into longer blocks of sayings. His
use of Mark 13 is a case in point. He combined it with prophecies Jesus said regarding
the end times (thing’s which Luke recorded as a separate incident from the Olivet Dis-
course). Had Matthew been written after 70 AD, it seems likely that the two would not
1. Eusebius. Church History. Book 3, Chapter 39
2. Irenaeus. Against Heresies. Book 3, Chapter 1
Historical Jesus
116 Mark 13: Introduction
have been linked so closely together since at that time, one would be fulfilled prophecy,
and the other yet-to-be fulfilled prophecy, and thus be more distinct from the author’s
perspective.
2.0 Historical Jesus
Behind debate over the date and composition of the Gospels is the search for the histor-
ical Jesus: that is, the determining of what Jesus really taught during his earthly minis-
try. Jesus himself did not leave written teachings. He taught by speaking. If the written
Gospels were not written until the late 1st century AD, then they were written only after
Jesus’ teachings existed in memorized oral tradition, and long after anyone who actually
heard Jesus speak them had died (consider how many 80 year olds you know today;
now drop the average life span from 75 to about 30 years and see how many are left;
now persecute and martyr them — virtually none will be left — in fact, tradition holds
that of the Twelve only John lived to the end of the first century and died a natural
death). The belief then of scholars such as the Jesus Seminar is that as later generations
developed additional beliefs and accumulated additional teachings, these beliefs and
teachings were given authority by being placed on the lips of Jesus.
The result of this mind set is the so-called “Search for the Historical Jesus”, where
scholars attempt to discern which teachings in the gospels are later additions, and which
are actually spoken by Jesus. The Jesus Seminar attempted to do this by vote. Each
scholar voted via a colored marble (red, pink, gray, and black) representing a measure of
certainty that Jesus spoke each individual saying. The interesting thing is, as someone
on USENET once commented, how Jesus winds up sounding more like a 20th century
liberal Californian than a 1st century Galilean Jew. These searches for the historical
Jesus inevitably end up finding a Jesus congenial to the searcher.
Of course, if the gospels were written much earlier, while the original witnesses were
still alive, and using material written by the apostles themselves, then our approach to
the historical Jesus must be vastly different from skeptics such as the Jesus Seminar.
One must confront the Jesus presented in the gospels without picking and choosing pas-
sages based on man-made criteria.
There is no indication that Jesus himself wrote any of his teachings down. Society
being more or less illiterate, Jesus propagated his teaching by preaching and by teaching
his apostles and disciples to preach and sending them out (Matthew 10:1-11:1; Mark
6:7-13; Luke 9:1-6; 10:1-24). Thus initially, Jesus’ teachings were preserved by memo-
rization of an oral tradition. Anyone who has heard a speaker who travels around speak-
ing at conferences, concerts, etc. knows such speakers have a repertoire of stories and
teachings. Anyone who travels with such a speaker soon knows the repertoire by heart.
Jesus undoubtedly taught the same things over and over again in his ministry. The
apostles and disciples heard various teachings, sayings, and parables many many times
and memorized them.
Similarly, Jesus performed many many healings over the course of his ministry and con-
fronted opponents many times. As a result, the precise chronological order of episodes
and teachings of Jesus are not likely to be remembered. In fact, when comparing the
Gospels, we find that they often differ in the order they present their material. Episodes
Historical Jesus
Mark 13: Introduction 117
were rearranged and teachings were grouped in different ways. Matthew especially col-
lected together material into five large discourses, material that we find scattered
throughout the other Gospels. Note also the quote above regarding the authorship of
Mark: he “wrote down accurately, though not in order”.
Thus, what we should expect to find of the historic Jesus in the Gospels is not a precise
biography in the modern sense, but rather what we should expect to find are his teach-
ings. Their precise arrangement does not effect the faithfulness of their presentation.
The Olivet Discourse provides an excellent laboratory for examining the process of
arranging and rearranging the teachings of Jesus by the writers of the Gospels. The fol-
lowing section places the relevant texts from Mark, Luke, and Matthew in parallel col-
umns to illustrate the process of their composition.
Synopsis of Mark 13
118 Mark 13: Introduction
3.0 Synopsis of Mark 13
The below table arranges the passages parallel to Mark 13 into 3 columns, plus a 4th
column for notes.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
13:1 Now as Jesus was going
out of the temple courts, one
of his disciples said to him,
“Teacher, look at these tre-
mendous stones and build-
ings!”
21:5 Now while some were
speaking about the temple,
how it was adorned with
beautiful stones and offer-
ings, Jesus said,
24:1 Now as Jesus was going
out of the temple courts and
walking away, his disciples
came to show him the temple
buildings.
13:2 Jesus said to him, “Do
you see these great build-
ings? Not one stone will be
left on another. All will be
torn down!”
21:6 “As for these things that
you are gazing at, the days
will come when not one
stone will be left on another.
All will be torn down!”
24:2 And he said to them,
“Do you see all these things?
I tell you the truth, not one
stone will be left on another.
All will be torn down!”
Note that Luke recorded two
occasions that Jesus made the
comment that one stone would not
be left on another: the one he
quoted from Mark, and another
occasion that occurred shortly
before Mark’s account, on the
approach to Jerusalem.
19:41 As he approached
Jerusalem and saw the city,
he wept over it
19:42 saying, “If you had
only known on this day, even
you, the things that make for
peace! But now they are hid-
den from your eyes.
19:43 For the days will come
upon you when your enemies
will build an embankment
against you and surround
you and close in on you from
every side.
19:44 They will demolish
you – you and your children
within your walls – and they
will not leave within you one
stone on top of another,
because you did not recog-
nize the time of your visita-
tion from God.”
Synopsis of Mark 13
Mark 13: Introduction 119
13:3 So while he was sitting
on the Mount of Olives
opposite the temple, Peter,
James, John, and Andrew
asked him privately,
24:3 As he was sitting on the
Mount of Olives, his disci-
ples came to him privately
and said, “Tell us, when will
these things happen? And
what will be the sign of your
coming and of the end of the
age?”
Luke skipped the change of setting.
Matthew didn’t tell which disciples.
Matthew, because he was combining
Mark’s Olivet discourse with sayings
about the end of the world (mostly
obtained from Q and quoted by Luke
in Luke 17), had the disciples asking
about his (second) coming and the end
of the age. They certainly did ask such
questions, though probably not at the
Olivet Discourse: Matthew is tele-
scoping two events together to build a
larger group of sayings (he made sev-
eral such aggregations in his gospel).
13:4 “Tell us, when will
these things happen? And
what will be the sign that all
these things are about to take
place?”
21:7 So they asked him,
“Teacher, when will these
things happen? And what
will be the sign that these
things are about to take
place?”
13:5 Jesus began to say to
them, “Watch out that no one
misleads you.
21:8 He said, “Watch out that
you are not misled. For many
will come in my name, say-
ing, ‘I am he,’ and, ‘The time
is near.’ Do not follow them!
24:4 Jesus answered them,
“Watch out that no one mis-
leads you.
The warning about false messiahs
occurs in two other places as well. See
Mk 13:21 || Mt 24:23 later in the
Olivet Discourse, and in Lk 17:23 ||
Mt 24:26, Luke’s apocalyptic mate-
rial. There can be little doubt that
Jesus warned his disciples of false
Messiah’s many times. They were
common enough even before Jesus
came, and resulted in devastating con-
sequences for the Jewish people in the
Jewish War when the temple was
destroyed, and especially the Bar
Kochba revolt in the second century
AD.
Luke’s addition of “Do not follow
them” probably came from another
incidence of this warning that Luke
was aware of.
13:6 Many will come in my
name, saying, ‘I am he,’ and
they will mislead many.
24:5 For many will come in
my name, saying, ‘I am the
Christ,’ and they will mis-
lead many.
13:7 When you hear of wars
and rumors of wars, do not
be alarmed. These things
must happen, but the end is
still to come.
21:9 And when you hear of
wars and rebellions, do not
be afraid. For these things
must happen first, but the
end will not come at once.”
24:6 You will hear of wars
and rumors of wars. Make
sure that you are not
alarmed, for this must hap-
pen, but the end is still to
come.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
120 Mark 13: Introduction
13:8 For nation will rise up
in arms against nation, and
kingdom against kingdom.
There will be earthquakes in
various places, and there will
be famines. These are but the
beginning of birth pains.
21:10 Then he said to them,
“Nation will rise up in arms
against nation, and kingdom
against kingdom.
24:7 For nation will rise up
in arms against nation, and
kingdom against kingdom.
And there will be famines
and earthquakes in various
places.
Luke’s paraphrase perhaps alludes to
Mark 13:24-26. Note too that Jose-
phus reported two comets portending
the destruction of Jerusalem.
Compare Luke’s “and fearful
events...” with Matthew 24:30.
21:11 There will be great
earthquakes, famines and
pestilences in various places,
and fearful events and great
signs from heaven.
24:8 All these things are the
beginning of birth pains.
13:9 “You must watch out
for yourselves. You will be
handed over to councils and
beaten in the synagogues.
You will stand before gover-
nors and kings because of
me, as a witness to them.
21:12 But before all this,
they will seize you and per-
secute you, handing you over
to the synagogues and pris-
ons. You will be brought
before kings and governors
because of my name.
10:17 Beware of people,
because they will hand you
over to councils and flog you
in their synagogues.
Matthew moved this verse from the
Olivet Discourse to the commission-
ing of the missionary activity of the
disciples in chapter 10. See Matthew
24:9 below where he summarized
instead.
10:18 And you will be
brought before governors
and kings because of me, as
a witness to them and the
Gentiles.
21:13 This will be a time for
you to serve as witnesses.
13:10 First the gospel must
be preached to all nations.
24:14 And this gospel of the
kingdom will be preached
throughout the whole inhab-
ited earth as a testimony to
all the nations, and then the
end will come.
In Mark, verse 10 interrupts the flow
of thought from verse 9 to verse 11. It
seems likely that what was spoken by
Jesus during the historical Olivet Dis-
course did not include this verse, but
rather Mark inserted this saying,
which Jesus spoke on some other
occasion because it is on the same
topic, witnessing to the Gentiles, as
the context here. Note that Luke omit-
ted it and Matthew placed a fuller ver-
sion of it later in the discourse, adding
further evidence that the Olivet Dis-
course was not the original setting of
this saying.
10:23 Whenever they perse-
cute you in one place, flee to
another. I tell you the truth,
you will not finish going
through all the towns of
Israel before the Son of Man
comes.
Matthew’s account of the commis-
sioning of the apostles includes a say-
ing very similar to the above. More
interesting, it has another allusion to
Dan 7:13, the coming of the Son of
Man. Here, it is clear that Jesus
expected the fulfillment of that proph-
ecy in the very near future: The disci-
ples would not even finish going
through all the cities of Israel before
that happened, in contrast to the above
passage where the gospel would be
preached to the whole world before
the end of the world comes.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
Mark 13: Introduction 121
13:11 When they arrest you
and hand you over for trial,
do not worry about what to
speak. But say whatever is
given you at that time, for it
is not you speaking, but the
Holy Spirit.
21:14 There-
fore be
resolved not
to rehearse
ahead of time
how to make
your defense.
12:11 But
when they
bring you
before the
syna-
gogues, the
rulers, and
the authori-
ties, do not
worry about
how you
should
make your
defense or
what you
should say,
10:19 Whenever they hand
you over for trial, do not
worry about how to speak or
what to say, for what you
should say will be given to
you at that time.
Matthew placed these verses in the
Commissioning of the Twelve in chap-
ter 10. This appears to have been
prompted by the desire to group
together persecution sayings with
Matthew 10:23.
Luke recorded two versions, one here
in the Olivet Discourse, and the other
in a block of sayings that is a collec-
tion of warnings and encouragements.
Undoubtedly, this was a theme Jesus
spoke to the disciples about on many
occasions. The version Luke put in
chapter 12 is closer to Mark’s in word-
ing then the version Luke put in the
Olivet Discourse. This may indicate
that Luke’s paraphrases of Mark can
frequently be influenced by similar
sayings delivered on other occasions.
Note the trinitarian implications of
Luke 21:15’s “I will” in parallel with
the other version’s “Holy Spirit will”.
21:15 For I
will give you
the words
along with
the wisdom
that none of
your adver-
saries will be
able to with-
stand or con-
tradict.
12:12 for
the Holy
Spirit will
teach you at
that
moment
what you
must say.”
10:20 For it is not you speak-
ing, but the Spirit of your
Father speaking through you.
13:12 Brother will hand over
brother to death, and a father
his child. Children will rise
against parents and have
them put to death.
21:16 You will be betrayed
even by parents, brothers,
relatives, and friends, and
they will have some of you
put to death.
10:21 “Brother will hand
over brother to death, and a
father his child. Children
will rise against parents and
have them put to death.
Luke recorded two versions of this
saying too. Like the above saying, this
doublet also appears in Luke 12. This
grouping would be for thematic rea-
sons, not because of development of
the oral tradition. It is inconceivable
that Jesus would only make this point
only one time in his ministry. Both
versions can easily be the words of the
historical Jesus.
12:53 They will be divided,
father against son and son
against father, mother
against daughter and daugh-
ter against mother, mother-
in-law against her daughter-
in-law and daughter-in-law
against mother-in-law.”
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
122 Mark 13: Introduction
13:13 You will be hated by
everyone because of my
name. But the one who
endures to the end will be
saved.
21:17 You will be hated by
everyone because of my
name.
24:9 “Then they will hand
you over to be persecuted
and will kill you. You will be
hated by all the nations
because of my name.
In Matthew, this verse opens with a
summary that parallels Mark 13:9,
which he otherwise quotes in chapter
10. Given that Matthew paraphrased
less than Luke and that he combined
blocks of sayings together into longer
discourses, this summary and the
change of “all men” to “all nations”
may be because he knew such a ver-
sion of the saying linked with the fol-
lowing three verses. This especially
seems likely since at Matthew 10:22,
he quotes Mark 13:13 word for word.
24:10 Then many will be led
into sin, and they will betray
one another and hate one
another.
Matthew inserted three additional
verses of sayings that were related to
the topic of the current context. Note
that verse 11 reiterates the theme of
Mark 13:5-6, 21-22. Jesus undoubt-
edly spoke on this topic on many
occasions and so there were undoubt-
edly many versions of this warning
known.
24:11 And many false proph-
ets will appear and deceive
many,
24:12 and because lawless-
ness will increase so much,
the love of many will grow
cold.
21:18 Yet not a hair of your
head will perish.
Luke replaced the second half of Mark
13:13 with two similar sayings of
Jesus.
cf. Luke 12:7, Acts 27:34, 1 Samuel
14:45, 2 Samuel 14:11, 1 Kings 1:52.
Safety of hair was a common hyper-
bolic metaphor.
21:19 By your endurance
you will gain your lives.
24:13 But the person who
endures to the end will be
saved.
10:22 And you will be hated
by everyone because of my
name. But the one who
endures to the end will be
saved.
Matthew moved Mark 13:13 to the
commissioning discourse. Note that he
has used the second half of the verse
in the Olivet discourse too.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
Mark 13: Introduction 123
13:14 “But when you see the
abomination of desolation
standing where it should not
be (let the reader under-
stand), then those in Judea
must flee to the mountains.
21:20 “But when you see
Jerusalem surrounded by
armies, then know that its
desolation has come near.
24:15 “So when you see the
abomination of desolation –
spoken about by Daniel the
prophet – standing in the
holy place (let the reader
understand),
When we read “Jesus said, ‘yadda
yadda yadda’” in an English Bible, we
know that what it really means is that
Jesus said a bunch of words in (pre-
sumably) Aramaic and what is in the
quotes is not strictly what Jesus said,
but a representation of what Jesus
meant. Luke was writing to a more
Gentile audience and rather than quot-
ing the prophecy that Jesus quoted, he
provided a more precise interpretation
of what that prophecy meant: i.e., the
Roman armies were the abomination
that causes desolation. Compare this
with Luke 21:24, were he preserved an
additional saying of Jesus on the
destruction of Jerusalem, and with
Luke 19:43 (quoted above), where
Jesus referred to enemies besieging
the city.
21:21 Then those who are in
Judea must flee to the moun-
tains. Those who are inside
the city must depart. Those
who are out in the country
must not enter it,
24:16 then those in Judea
must flee to the mountains.
Compare with Eusebius’ account of
the Christians being warned by proph-
ecy to flea Jerusalem before the siege
began.
13:15 The one on the roof
must not come down or go
inside to take anything out of
his house.
17:31 On that day, anyone
who is on the roof, with his
goods in the house, must not
come down to take them
away, and likewise the per-
son in the field must not turn
back.
24:17 The one on the roof
must not come down to take
anything out of his house,
Luke moved these sayings to another
context where he combined them with
a number of related sayings.
13:16 The one in the field
must not turn back to get his
cloak.
24:18 and the one in the field
must not turn back to get his
cloak.
21:22 because these are days
of vengeance, to fulfill all
that is written.
See below on Luke 21:24
13:17 Woe to those who are
pregnant and to those who
are nursing their babies in
those days!
21:23 Woe to those who are
pregnant and to those who
are nursing their babies in
those days! For there will be
great distress on the earth
and wrath against this peo-
ple.
24:19 Woe to those who are
pregnant and to those who
are nursing their babies in
those days!
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
124 Mark 13: Introduction
21:24 They will fall by the
edge of the sword and be led
away as captives among all
nations. Jerusalem will be
trampled down by the Gen-
tiles until the times of the
Gentiles are fulfilled.
Only Luke has these sayings (includ-
ing verses 22, 23b). Clearly, the Olivet
discourse was not the only occasion
that Jesus spoke to his disciples on the
future of Jerusalem (see, for example,
the Luke 19:41-44). Presumably, say-
ings from these other occasions
informed most of Luke’s additions to
the discourse, as well as Luke’s inter-
pretation in Luke 21:20 above.
13:18 Pray that it may not be
in winter.
24:20 Pray that your flight
may not be in winter or on a
Sabbath.
Luke skipped this passage in his ver-
sion of the discourse. It was somewhat
redundant with the passages he has
included from other sources.
13:19 For in those days there
will be suffering unlike any-
thing that has happened from
the beginning of the creation
that God created until now,
or ever will happen.
24:21 For then there will be
great suffering unlike any-
thing that has happened from
the beginning of the world
until now, or ever will hap-
pen.
13:20 And if the Lord had
not cut short those days, no
one would be saved. But
because of the elect, whom
he chose, he has cut them
short.
24:22 And if those days had
not been cut short, no one
would be saved. But for the
sake of the elect those days
will be cut short.
13:21 Then if anyone says to
you, ‘Look, here is the
Christ!’ or ‘Look, there he
is!’ do not believe him.
cf. Luke 17:23, Matthew
24:5
24:23 Then if anyone says to
you, ‘Look, here is the
Christ!’ or ‘There he is!’ do
not believe him.
13:22 For false messiahs and
false prophets will appear
and perform signs and won-
ders to deceive, if possible,
the elect.
24:24 For false messiahs and
false prophets will appear
and perform great signs and
wonders to deceive, if possi-
ble, even the elect.
13:23 Be careful! I have told
you everything ahead of
time.
24:25 Remember, I have told
you ahead of time.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
Mark 13: Introduction 125
17:23 Then people will say
to you, ‘Look, there he is!’ or
‘Look, here he is!’ Do not go
out or chase after them.
24:26 So then, if someone
says to you, ‘Look, he is in
the wilderness,’ do not go
out, or ‘Look, he is in the
inner rooms,’ do not believe
him.
Matthew and Luke appear to have
picked up this passage from Q. Luke
placed it earlier in his Gospel. Mat-
thew included it in the Olivet Dis-
course because it included a warning
about false messiahs. Jesus probably
sounded this warning many times dur-
ing his ministry.
Note how Matthew divorced the enig-
matic Luke 17:37b from its narrative
context.
17:24 For just like the light-
ning flashes and lights up the
sky from one side to the
other, so will the Son of Man
be in his day.
24:27 For just like the light-
ning comes from the east and
flashes to the west, so the
coming of the Son of Man
will be.
17:37 Then the disciples said
to him, “Where, Lord?” He
replied to them, “Where the
dead body is, there the vul-
tures will gather.”
24:28 Wherever the corpse
is, there the vultures will
gather.
13:24 “But in those days,
after that suffering, the sun
will be darkened and the
moon will not give its light;
21:25 “And there will be
signs in the sun and moon
and stars, and on the earth
nations will be in distress,
anxious over the roaring of
the sea and the surging
waves.
24:29 “Immediately after the
suffering of those days, the
sun will be darkened, and the
moon will not give its light;
the stars will fall from
heaven, and the powers of
heaven will be shaken.
Luke appears to have quoted some
material from a different source here
rather than quoting the similar mate-
rial from Mark. Luke appears to have
avoided allusions to Old Testament
Prophets, presumably because his
audience was Gentile.
13:25 the stars will be falling
from heaven, and the powers
in the heavens will be
shaken.
21:26 People will be fainting
from fear and from the
expectation of what is com-
ing on the world, for the
powers of the heavens will be
shaken.
13:26 Then everyone will
see the Son of Man arriving
in the clouds with great
power and glory.
21:27 Then they will see the
Son of Man arriving in a
cloud with power and great
glory.
24:30 Then the sign of the
Son of Man will appear in
heaven, and all the tribes of
the earth will mourn. They
will see the Son of Man
arriving on the clouds of
heaven with power and great
glory.
The added sentence in Matthew here
may be related to the material quoted
by Luke above.
Matthew 24:30 refers to seeing “the
sign of the Son of Man” in the sky, not
seeing the Son of Man himself.
Although this is suggestive of the sec-
ond coming, that is not necessarily
what was in mind. The reference is to
a sign in the sky, not the Son of Man
himself. See earlier comments on the
meaning of “coming in clouds with
great power and glory”.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
126 Mark 13: Introduction
13:27 Then he will send
angels and they will gather
his elect from the four winds,
from the ends of the earth to
the ends of heaven.
21:28 When these things
begin to take place, stand up
and lift up your heads,
because your redemption is
drawing near.”
24:31 And he will send his
angels with a loud trumpet
blast, and they will gather his
elect from the four winds,
from one end of heaven to
the other.
Luke again quoted from something
other than Mark here.
13:28 “Learn this parable
from the fig tree: Whenever
its branch becomes tender
and puts out its leaves, you
know that summer is near.
21:29 Then he told them a
parable: “Look at the fig tree
and all the other trees.
24:32 “Learn this parable
from the fig tree: Whenever
its branch becomes tender
and puts out its leaves, you
know that summer is near.
21:30 When they sprout
leaves, you see for your-
selves and know that sum-
mer is now near.
13:29 So also you, when you
see these things happening,
know that he is near, right at
the door.
21:31 So also you, when you
see these things happening,
know that the kingdom of
God is near.
24:33 So also you, when you
see all these things, know
that he is near, right at the
door.
Luke resolved the antecedent of “it”
by explicitly stating that the “kingdom
of God” is near, which, as was argued
earlier in this study, is the rule of
Christ through the Holy Spirit in the
hearts of Christians.
13:30 I tell you the truth, this
generation will not pass
away until all these things
take place.
21:32 I tell you the truth, this
generation will not pass
away until all these things
take place.
24:34 I tell you the truth, this
generation will not pass
away until all these things
take place.
cf. Mark 9:1 || Matthew 16:28 || Luke
9:27
13:31 Heaven and earth will
pass away, but my words
will never pass away.
21:33 Heaven and earth will
pass away, but my words
will never pass away.
24:35 Heaven and earth will
pass away, but my words
will never pass away.
13:32 “But as for that day or
hour no one knows it – nei-
ther the angels in heaven, nor
the Son – except the Father.
24:36 “But as for that day
and hour no one knows it –
not even the angels in heaven
– except the Father alone.
Luke skipped this verse and the fol-
lowing, though it is not clear why.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
Mark 13: Introduction 127
17:26 Just as it was in the
days of Noah, so too it will
be in the days of the Son of
Man.
24:37 For just like the days
of Noah were, so the coming
of the Son of Man will be.
Another quotation from Q. Matthew
added this to the Olivet Discourse
because it shared a theme with the
adjacent material: that of people being
oblivious to when their judgement will
take place. Luke incorporated it in
chapter 17, which is discussed in more
detail below.
17:27 People were eating,
they were drinking, they
were marrying, they were
being given in marriage –
right up to the day Noah
entered the ark. Then the
flood came and destroyed
them all.
24:38 For in those days
before the flood, people were
eating and drinking, marry-
ing and giving in marriage,
until the day Noah entered
the ark.
24:39 And they knew noth-
ing until the flood came and
took them all away. It will be
the same at the coming of the
Son of Man.
17:30 “It will be just like this
on the day the Son of Man is
revealed.
cf. 17:36 note: Several MSS
... add ... “There will be
two in the field; one will
be taken and the other
left.”
24:40 Then there will be two
men in the field; one will be
taken and one left.
17:35 There will be two
women grinding grain
together; one will be taken
and the other left.”
24:41 There will be two
women grinding grain with a
mill; one will be taken and
one left.
13:33 Watch out! Stay alert!
For you do not know when
the time will come.
24:42
“Therefore
stay alert,
because you
do not know
on what day
your Lord
will come.
25:13
Therefore
stay alert,
because you
do not
know the
day or the
hour.
Jesus certainly sounded the theme of
being alert on many occasions. See
Mark 13:37 where he said as much.
Matthew preserved another episode
where he used almost the same words
at the conclusion of a parable. Because
here it comes after the eschatological
material from Q, Matthew put an
eschatological version of this state-
ment here in the Olivet discourse. That
he preserved two versions indicates
that Jesus applied this saying to many
situations.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Synopsis of Mark 13
128 Mark 13: Introduction
13:34 It is like a man going
on a journey. He left his
house and put his slaves in
charge, assigning to each his
work, and commanded the
doorkeeper to stay alert.
12:39 But understand this: If
the owner of the house had
known at what hour the thief
was coming, he would not
have let his house be broken
into.
24:43 But understand this: If
the owner of the house had
known at what time of night
the thief was coming, he
would have been alert and
would not have let his house
be broken into.
Luke moved these verses from the
Olivet Discourse to chapter 12. See
above where chapter 12 contains some
other material from Mark’s version of
the Olivet Discourse, where it is adja-
cent to another similar parable (Luke
12:42-46).
13:35 Stay alert, then,
because you do not know
when the owner of the house
will return – whether during
evening, at midnight, when
the rooster crows, or at dawn
–
12:40 You also must be
ready, because the Son of
Man will come at an hour
when you do not expect
him.”
24:44 Therefore you also
must be ready, because the
Son of Man will come at an
hour when you do not expect
him.
13:36 or else he might find
you asleep when he returns
suddenly.
Instead of these verses, Matthew went
on to include the parable of the 10 vir-
gins (Mt 25:1ff), which was on the
same theme.
13:37 What I say to you I say
to everyone: Stay alert!”
21:34 “But be on your guard
so that your hearts are not
weighed down with dissipa-
tion and drunkenness and the
worries of this life, and that
day close down upon you
suddenly like a trap.
As seems to be Luke’s pattern in many
cases, he substituted a different saying
of Jesus for Mark 13:36-37. The warn-
ing to “Watch!” was present in both.
21:35 For it will overtake all
who live on the face of the
whole earth.
21:36 But stay alert at all
times, praying that you may
have strength to escape all
these things that must hap-
pen, and to stand before the
Son of Man.”
21:37 So every day Jesus
was teaching in the temple
courts, but at night he went
and stayed on the Mount of
Olives.
21:38 And all the people
came to him early in the
morning to listen to him in
the temple courts.
TABLE 1. Synopsis of Mark 13 and Parallels
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Luke 17
Mark 13: Introduction 129
4.0 Luke 17
To better illustrate Matthew’s use of the material in common with Luke 17, the whole of
that passage in Luke is presented here in parallel with the verses from Matthew.
TABLE 2. Luke 17
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
17:20 Now at one point the
Pharisees asked Jesus when
the kingdom of God was com-
ing, so he answered, “The
kingdom of God is not coming
with signs to be observed,
Note that Jesus was here saying
the kingdom of God is not a politi-
cal kingdom one can see with the
eyes. Instead it is the rule of God
in our hearts. It is a kingdom that
has spread across all the nations of
earth and one that will never end.
17:21 nor will they say, ‘Look,
here it is!’ or ‘There!’ For
indeed, the kingdom of God is
in your midst.”
17:22 Then he said to the dis-
ciples, “The days are coming
when you will desire to see
one of the days of the Son of
Man, and you will not see it.
This would seem to allude to his
coming crucifixion.
17:23 Then people will say to
you, ‘Look, there he is!’ or
‘Look, here he is!’ Do not go
out or chase after them.
24:26 So then, if someone says
to you, ‘Look, he is in the wil-
derness,’ do not go out, or
‘Look, he is in the inner
rooms,’ do not believe him.
cf. Mark 13:21; Matthew 24:23
Mark has a similar warning in the
Olivet discourse. Matthew quoted
part of this passage there. Luke
17:24 refers to the second coming.
The reference to “Son of Man in
his day” has Christological impli-
cations. In the Old Testament, we
frequently meet the phrase “day of
Yahweh” in connection with
judgement1.
17:24 For just like the light-
ning flashes and lights up the
sky from one side to the other,
so will the Son of Man be in
his day.
24:27 For just like the light-
ning comes from the east and
flashes to the west, so the
coming of the Son of Man will
be.
17:25 But first he must suffer
many things and be rejected by
this generation.
17:26 Just as it was in the days
of Noah, so too it will be in the
days of the Son of Man.
24:37 For just like the days of
Noah were, so the coming of
the Son of Man will be.
cf. Genesis 7:7
Luke consistently referred to
day(s) of the Son of Man here,
where Matthew has “coming of
the Son of Man”. Perhaps Mat-
thew was paraphrasing to make
the passage saying more under-
standable to his audience
(although, Luke was the one who
usually did that), or Jesus spoke on
the topic many times with minor
variations, resulting in more than
one version being known.
17:27 People were eating, they
were drinking, they were mar-
rying, they were being given
in marriage – right up to the
day Noah entered the ark.
Then the flood came and
destroyed them all.
24:38 For in those days before
the flood, people were eating
and drinking, marrying and
giving in marriage, until the
day Noah entered the ark.
Luke 17
130 Mark 13: Introduction
17:28 Likewise, just as it was
in the days of Lot, people were
eating, drinking, buying, sell-
ing, planting, building;
cf. Genesis 19:24
17:29 but on the day Lot went
out from Sodom, fire and sul-
fur rained down from heaven
and destroyed them all.
17:30 It will be the same on
the day the Son of Man is
revealed.
24:39 And they knew nothing
until the flood came and took
them all away. It will be the
same at the coming of the Son
of Man.
13:15 The one on the roof
must not come down or go
inside to take anything out of
his house.
17:31 On that day, anyone
who is on the roof, with his
goods in the house, must not
come down to take them away,
and likewise the person in the
field must not turn back.
24:17 The one on the roof
must not come down to take
anything out of his house,
13:16 The one in the field
must not turn back to get his
cloak.
24:18 and the one in the field
must not turn back to get his
cloak.
17:32 Remember Lot’s wife! cf. Genesis 19:26
8:35 For whoever wants to
save his life will lose it, but
whoever loses his life for my
sake and for the gospel will
save it.
17:33 Who-
ever tries to
keep his life
will lose it,
but whoever
loses his life
will preserve
it.
9:24 For who-
ever wants to
save his life
will lose it,
but whoever
loses his life
for my sake
will save it.
10:39 Who-
ever finds his
life will lose
it, and who-
ever loses his
life because of
me will find
it.
16:25 For
whoever
wants to save
his life will
lose it, but
whoever loses
his life for my
sake will find
it.
This appears to be one of those
phrases Jesus used frequently in
many situations.
17:34 I tell you, in that night
there will be two people in one
bed; one will be taken and the
other left.
17:35 There will be two
women grinding grain
together; one will be taken and
the other left.”
24:41 There will be two
women grinding grain with a
mill; one will be taken and one
left.
Matthew and Luke are both
quoted from Q. The original text
of Luke probably didn’t include a
parallel to Matt 24:40, but in some
manuscripts the scribe, presum-
ably because of his familiarity
with Matthew, inserted it into
Luke.
(17:36) 24:40 Then there will be two
men in the field; one will be
taken and one left.
TABLE 2. Luke 17
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Matthew 24
Mark 13: Introduction 131
5.0 Matthew 24
Since Matthew’s version of the Olivet Discourse is apparently a conflation of the Olivet
Discourse and some other material, I think it would be useful to view a brief layout of
the parallels in Matthew’s order. The individual verses have already been commented on
in detail elsewhere in this study. This page will just look at the overall structure of how
Matthew arranged the material since the other synopses are in Mark or Luke’s order,
and thus chop Matthew up a little bit.
17:37 Then the disciples said
to him, “Where, Lord?” He
replied to them, “Where the
dead body is, there the vul-
tures will gather.”
24:28 Wherever the corpse is,
there the vultures will gather.
This is a very enigmatic passage. I
suspect it was built on some
byword of the day, that if we were
familiar with would make the pas-
sage make sense. Matthew sepa-
rated it from the context that it
evidently had in Q, and so he
would seem to think it made sense
on its own. Given Jesus propensity
for saying the unexpected, I sus-
pect that while the disciples proba-
bly meant to ask where the one is
taken, Jesus may have been mak-
ing statement about the one who
was left. But then, would those left
be the carcass, or the vultures?
1. See “The Day of the Lord” on page 103.
TABLE 3. Matthew 24
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
13:1 21:5 24:1 Quoting Mark
13:2 21:6 24:2
13:3 24:3 Here, because Matthew was con-
flating Mark’s Olivet Discourse
with End of the World material,
the apostles asked about the just
predicted destruction of Jerusalem
and about his return and the end of
the age.
13:4 21:7
13:5 21:8 24:4 Quoting Mark
13:6 24:5
13:7 21:9 24:6
TABLE 2. Luke 17
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Matthew 24
132 Mark 13: Introduction
13:8 21:10 24:7
21:11 24:8
13:13a 21:17 24:9 Matthew rearranged material here
a little. Mark 13:9 is found in Mat-
thew 10:17-18 (although the open-
ing of Matthew 24:9 is a summary
of this material) and Mark 13:11-
12 in Matthew 10:19-21. Mark
13:13 was then moved ahead and
three topically related verses from
another source inserted in the mid-
dle of it.
24:10
24:11
24:12
13:13b 21:18 24:13
21:19
13:10 24:14 As discussed elsewhere, Mark
13:10 interrupts the flow of
thought in Mark and would seem
to be a saying of Jesus originally
delivered in a separate context but
inserted by Mark here because it
was topically related. Luke omit-
ted it, and Matthew separated it
from the context that Mark had it
and had a longer version of it, set-
ting it in an eschatological context.
13:14 21:20 24:15 Quoting Mark
21:21 24:16
13:15 17:31 24:17
13:16 24:18
13:17 21:23 24:19
13:18 24:20 Quoting Mark, but added “or on
the Sabbath”
13:19 24:21 Quoting Mark
13:20 24:22
13:21 24:23
13:22 24:24
13:23 24:25
TABLE 3. Matthew 24
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Bibliography
Mark 13: Introduction 133
6.0 Bibliography
Robert C. Newman. “The Synoptic Problem! A Proposal for Handling both Internal &
External Evidence”. Westminster Theological Journal Vol 43 #1. Fall 1980.
17:23 24:26 Luke and Matthew quoting Q.
24:27 is eschatological, but the
emphasis was on not being
deceived by false messiahs
because Jesus’ second coming
would be quite unmistakable. The
material was inserted here because
it was topically related: Jesus had
just warning against false messiahs
directly above.
17:24 24:27
17:37 24:28
13:24 21:25 24:29 Quoting Mark
13:25 21:26
13:26 21:27 24:30 Quoting Mark, but adding “At that
time the sign of the Son of Man
will appear in the sky, and all the
nations of the earth will mourn.”
13:27 21:28 24:31 Quoting Mark
13:28 21:29 24:32
21:30
13:29 21:31 24:33
13:30 21:32 24:34
13:31 21:33 24:35
13:32 24:36
17:26 24:37 Quoting Q. This material was
inserted here because it built on
and illustrated the idea of no one
knowing the day or time.
17:27 24:38
17:30 24:39
(17:36) 24:40
17:35 24:41
13:33 24:42 Quoting Mark.
13:34 12:39 24:43
13:35 12:40 24:44
TABLE 3. Matthew 24
Mark Luke Matthew Notes
Bibliography
134 Mark 13: Introduction
Ireneaus. Against Heresies. In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 1.
Eusebius. Church History. In Nicene and Post-Nicene Fathers, Series II, Volume 1.
Justin. Dialogue. In Ante-Nicene Fathers, Volume 1.
“Ireneaus”, “Eusebius”, “Clement”, “Justin”, “Mark, Gospel of” in The Anchor Bible
Dictionary.
David Laird Dungan. A History of the Synoptic Problem. Doubleday, 1999.
Donald A. Hagner. Word Bible Commentary: Matthew 1-12. Volume 33A.
Robert A. Guelich. Word Bible Commentary: Mark 1-8:26. Volume 34A.
John Nolland. Word Bible Commentary: Luke 1-9:20. Volume 35A.
135
Mark 13: The Disciples
Ask A Question (vv. 1-4)
The question defines the scope of the
answer.
1.0 Disciples Admire The Temple (Mark 13:1)
Mk 13:1 Now as Jesus was going out of the temple courts, one of his disciples said to
him, “Teacher, look at these tremendous stones and buildings!”
The temple of Jesus’ time was truly a magnificent building.1 2 Solomon built the origi-
nal temple in the mid 10th century BC. That temple was destroyed by the Babylonians
in 586 BC when Judah was deported from the land into captivity. After the Persians
defeated Babylon in 536 BC, the Jews were allowed by Cyrus to return to Jerusalem and
rebuild their temple. The story of this can be read in Ezra, Nehemiah, Haggai, and
Zechariah in the Old Testament. This temple stood for over 5 centuries. After the Per-
sians, Alexander the Great ruled Palestine. After his death, and the break up of his
empire into four empires, the Jews were often in the middle of the conflicts between the
empires, until Antiochus tried to eradicate Jewish culture and, in revolt, the Maccabees
managed to establish an independent kingdom. That lasted till the Romans came and
captured Jerusalem and the temple.
Herod, ruling Jerusalem on behalf of the Romans, rebuilt the temple and greatly
enlarged its precincts. This project started in 20 BC (some books say 19 BC) and con-
tinued for many decades (In John 2:20, the temple had been under construction for 46
years).
1. “Temple, Jerusalem” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary. See especially the picture of a model of
the temple.
2. Josephus, The Wars of the Jews, Book 5, Chapter 5, “A Description of the Temple”
Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)
136 Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4)
2.0 Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark
13:2)
Mk 13:2 Jesus said to him, “Do you see these great buildings? Not one stone will be left
on another. All will be torn down!”
2.1 Synopsis Of The Jewish War1
The Jewish revolt that started in AD 66 was very disorganized. Jewish factions fought
against each other as much as against the Romans. One of the leaders, Menachem, was
killed. Unfortunately, this didn’t end the rebellion. The rebels decimated a Roman gar-
rison at Jerusalem and, on the same day, 20,000 Jews are killed by the Gentiles of Cae-
sarea. The Jews retaliated and the Gentiles counter-retaliated.
The Roman governor of Syria, Cestius Gallus, took 30,000 troops to quell the rebellion
but was defeated and suffered 6,000 casualties. This was in October AD 66. Nero
appointed Vespasian to take care of the situation. By Spring 68, only Jerusalem was
left. The rebellion had been suppressed elsewhere.
“On June 9, 68, Nero died and Vespasian’s mandate to conduct the war likewise expired.
He was forced to await fresh orders from the new emperor. The transfer of authority in
Rome did not go smoothly. This year is known in Roman history as the Year of the Four
Emperors. Galba was acknowledged as emperor but was soon followed by Otho; and
he, in turn, by Vitellius. Rebellion and insurrection were the order of the day, and no one
in the imperial city was interested or concerned enough to address himself to the ques-
tion of Judea. After a year’s waiting, and after having observed with consternation the
increasing chaos engulfing Rome, Vespasian, on July 1, 69, staked a claim to become
the new emperor of Rome. The road from declaration of intentions to final realization,
however, was not altogether smooth, and another half year passed before Vespasian and
Titus were able to validate that declaration. In December 69, Vespasian was acknowl-
edged as Rome’s new ruler. It was only then that the new emperor was prepared to real-
ize his goals in Judea, but now he had to await the advent of spring, for it was a cardinal
rule in the Roman army not to fight during the winter months.”
Meanwhile, factions within and without Jerusalem continued to battle each other until
Titus came and besieged the city. The temple was destroyed and the city burned. Innu-
merable Jews were killed. Numerous details have been glossed over here.
2.2 Extract From The Church History of Eusebius
Eusebius wrote his Church History in the early 4th century. In chapters 5-7 of book 3 he
quotes extensively from the 1st century Jewish historian Josephus and adds some addi-
tional information specific to Christianity. This does such a good job of summarizing
the situation in Jerusalem at the time, I’m going to quote those chapters in full here.
1. From “Jewish War” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)
Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4) 137
Chapter V. The Last Siege of the Jews After Christ.
1 After Nero had held the power thirteen years, and Galba and Otho had ruled a year
and six months, Vespasian, who had become distinguished in the campaigns against the
Jews, was proclaimed sovereign in Judea and received the title of Emperor from the
armies there. Setting out immediately, therefore, for Rome, he entrusted the conduct of
the war against the Jews to his son Titus.
2 For the Jews after the ascension of our Savior, in addition to their crime against him,
had been devising as many plots as they could against his apostles. First Stephen was
stoned to death by them, and after him James, the son of Zebedee and the brother of
John, was beheaded, and finally James, the first that had obtained the episcopal seat in
Jerusalem after the ascension of our Savior, died in the manner already described. But
the rest of the apostles, who had been incessantly plotted against with a view to their
destruction, and had been driven out of the land of Judea, went unto all nations to
preach the Gospel, relying upon the power of Christ, who had said to them, “Go ye and
make disciples of all the nations in my name.”
3 But the people of the church in Jerusalem had been commanded by a revelation,
vouchsafed to approved men there before the war, to leave the city and to dwell in a cer-
tain town of Perea called Pella. And when those that believed in Christ had come thither
from Jerusalem, then, as if the royal city of the Jews and the whole land of Judea were
entirely destitute of holy men, the judgment of God at length overtook those who had
committed such outrages against Christ and his apostles, and totally destroyed that gen-
eration of impious men.
4 But the number of calamities which everywhere fell upon the nation at that time; the
extreme misfortunes to which the inhabitants of Judea were especially subjected, the
thousands of men, as well as women and children, that perished by the sword, by fam-
ine, and by other forms of death innumerable,—all these things, as well as the many
great sieges which were carried on against the cities of Judea, and the excessive. suffer-
ings endured by those that fled to Jerusalem itself, as to a city of perfect safety, and
finally the general course of the whole war, as well as its particular occurrences in
detail, and how at last the abomination of desolation, proclaimed by the prophets, stood
in the very temple of God, so celebrated of old, the temple which was now awaiting its
total and final destruction by fire,— all these things any one that wishes may find accu-
rately described in the history written by Josephus.
5 But it is necessary to state that this writer records that the multitude of those who were
assembled from all Judea at the time of the Passover, to the number of three million
souls, were shut up in Jerusalem “as in a prison,” to use his own words.
6 For it was right that in the very days in which they had inflicted suffering upon the
Savior and the Benefactor of all, the Christ of God, that in those days, shut up “as in a
prison,” they should meet with destruction at the hands of divine justice.
7 But passing by the particular calamities which they suffered from the attempts made
upon them by the sword and by other means, I think it necessary to relate only the mis-
fortunes which the famine caused, that those who read this work may have some means
of knowing that God was not long in executing vengeance upon them for their wicked-
ness against the Christ of God.
Chapter VI. The Famine Which Oppressed Them.
1 Taking the fifth book of the History of Josephus again in our hands, let us go through
the tragedy of events which then occurred.
Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)
138 Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4)
2 “For the wealthy,” he says, “it was equally dangerous to remain. For under pretense
that they were going to desert men were put to death for their wealth. The madness of
the seditions increased with the famine and both the miseries were inflamed more and
more day by day.
3 Nowhere was food to be seen; but, bursting into the houses men searched them thor-
oughly, and whenever they found anything to eat they tormented the owners on the
ground that they had denied that they had anything; but if they found nothing, they tor-
tured them on the ground that they had more carefully concealed it.
4 The proof of their having or not having food was found in the bodies of the poor
wretches. Those of them who were still in good condition they assumed were well sup-
plied with food, while those who were already wasted away they passed by, for it
seemed absurd to slay those who were on the point of perishing for want.
5 Many, indeed, secretly sold their possessions for one measure of wheat, if they
belonged to the wealthier class, of barley if they were poorer. Then shutting themselves
up in the innermost parts of their houses, some ate the grain uncooked on account of
their terrible want, while others baked it according as necessity and fear dictated.
6 Nowhere were tables set, but, snatching the yet uncooked food from the fire, they tore
it in pieces. Wretched was the fare, and a lamentable spectacle it was to see the more
powerful secure an abundance while the weaker mourned.
7 Of all evils, indeed, famine is the worst, and it destroys nothing so effectively as
shame. For that which under other circumstances is worthy of respect, in the midst of
famine is despised. Thus women snatched the food from the very mouths of their hus-
bands and children, from their fathers, and what was most pitiable of all, mothers from
their babes, And while their dearest ones were wasting away in their arms, they Were
not ashamed to take away from them the last drops that supported life.
8 And even while they were eating thus they did not remain undiscovered. But every-
where the rioters appeared, to rob them even of these portions of food. For whenever
they saw a house shut up, they regarded it as a sign that those inside were taking food.
And immediately bursting open the doors they rushed in and seized what they were eat-
ing, almost forcing it out of their very throats.
9 Old men who clung to their food were beaten, and if the women concealed it in their
hands, their hair was torn for so doing. There was pity neither for gray hairs nor for
infants, but, taking up the babes that clung to their morsels of food, they dashed them to
the ground. But to those that anticipated their entrance and swallowed what they were
about to seize, they were still more cruel, just as if they had been wronged by them.
10 And they devised the most terrible modes of torture to discover food, stopping up the
privy passages of the poor wretches with bitter herbs, and piercing their seats with sharp
rods. And men suffered things horrible even to hear of, for the sake of compelling them
to confess to the possession of one loaf of bread, or in order that they might be made to
disclose a single drachm of barley which they had concealed. But the tormentors them-
selves did not suffer hunger.
11 Their conduct might indeed have seemed less barbarous if they had been driven to it
by necessity; but they did it for the sake of exercising their madness and of providing
sustenance for themselves for days to come.
12 And when any one crept out of the city by night as far as the outposts of the Romans
to collect wild herbs and grass, they went to meet him; and when he thought he had
already escaped the enemy, they seized what he had brought with him, and even though
oftentimes the man would entreat them, and, calling upon the most awful name of God,
Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)
Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4) 139
adjure them to give him a portion of what he had obtained at the risk of his life, they
would give him nothing back. Indeed, it was fortunate if the one that was plundered was
not also slain.”
13 To this account Josephus, after relating other things, adds the following: “The possi-
bility of going out of the city being brought to an end, all hope of safety for the Jews
was cut off. And the famine increased and devoured the people by houses and families.
And the rooms were filled with dead women and children, the lanes of the city with the
corpses of old men.
14 Children and youths, swollen with the famine, wandered about the market-places
like shadows, and fell down wherever the death agony overtook them. The sick were
not strong enough to bury even their own relatives, and those who had the strength hes-
itated because of the multitude of the dead and the uncertainty as to their own fate.
Many, indeed, died while they were burying others, and many betook themselves to
their graves before death came upon them.
15 There was neither weeping nor lamentation under these misfortunes; but the famine
stifled the natural affections. Those that were dying a lingering death looked with dry
eyes upon those that had gone to their rest before them. Deep silence and death-laden
night encircled the city.
16 But the robbers were more terrible than these miseries; for they broke open the
houses, which were now mere sepulchres, robbed the dead and stripped the covering
from their bodies, and went away with a laugh. They tried the points of their swords in
the dead bodies, and some that were lying on the ground still alive they thrust through in
order to test their weapons. But those that prayed that they would use their right hand
and their sword upon them, they contemptuously left to be destroyed by the famine.
Every one of these died with eyes fixed upon the temple; and they left the seditious
alive.
17 These at first gave orders that the dead should be buried out of the public treasury,
for they could not endure the stench. But afterward, when they were not able to do this,
they threw the bodies from the walls into the trenches.
18 And as Titus went around and saw the trenches filled with the dead, and the thick
blood oozing out of the putrid bodies, he groaned aloud, and, raising his hands, called
God to witness that this was not his doing.”
19 After speaking of some other things, Josephus proceeds as follows: “I cannot hesi-
tate to declare what my feelings compel me to. I suppose, if the Romans had longer
delayed in coming against these guilty wretches, the city would have been swallowed
up by a chasm, or overwhelmed with a flood, or struck with such thunderbolts as
destroyed Sodom. For it had brought forth a generation of men much more godless than
were those that suffered such punishment. By their madness indeed was the whole peo-
ple brought to destruction.”
20 And in the sixth book he writes as follows: “Of those that perished by famine in the
city the number was countless, and the miseries they underwent unspeakable. For if so
much as the shadow of food appeared in any house, there was war, and the dearest
friends engaged in hand-to-hand conflict with one another, and snatched from each
other the most wretched supports of life.
21 Nor would they believe that even the dying were without food; but the robbers would
search them while they were expiring, lest any one should feign death while concealing
food in his bosom. With mouths gaping for want of food, they stumbled and staggered
Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)
140 Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4)
along like mad dogs, and beat the doors as if they were drunk, and in their impotence
they would rush into the same houses twice or thrice in one hour.
22 Necessity compelled them to eat anything they could find, and they gathered and
devoured things that were not fit even for the filthiest of irrational beasts. Finally they
did not abstain even from their girdles and shoes, and they stripped the hides off their
shields and devoured them. Some used even wisps of old hay for food, and others gath-
ered stubble and sold the smallest weight of it for four Attic drachmae.
23 “But why should I speak of the shamelessness which was displayed during the fam-
ine toward inanimate things? For I am going to relate a fact such as is recorded neither
by Greeks nor Barbarians; horrible to relate, incredible to hear. And indeed I should
gladly have omitted this calamity, that I might not seem to posterity to be a teller of fab-
ulous tales, if I had not innumerable witnesses to it in my own age. And besides, I
should render my country poor service if I suppressed the account of the sufferings
which she endured.
24 “There was a certain woman named Mary that dwelt beyond Jordan, whose father
was Eleazer, of the village of Bathezor (which signifies the house of hyssop). She was
distinguished for her family and her wealth, and had fled with the rest of the multitude
to Jerusalem and was shut up there with them during the siege.
25 The tyrants had robbed her of the rest of the property which she had brought with her
into the city from Perea. And the remnants of her possessions and whatever food was to
be seen the guards rushed in daily and snatched away from her. This made the woman
terribly angry, and by her frequent reproaches and imprecations she aroused the anger of
the rapacious villains against herself.
26 But no one either through anger or pity would slay her; and she grew weary of find-
ing food for others to eat. The search, too, was already become everywhere difficult,
and the famine was piercing her bowels and marrow, and resentment was raging more
violently than famine. Taking, therefore, anger and necessity as her counselors, she pro-
ceeded to do a most unnatural thing.
27 Seizing her child, a boy which was sucking at her breast, she said, Oh, wretched
child, in war, in famine, in sedition, for what do I preserve thee? Slaves among the
Romans we shall be even if we are allowed to live by them. But even slavery is antici-
pated by the famine, and the rioters are more cruel than both. Come, be food for me, a
fury for these rioters, and a byword to the world, for this is all that is wanting to com-
plete the calamities of the Jews.
28 And when she had said this she slew her son; and having roasted him, she ate one
half herself, and covering up the remainder, she kept it. Very soon the rioters appeared
on the scene, and, smelling the nefarious odor, they threatened to slay her immediately
unless she should show them what she had prepared. She replied that she had saved an
excellent portion for them, and with that she uncovered the remains of the child.
29 They were immediately seized with horror and amazement and stood transfixed at
the sight. But she said This is my own son, and the deed is mine. Eat for I too have
eaten. Be not more merciful than a woman, nor more compassionate than a mother. But
if you are too pious and shrink from my sacrifice, I have already eaten of it; let the rest
also remain for me.
30 At these words the men went out trembling, in this one case being affrighted; yet
with difficulty did they yield that food to the mother. Forthwith the whole city was filled
with the awful crime, and as all pictured the terrible deed before their own eyes, they
trembled as if they had done it themselves.
Jesus Predicts The Temple’s Destruction (Mark 13:2)
Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4) 141
31 Those that were suffering from the famine now longed for death; and blessed were
they that had died before hearing and seeing miseries like these.”
32 Such was the reward which the Jews received for their wickedness and impiety,
against the Christ of God.
Chapter VII. The Predictions of Christ.
1 It is fitting to add to these accounts the true prediction of our Savior in which he fore-
told these very events.
2 His words are as follows: “Woe unto them that are with child, and to them that give
suck in those days! But pray ye that your flight be not in the winter, neither on the Sab-
bath day; For there shall be great tribulation, such as was not since the beginning of the
world to this time, no, nor ever shall be.”
3 The historian, reckoning the whole number of the slain, says that eleven hundred
thousand persons perished by famine and sword, and that the rest of the rioters and rob-
bers, being betrayed by each other after the taking of the city, were slain. But the tallest
of the youths and those that were distinguished for beauty were preserved for the tri-
umph. Of the rest of the multitude, those that were over seventeen years of age were
sent as prisoners to labor in the works of Egypt, while still more were scattered through
the provinces to meet their death in the theaters by the sword and by beasts. Those
under seventeen years of age were carried away to be sold as slaves, and of these alone
the number reached ninety thousand.
4 These things took place in this manner in the second year of the reign of Vespasian, in
accordance with the prophecies of our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ, who by divine
power saw them beforehand as if they were already present, and wept and mourned
according to the statement of the holy evangelists, who give the very words which be
uttered, when, as if addressing Jerusalem herself, he said:
5 “If thou hadst known, even thou, in this day, the things which belong unto thy peace!
But now they are hid from thine eyes. For the days shall come upon thee, that thine ene-
mies shall cast a rampart about thee, and compass thee round, and keep thee in on every
side, and shall lay thee and thy children even with the ground.”
6 And then, as if speaking concerning the people, he says, “For there shall be great dis-
tress in the land, and wrath upon this people. And they shall fall by the edge of the
sword, and shall be led away captive into all nations. And Jerusalem shall be trodden
down of the Gentiles, until the times of the Gentiles be fulfilled.” And again: “When ye
shall see Jerusalem compassed with armies, then know that the desolation thereof is
nigh.”
7 If any one compares the words of our Savior with the other accounts of the historian
concerning the whole war, how can one fail to wonder, and to admit that the foreknowl-
edge and the prophecy of our Savior were truly divine and marvelously strange.
8 Concerning those calamities, then, that befell the whole Jewish nation after the Sav-
ior’s passion and after the words which the multitude of the Jews uttered, when they
begged the release of the robber and murderer, but besought that the Prince of Life
should be taken from their midst, it is not necessary to add anything to the account of
the historian.....
Disciples Ask When It Will Happen and For Signs (Mark 13:3-4)
142 Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4)
3.0 Disciples Ask When It Will Happen and For Signs
(Mark 13:3-4)
13:3 So while he was sitting on the Mount of Olives opposite the temple, Peter, James,
John, and Andrew asked him privately, 13:4 “Tell us, when will these things happen?
And what will be the sign that all these things are about to take place?”
Verse 3 takes us to a later point in time, presumably later that same day. The location
shifts from the temple, to the Mount of Olives. According to Luke 21:37, this is where
Jesus spent the night during the last few days before the crucifixion. This location is
what gives Jesus’ reply the name “Olivet Discourse”.
Signs to validate a prophecy have Old Testament precedents.
•In Judges 6:17ff Gideon asked for a sign that it is really the LORD speaking to him.
His offering is consumed by a fire when touched by the tip of the staff of the angel of
the LORD.
•In 1 Samuel 3:34 the death of Eli’s sons were to be a sign to him of God’s judgement
on his family and that he would raise up a faithful priest in Eli’s place.
•In 1 Samuel 14:10, the Philistines telling Jonathan “Come up to us” was a sign that
the LORD had given them into Jonathan’s hands.
•In 1 Kings 13:3, a prophet gave the sign that the altar would split apart and the ashes
spill out to prove the truth of his prophecy.
•Etc.
In the New Testament, Jesus was asked a sign by the multitudes, he refused, saying only
that the only sign they would receive would be the sign of Jonah, here, in private with
four of his disciples, Jesus did grant an answer. But, the answer was a “sorry I asked”
kind of answer: the sign was persecutions, torture, and death of the disciples.
Note very carefully what is being asked about. “These things” referred to what Jesus
had just said in verse 2: the destruction of the Temple complex, which we know took
place 40 years later, in AD 70. They were not asking about anything further than that,
and so we should be very cautious about reading anything further than that into Jesus’
answer, especially apocalyptic, end-of-the-world prophecies. It is common for dispen-
sationalists to read the entire discourse as apocalyptic, which totally ignores the contex-
tual setup here.
4.0 Bibliography
“Jewish War” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Eusebius, The Church History, Book 3 ,Chapters 5-7, in Nicene and Post-Nicene
Fathers, Second Series: Volume 1.
Josephus, The Wars of the Jews.
Bibliography
Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4) 143
“Temple, Jerusalem” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Bibliography
144 Mark 13: The Disciples Ask A Question (vv. 1-4)
145
Mark 13: Jesus Answers
(vv. 5-37)
“I tell you the truth, this generation will not
pass away until all these things take place.”
1.0 The Beginning of Birth Pains (Mark 13:5-8)
Mk 13:5 Jesus began to say to them, “Watch out that no one misleads you. 13:6 Many
will come in my name, saying, ‘I am he,’ and they will mislead many. 13:7 When you
hear of wars and rumors of wars, do not be alarmed. These things must happen, but the
end is still to come. 13:8 For nation will rise up in arms against nation, and kingdom
against kingdom. There will be earthquakes in various places, and there will be famines.
These are but the beginning of birth pains.
Note especially two phrases here “the end is still to come” and “these are but the begin-
ning of birth pains”. This pretty much rules out interpreting these verses as end time
prophecy per se. Rather, we should look to the 1st century AD for all these items.
1.1 False Messiahs
False messiahs had already plagued Judaism. Acts 5:36-39 mentions two: Theudas and
Judas the Galilean. Christianity was to be no different. In Acts 8:4-24 we met a magi-
cian by the name of Simon. It was said of him “This man is the power of God that is
called ‘Great’” (Acts 8:10). He ostensibly believed the preaching of Philip and was
baptized. However he tried to buy with money the Holy Spirit, for which he was
rebuked. In Acts, there the story ends, but in the book Against Heresies, Irenaeus wrote
in about 180 AD:
He, then, not putting faith in God a whit the more, set himself eagerly to contend against
the apostles, in order that he himself might seem to be a wonderful being, and applied
himself with still greater zeal to the study of the whole magic art, that he might the bet-
ter bewilder and overpower multitudes of men. Such was his procedure in the reign of
Claudius Caesar, by whom also he is said to have been honored with a statue, on
account of his magical power. This man, then, was glorified by many as if he were a
The Beginning of Birth Pains (Mark 13:5-8)
146 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
god; and he taught that it was himself who appeared among the Jews as the Son, but
descended in Samaria as the Father while he came to other nations in the character of
the Holy Spirit. He represented himself, in a word, as being the loftiest of all powers,
that is, the Being who is the Father over all, and he allowed himself to be called by
whatsoever title men were pleased to address him.
2. Now this Simon of Samaria, from whom all sorts of heresies derive their origin,
formed his sect out of the following materials:—Having redeemed from slavery at Tyre,
a city of Phoenicia, a certain woman named Helena, he was in the habit of carrying her
about with him, declaring that this woman was the first conception of his mind, the
mother of all, by whom, in the beginning, he conceived in his mind [the thought] of
forming angels and archangels. For this Ennoea leaping forth from him, and compre-
hending the will of her father, descended to the lower regions [of space], and generated
angels and powers, by whom also he declared this word was formed. But after she had
produced them, she was detained by them through motives of jealousy, because they
were unwilling to be looked upon as the progeny of any other being. As to himself, they
had no knowledge of him whatever; but his Ennoea was detained by those powers and
angels who had been produced by her. She suffered all kinds of contumely from them,
so that she could not return upwards to her father, but was even shut up in a human
body, and for ages passed in succession from one female body to another, as from vessel
to vessel. She was, for example, in that Helen on whose account the Trojan war was
undertaken; for whose sake also Stesichorus was struck blind, because he had cursed
her in his verses, but afterwards, repenting and writing what are called palinodes, in
which he sang her praise, he was restored to sight. Thus she, passing from body to body,
and suffering insults in every one of them, at last became a common prostitute; and she
it was that was meant by the lost sheep.
3. For this purpose, then, he had come that he might win her first, and free her from sla-
very, while he conferred salvation upon men, by making himself known to them. For
since the angels ruled the world ill because each one of them coveted the principal
power for himself, he had come to amend matters, and had descended, transfigured and
assimilated to powers and principalities and angels, so that he might appear among men
to be a man, while yet he was not a man; and that thus he was thought to have suffered
in Judaea, when he had not suffered. Moreover, the prophets uttered their predictions
under the inspiration of those angels who formed the world; for which reason those who
place their trust in him and Helena no longer regarded them, but, as being free, live as
they please; for men are saved through his grace, and not on account of their own righ-
teous actions. For such deeds are not righteous in the nature of things, but by mere acci-
dent, just as those angels who made the world, have thought fit to constitute them,
seeking, by means of such precepts, to bring men into bondage. On this account, he
pledged himself that the world should be dissolved, and that those who are his should be
freed from the rule of them who made the world.
4. Thus, then, the mystic priests belonging to this sect both lead profligate lives and
practice magical arts, each one to the extent of his ability. They use exorcisms and
incantations. Love-potions, too, and charms, as well as those beings who are called
“Paredri” (familiars) and “Oniropompi” (dream-senders), and whatever other curious
arts can be had recourse to, are eagerly pressed into their service. They also have an
image of Simon fashioned after the likeness of Jupiter, and another of Helena in the
shape of Minerva; and these they worship. In fine, they have a name derived from
Simon, the author of these most impious doctrines, being called Simonians; and from
them “knowledge, falsely so called,” received its beginning, as one may learn even
from their own assertions.1
The Beginning of Birth Pains (Mark 13:5-8)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 147
Irenaeus went on to document other similar false messiahs: Menander, Saturninus,
Basilides, Carpocrates, etc. By the second century, Gnosticism had arisen out of their
teachings, the basic myth of which was that the God of the Old Testament is an evil god
and Jesus had come from the real Father in heaven and was sent to rescue bits of divine
light that were trapped in the evil world of matter by the God of the Jews. Thus they
preached a false Jesus.1
1.2 Wars and Rumors of Wars
Rome was in chaos during the Jewish War during which the Temple in Jerusalem was
destroyed. One year is known as “the year of four emperors”. Generals and their
armies were fighting each other in Rome itself to succeed Nero as emperor. Vespasian
broke off his siege of Jerusalem to go and take the throne himself.2
Note the wording “when you hear...”. The “you” being addressed is not us, the reader,
but was the apostles who asked for sign. It was they who would see these signs in their
lifetime.
1.3 Earthquakes and Famines
Josephus reported during the Jewish War:
But the shame that would attend them in case they returned without doing any thing at
all, so far overcame that their repentance, that they lay all night before the wall, though
in a very bad encampment; for there broke out a prodigious storm in the night, with the
utmost violence, and very strong winds, with the largest showers of rain, with continued
lightnings, terrible thunderings, and amazing concussions and bellowings of the earth,
that was in an earthquake. These things were a manifest indication that some destruc-
tion was coming upon men, when the system of the world was put into this disorder;
and any one would guess that these wonders foreshowed some grand calamities that
were coming.3
Modern historians have argued that the devastating famine of AD 48, “combined with
the oppressive taxations of the procurators, impoverished the people” and these socio-
economic conditions contributed to the breaking out of the revolt.4
During the persecutions of the early church it was fashionable to blame Christians for
any famine or earthquake that happened, saying “to the lions with the Christians”.5
Evidently these sorts of incidents were common enough for this to be an issue.
1. Irenaeus, Against Heresies,Book 1, Chapter 23.
1. See “Messianic Expectations” on page 87.
2. See “Synopsis Of The Jewish War” on page 136.
3. Josephus, Wars of the Jews, Book IV, Chapter 4, Paragraph 5 (4:285).
4. “Jewish War” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary.
5. “Roman Empire and Christianity: Attitude Of The Roman Empire To Religions” in Interna-
tional Standard Bible Encyclopedia
Persecution (Mark 13:9-13)
148 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
2.0 Persecution (Mark 13:9-13)
Mk 13:9 “You must watch out for yourselves. You will be handed over to councils and
beaten in the synagogues. You will stand before governors and kings because of me, as
a witness to them. 13:10 First the gospel must be preached to all nations. 13:11 When
they arrest you and hand you over for trial, do not worry about what to speak. But say
whatever is given you at that time, for it is not you speaking, but the Holy Spirit. 13:12
Brother will hand over brother to death, and a father his child. Children will rise against
parents and have them put to death. 13:13 You will be hated by everyone because of my
name. But the one who endures to the end will be saved.
2.1 Early Persecutions
Peter and John were arrested and warned not to preach about Jesus not long after Pente-
cost (Acts 4). Further arrests soon followed (Acts 5:17ff). This soon escalated to the
stoning of Stephen (Acts 6:8-7:60). Emboldened, Saul began a persecution in earnest.
Most were forced to leave Jerusalem, which, rather than squelching the movement,
caused it to spread more rapidly (Acts 8:1-3 & ff.). Saul obtained authority to arrest
Jews who were followers of the Way in Damascus to bring them to Jerusalem. On his
way to Damascus, he experienced his conversion (Acts 9). With his conversion, the
worst of that persecution seems to have been over.
The next persecution was by the secular authorities. Herod executed James and impris-
oned Peter (Acts 12) in about AD 42 or 431. Paul met resistance on numerous occa-
sions, which often brought in the secular authorities because of the breach of public
order that would result. He reported having been arrested, imprisoned, and beat on
many occasions. (2 Corinthians 11:23-27)
Except for Saul’s persecution, these weren’t really organized general persecutions yet.
2.2 The Ten Primitive Persecutions
In July AD 64, most of the city of Rome burned to the ground. It was rumored that the
fire was started by Emperor Nero himself, and many historians have judged the rumor
true. To deflect the blame from himself, Nero blamed the Christians, and for a time,
sought them out for particularly hideous executions. On one occasion, their clothes
were dipped in wax and they were set afire to illuminate a chariot race that Nero com-
peted in! Tradition has it that Paul and Peter were martyred in Rome around this time,
although if Paul were executed by the courtesy of beheading, as tradition holds, it was
likely before or a while after this particular persecution. A Roman historian, Tacitis,
wrote:
“But not all the relief of men, nor the bounties of the emperor, nor the propitiation of the
gods, could relieve him [Nero] from the infamy of being believed to have ordered the
conflagration. Therefore, in order to suppress the rumor, Nero falsely charged with the
guilt, and punished with the most exquisite tortures, those persons who, hated for their
crimes, were commonly called Christians .... The founder of that name, Christus, had
1. NET Note on Acts 12:1..
Persecution (Mark 13:9-13)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 149
been put to death ... by the procurator of Judaea, Pontius Pilate, in the reign of Tiberius;
but the pernicious superstition ..., repressed for a time, broke out again, not only through
Judaea, the source of this evil, but also through the city [of Rome], whither all things
vile and shameful flow from all quarters, and are encouraged .... Accordingly, first,
those only were arrested who confessed. Next, on their information, a vast multitude ...,
were convicted, not so much of the crime of incendiarism as of hatred of the human race
.... And in their deaths they were made the subjects of sport; for they were wrapped in
the hides of wild beasts and torn to pieces by dogs, or nailed to crosses, or set on fire,
and when day declined, were burned to serve for nocturnal lights .... Nero had offered
his own gardens [on the Vatican] for this spectacle, and also exhibited a chariot race on
the occasion, now mingling in the crowd in the dress of a charioteer, now actually hold-
ing the reins. Whence a feeling of compassion arose towards the sufferers, though justly
held to be odious, because they seemed not to be cut off for the public good, but as vic-
tims to the ferocity of one man.”1
This was but the first of what is sometimes referred to as the ten primitive persecutions
that were carried out by the Roman Empire before Christianity was legalized, and
occurred just a few years before the destruction of the temple, as predicted by Jesus.
A chilling exchanged is recorded in the letters of Pliny the Younger, between himself
and the Emperor Trajan over what to do about the Christians (this would have been dur-
ing the 3rd persecution at the beginning of the second century).
C. PLINY TO TRAJAN EMPEROR, HEALTH
“IT is my usual custom, Sir, to refer all things, of which I harbor any doubts, to you. For
who can better direct my judgment in its hesitation, or instruct my understanding in its
ignorance? I never had the fortune to be present at any examination of christians, before
I came into this province. I am therefore at a loss to determine, what is the usual object,
either of inquiry or punishment, and to what length either of them is to be carried. It has
also been with me a question very problematical, whether any distinction should be
made between the young and the old, the tender and the robust; whether any room
should be given for repentance, or the guilt of christianity once incurred is not to be
expiated by the most unequivocal retraction; whether the name itself, abstracted from
any flagitiousness of conduct, or the crimes connected with the name, be the object of
punishment. In the mean time this has been my method, with respect to those who were
brought before me as christians. I asked them whether they were christians? If they
pleaded guilty, I interrogated them twice afresh, with a menace of capital punishment.
In case of obstinate perseverance, I ordered them to be executed. For of this I had no
doubt, whatever was the nature of their religion, that a sullen and obstinate inflexibility
called for the vengeance of the magistrate. Some there were infected with the same
madness, whom, on account of their privilege of citizenship, I reserved to be sent to
Rome, to be referred to your tribunal. In the course of this business, information pour-
ing in, as is usual when they are encouraged, more cases occurred. An anonymous libel
was exhibited, with a catalogue of names of persons, who yet declared, that they were
not christians then, or ever had been; and repeated after me an invocation of the gods
and of your image, which, for this purpose, I had ordered to be brought with the images
of the deities, performed sacred rites with wine and frankincense, and execrated Christ,
none of which things, I am told, a real christian can ever be impelled to do. On this
account I dismissed them. Others, named by an informer, first affirmed and then denied
the charge of christianity, declaring that they had been christians, but had desisted, some
1. Tacitis, Annal., XV 44, quoted in Schaff, History of the Christian Church. Section 37
Persecution (Mark 13:9-13)
150 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
three years ago, others still longer, some even twenty years ago. All of them worshipped
your image, and the statues of the gods, and also execrated Christ. And this was the
account which they gave me of the nature of the religion they once had professed,
whether it deserves the name of crime or error, that they were accustomed on a stated
day to meet before daylight, and to repeat among themselves a hymn to Christ as to a
God, and to bind themselves by an oath with an obligation of not committing any wick-
edness, but on the contrary, of abstaining from thefts, robberies, and adulteries, also of
not violating their promise, or denying a pledge, after which, it was their custom to sep-
arate, and to meet again at a promiscuous, harmless meal, from which last they yet
desisted, after the publication of my edict in which, agreeably to your orders, I forbade
any societies, On which account, I judged it the more necessary, to inquire by torture
from two females, who were said to be deaconesses, what is the real truth. But nothing
could I collect, except a depraved and excessive superstition. Deferring, therefore, any
further investigation, I determined to consult you. For the number of culprits is so great,
as to call for serious consultation. For many are informed against of every age and of
both sexes, and more still will be in the same situation. For the contagion of the super-
stition hath spread not only through cities, but even villages and the country. Not that I
think it impossible to check and correct it: The success of my endeavors hitherto forbids
such desponding thoughts; for the temples once almost desolate, begin to be frequented,
and the sacred solemnities, which had long been intermitted, are now attended afresh;
and the sacrificial victims are now sold every where, which once could scarce find a
purchaser. Whence I conclude, that many might be reclaimed, were the hope of impu-
nity on repentance absolutely confirmed.”
TRAJAN TO PLINY
“You have done perfectly right, my clear Pliny, in the inquiry which you have made
concerning christians. For truly, no one general rule can be laid down, which will apply
itself to all cases. They must not be sought after. If they are brought before you and con-
victed, let them be capitally punished, yet with this restriction, that if any renounce
christianity, and evidence his sincerity by supplicating our gods, however suspected he
may be for the past, he shall obtain pardon for the future, on his repentance. But anony-
mous libels in no case ought to be attended to; for the precedent would be of the worst
sort, and perfectly incongruous to the maxims of my government.”1
2.3 Roman Attitudes Towards Christianity
In Roman law, a religion could be a religio licita (licensed religion) or a religio illicita
(unlicensed religion). Although in practice, the distinction was seldom enforced. Juda-
ism was a religio licita, and was accorded a number of privileges, including the right to
contribute to the temple instead of paying the poll tax to the temple of the Capitoline
Jupiter. Christianity initially enjoyed these same rights. Even after the Jewish War,
Judaism remained a religio licita, although it lost many of its extra privileges. Chris-
tianity, however, came not only to be regarded as a separate, and thus religio illicita, but
especially hated.
There are many reasons why this was the case.2
•Christianity inherited the hatred that was already often expressed towards Judaism.
1. David Benedict, A General History of the Baptist Denomination, Volume 1. 1813. Ages
Library. pp. 12-14
Abomination Of Desolation (Mark 13:14-20)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 151
•Christians’ use of the term “kingdom of God” was misunderstood and mistrusted by
the government.
•Apocalyptic teaching implied the eventual destruction of the Roman Empire.
•Christianity appeared suddenly, and thus was not protected by its antiquity, as Taci-
tus described Judaism.
•Christianity claimed exclusiveness, not tolerating other religions, refusing the syn-
cretism that was nearly universal in pagan religions. This was especially a problem
with regard to the cult of the Genius of the emperor.
•The separateness of Christianity from the world and the language used in the Eucha-
rist led to rumors of scandalous crimes.
•Christians were aggressive in proselytizing.
•It became popular to blame Christians for drought, pestilence, earthquakes, and
other public calamities.
•Christian doctrine of the sinfulness of man and need for repentance lead to accusa-
tions of hatred of humanity.
•Heresies within the church, and the heretic’s behavior (especially the Gnostics), led
to guilt by association for orthodox Christians.
2.4 Do Not Worry
The admonishment to not worry about responding is an encouragement to confidence,
not an injunction to not prepare. I’ve known churches that held that it was wrong for a
preacher to preach from prepared notes on the basis of this passage, but that is to totally
misunderstand it. This is not a negative injunction as much as it is a positive encourage-
ment. Elsewhere Jesus taught the importance of preparation (see Luke 14:28-33).
3.0 Abomination Of Desolation (Mark 13:14-20)
13:14 “But when you see the abomination of desolation standing where it should not be
(let the reader understand), then those in Judea must flee to the mountains. 13:15 The
one on the roof must not come down or go inside to take anything out of his house.
13:16 The one in the field must not turn back to get his cloak. 13:17 Woe to those who
are pregnant and to those who are nursing their babies in those days! 13:18 Pray that it
may not be in winter. 13:19 For in those days there will be suffering unlike anything
that has happened from the beginning of the creation that God created until now, or ever
will happen. 13:20 And if the Lord had not cut short those days, no one would be saved.
But because of the elect, whom he chose, he has cut them short.
2. The following list is derived from “Attitude of the Roman Empire To Religions” and “Rela-
tions Between The Roman Empire And Christianity” in the article “Roman Empire And Chris-
tianity” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia.
Abomination Of Desolation (Mark 13:14-20)
152 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
3.1 “let the reader understand”
Jesus obviously wouldn’t have referred to a recipient of his message as the ‘the reader’
when he was delivering his message orally. Rather, he was referring to the reader of the
Old Testament prophecy he was quoting, namely Daniel 9:27.
Da 9:24 “Seventy weeks have been determined
concerning your people and your holy city
to put an end to rebellion,
to bring sin to completion,
to atone for iniquity,
to bring in perpetual righteousness,
to seal up the prophetic vision,
and to anoint a most holy place.
9:25 So know and understand:
From the issuing of the command to restore and rebuild
Jerusalem until an anointed one, a prince arrives,
there will be a period of seven weeks and sixty-two weeks.
It will again be built, with plaza and moat,
but in distressful times.
9:26 Now after the sixty-two weeks,
an anointed one will be cut off and have nothing.
As for the city and the sanctuary,
the people of the coming prince will destroy them.
But his end will come speedily like a flood.
Until the end of the war that has been decreed
there will be destruction.
9:27 He will confirm a covenant with many for one week.
But in the middle of that week
he will bring sacrifices and offerings to a halt.
On the wing of abominations will come one who destroys,
until the decreed end is poured out on the one who destroys.”
Commentators differ considerably about how to interpret this passage. One view holds
that this (and all other prophecies in Daniel) pointed to the situation with Antiochus IV
and the revolt against him under the lead of the Macabees. Antiochus captured and des-
ecrated the temple, halting the sacrifices and erecting a pagan altar. However, it is tra-
ditional to understand the “anointed one”, to be the Messiah. This is more consistent
with the usual understanding of the ‘sevens’ as being seven years. While several inter-
pretations have been proposed regarding exact dates, for our purposes here it is suffi-
cient to note that the time between Daniel and Christ was about five centuries
(70*7=490).1
Since Jesus himself associated the abomination with the destruction of Jerusalem (see
especially the parallel version in Luke, which is discussed in more detail later), then it
would seem best to take this passage to refer to this period of time. Too much should
not be made of the exact time frame of the 70 ‘sevens’. In the greater context, Daniel
has noted that the 70 years of captivity predicted by Jeremiah is nearly over and prays to
God for Israel. The vision of the 70 ‘sevens’ is God’s reply. The point would appear to
1. See “Daniel 9:24-27 — Seventy Weeks” on page 52.
False Messiahs (Mark 13:21-23)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 153
play off of the number 70 more than to specify a time frame as precise as, say, 492
years, 2 months, 5 days, 3 hours, 38 minutes 55.234335579423 seconds. That 490 years
from Daniel’s time gets us to the neighborhood of Jesus’ ministry and the destruction of
the temple and the permanent end of the sacrifice is enough to confirm this interpreta-
tion. Arguments over exact dates and calendars are interesting, but unnecessary.
3.2 Eusebius
Refer back to the quotes from Eusebius made earlier.1 He noted that the Christians were
warned by a prophecy to flee Jerusalem in time to escape its siege and destruction and
quoted Josephus at length about the horrors that Jesus predicted here.
4.0 False Messiahs (Mark 13:21-23)
Mk 13:21 Then if anyone says to you, ‘Look, here is the Christ!’ or ‘Look, there he is!’
do not believe him. 13:22 For false messiahs and false prophets will appear and perform
signs and wonders to deceive, if possible, the elect. 13:23 Be careful! I have told you
everything ahead of time.
See previous discussion of false messiahs.2
Notice how urgently he was speaking to his disciples. He was talking about a situation
that would happen in the lifetime of the four apostles he was talking to, not some distant
age.
5.0 Allusions From Old Testament Prophets (Mark
13:24-27)
The Arrival of the Son of Man
Mk 13:24 “But in those days, after that suffering, the sun will be darkened and the moon
will not give its light; 13:25 the stars will be falling from heaven, and the powers in the
heavens will be shaken. 13:26 Then everyone will see the Son of Man arriving in the
clouds with great power and glory. 13:27 Then he will send angels and they will gather
his elect from the four winds, from the ends of the earth to the ends of heaven.
This passage consists primarily of quotations and allusions to the Old Testament. To
understand what Jesus meant by them, we must look at their original context.
5.1 Isaiah 13:10,13
Is 13:1 This is a message about Babylon that God revealed to Isaiah son of Amoz:
....
13:9 Look, the Lord’s day of judgment is coming;
1. See “Extract From The Church History of Eusebius” on page 136.
2. See “False Messiahs” on page 145.
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154 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
it is a day of cruelty and savage, raging anger,
destroying the earth
and annihilating its sinners.
13:10 Indeed the stars in the sky and their constellations
no longer give out their light;
the sun is darkened as soon as it rises,
and the moon does not shine.
13:11 I will punish the world for its evil,
and wicked people for their sin.
I will put an end to the pride of the insolent,
I will bring down the arrogance of tyrants.
13:12 I will make human beings more scarce than pure gold,
and people more scarce than gold from Ophir.
13:13 So I will shake the heavens,
and the earth will shake loose from its foundation,
because of the fury of the Lord who commands armies,
in the day he vents his raging anger.
....
13:17 Look, I am stirring up the Medes to attack them;
they are not concerned about silver,
nor are they interested in gold.
13:18 Their arrows will cut young men to ribbons;
they have no compassion on a person’s offspring,
they will not look with pity on children.
13:19 Babylon, the most admired of kingdoms,
the Chaldeans’ source of honor and pride,
will be destroyed by God
just as Sodom and Gomorrah were.
...
Chapter 13 of the book of Isaiah is a prophecy against Babylon, making the specific pre-
diction that the Medes would be the instrument of Gods wrath against them. Although
the language used is often described as apocalyptic, it is clear that the thrust of the chap-
ter is a prediction of events that took place in the second half of the 6th century BC. The
literary form is poetic, so we must expect the use of poetic imagery and not take each
detail, such as the heavens trembling, or the sun itself being extinguished as literal, mat-
ter-of-fact, details. Rather, I see here a country devastated by invasion, the cities burn-
ing, the sounds of buildings collapsing, the sky filled with black smoke such that even
the noon day is dark. Isaiah was painting an image of devastation here, even invoking
Sodom and Gomorrah, not because God is going to rain down fire and brimstone as he
did on them, but to paint a word picture of the destruction that would be carried out by
the Medes on Babylon, a conflagration that would be, none-the-less, the work of the
hand of God just as much as the destruction of Sodom and Gomorrah had been.1
5.2 Isaiah 34:4
The Lord Will Judge Edom
Is 34:1 Come near, you nations, and listen!
Pay attention, you people!
1. See “Isaiah 13:1-14:23 — The Burden of Babylon” on page 25.
Allusions From Old Testament Prophets (Mark 13:24-27)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 155
The earth and everything it contains must listen,
the world and everything that lives in it.
34:2 For the Lord is angry at all the nations
and furious with all their armies.
He will annihilate them and slaughter them.
34:3 Their slain will be left unburied,
their corpses will stink;
the hills will soak up their blood.
34:4 All the stars in the sky will fade away,
the sky will roll up like a scroll;
all its stars will wither,
like a leaf withers and falls from a vine
or a fig withers and falls from a tree.
34:5 He says, “Indeed, my sword has slaughtered heavenly powers.
Look, it now descends on Edom,
on the people I will annihilate in judgment.”
34:6 The Lord’s sword is dripping with blood,
it is covered with fat;
it drips with the blood of young rams and goats
and is covered with the fat of rams’ kidneys.
For the Lord is holding a sacrifice in Bozrah,
a bloody slaughter in the land of Edom.
34:7 Wild oxen will be slaughtered along with them,
as well as strong bulls.
Their land is drenched with blood,
their soil is covered with fat.
....
Here again Isaiah used some apocalyptic sounding imagery, but again, it is clear from
the context that the end of the world was not indicated, but rather the prophecy was
directed towards Edom and was focused on the 7th and 6th centuries BC. Again, we
have a poetic word picture of destruction of cities. We should imagine a whole town
burning, the sky full of smoke, burning embers rising from the fire and falling else-
where, spreading the destruction further.
And so, what was Jesus intending here? He was talking about the destruction of the
Temple and of Jerusalem. He was invoking these poetic word pictures to describe the
destruction of Jerusalem 40 years later in AD 70. But not just an image of destruction
was meant to be portrayed, but of judgement too.
5.3 Daniel 7:13
Daniel has a Vision of Four Animals Coming up from the Sea
Da 7:1 In the first year of King Belshazzar of Babylon, Daniel had a dream filled with
visions while he was lying on his bed. Then he wrote down the dream in summary fash-
ion. 7:2 Daniel explained: “I was watching in my vision during the night as the four
winds of the sky were stirring up the great sea. 7:3 Then four large beasts came up from
the sea; they were different from one another.
7:4 “The first one was like a lion with eagles’ wings. As I watched, its wings were
pulled off and it was lifted up from the ground. It was made to stand on two feet like a
human being, and a human mind was given to it.
Allusions From Old Testament Prophets (Mark 13:24-27)
156 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
7:5 “Then11 a second beast appeared, like a bear. It was raised up on one side, and there
were three ribs in its mouth between its teeth. It was told, ‘Get up and devour much
flesh!’
7:6 “After these things, as I was watching, another beast like a leopard appeared, with
four bird-like wings on its back. This beast had four heads, and ruling authority was
given to it.
7:7 “After these things, as I was watching in the night visions a fourth beast appeared –
one dreadful, terrible, and very strong. It had two large rows of iron teeth. It devoured
and crushed, and anything that was left it trampled with its feet. It was different from all
the beasts that came before it, and it had ten horns.
7:8 “As I was contemplating the horns, another horn – a small one – came up between
them, and three of the former horns were torn out by the roots to make room for it. This
horn had eyes resembling human eyes and a mouth speaking arrogant things.
....
7:13 I was watching in the night visions,
“And with the clouds of the sky
one like a son of man was approaching.
He went up to the Ancient of Days
and was escorted before him.
7:14 To him was given ruling authority, honor, and sovereignty.
All peoples, nations, and language groups were serving him.
His authority is eternal and will not pass away.
His kingdom will not be destroyed.
I’m going to spend a little more time here because I understand this vision and Jesus’
use of it in a somewhat unconventional manner1. The four beasts represented four king-
doms, as Daniel was later told. The first was the Babylonian Empire. The second was
the Medo-Persian Empire. Its being raised up, or perhaps taller, on one side, may repre-
sent the fact the Persian element dominated the Median. The three ribs are often inter-
preted as representing the three major conquests of the Medes and Persians2. The third
beast quite clearly represented Alexander the Great and the four kingdoms his empire
split into after his death. The fourth beast was the Roman Empire.
Thus far, this is traditional Christian understanding of the vision. In modern interpreta-
tion of apocalyptic writings, the ten horns are often seen as ten countries, such as the
Common Market, making up a future reconstituted Roman Empire3. However, verse 24
makes it clear that the ten horns are kings that come *from* the empire, not go into con-
stituting the empire.
Da 7:24 The ten horns
mean that ten kings will arise from that kingdom.
Another king will arise after them,
but he will be different from the earlier ones.
He will humiliate three kings.
1. See “Daniel 7:2-14, 17-18, 23-27 -- The Four Beasts” on page 43.
2. See “Daniel 8:1-14, 19-26 — The Two Beasts” on page 45.
3. The Late Great Planet Earth.
Allusions From Old Testament Prophets (Mark 13:24-27)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 157
This rise of another king is highly suggestive of the rise of Vespatian as emperor after
the year of four emperors when he succeeded as emperor after three very short lived
would be rulers each supported by factions of the army battling each other and then pro-
ceeded to destroy Jerusalem, ending the sacrifices and severely limiting the legal status
of Jews, making the legal status of Christians even more precarious. Or, it may repre-
sent the earlier replacement of the triumvirate by an emperor.1
The Jews were expecting a Messiah to deliver them. Jesus claimed to be that Messiah,
the Son of Man that Daniel spoke about. However Jesus proclaimed a kingdom very
different from what the Jews were expecting. Many expected a literal, political, theo-
cratic kingdom2, but Jesus proclaimed something very different. He began his ministry
by proclaiming “the kingdom of heaven is near” [Matthew 4:17, et al]. He said, “From
the days of John the Baptist until now the kingdom of heaven has suffered violence, and
forceful people lay hold of it.” [Matthew 11:12] “But if I cast out demons by the Spirit
of God, then the kingdom of God has already overtaken you.” [Matthew 12:28] Look at
the many parables about the kingdom of heaven in Matthew 13. Perhaps most telling is
Luke 17:20-21 (Luke consistently refers to the kingdom of heaven as the kingdom of
God).
Lk 17:20 Now at one point the Pharisees asked Jesus when the kingdom of God was
coming, so he answered, “The kingdom of God is not coming with signs to be observed,
17:21 nor will they say, ‘Look, here it is!’ or ‘There!’ For indeed, the kingdom of God is
in your midst.”
Jesus also, on one other occasion, made reference to Daniel 7:13.
Mt 26:64 Jesus said to him, “You have said it yourself. But I tell you, from now on you
will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Power and coming on the clouds
of heaven.”3
Jesus saw himself fulfilling that prophecy with his crucifixion and resurrection, as he
here said so in addressing the high priest at his trial. This is confirmed especially when
you consider that in the context of Mark 13:26, four verses later in verse 30, Jesus said
of his discourse “I tell you the truth, this generation will not pass away until all these
things have taken place.” An interpretation further confirmed by Mark 9:1, where Jesus
said, “I tell you the truth, there are some standing here who will not experience death
before they see the kingdom of God come with power.”
Everything else in Daniel’s vision in Daniel 7 was symbolic. Every image was a cipher,
so to speak. It would be strange for everything else to taken in a symbolic manner, and
this verse be taken as a matter-of-fact literal description. I think, rather, what the image
was, and especially what Jesus meant by it, was the establishment of the kingdom of
1. See “Fourth Kingdom — The Roman Empire” on page 58.
2. See “Messianic Expectations” on page 87.
3. The NIV translation “In the future” in Matthew 26:64 is misleading. The Greek phrase doesn’t
mean at some future point in time, but rather in all of the future. The Greek phrase is literally
“from now” and is translated “henceforth”, “hereafter”, or better, “from now on” by nearly all
other translations. It is the exact same phrase used in John 14:7, where it reads, “From now on,
you do know him and have seen him.”
Parable Of The Fig Tree (Mark 13:28-31)
158 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
God in the Church after his resurrection: the reign of the holy spirit within the hearts of
the elect. This is clearly what Jesus meant by the kingdom of God elsewhere and I think
this is what Jesus taught to be the meaning of Daniel 7:13-14.
The kingdom referred to in Daniel 7:14 is here right now. Are we Christians not Chris-
tians first and citizen’s of our country second? Do we not obey Christ rather than man
where the two are in conflict (Acts 4:19-20)? Is he not then our king, and we his sub-
jects?
5.4 Gathering The Elect
The language here is very similar to what was used elsewhere to refer to the resurrection
event at the end of the world. Compare with Matthew 13:40-43, where the angels will
weed out the kingdom, and with verses 47-50 of the same chapter where the angels will
separate the wicked from the righteous. However, here we have to deal with the state-
ment in verse 30 where Jesus says that all these things will happen during this genera-
tion’s lifetime.
Perhaps something like gathering the elect into the kingdom, i.e., the establishment of
the church, was meant. This would compare with John 10:14-16, where Jesus, the good
shepherd, would bring in sheep “not of this sheep pen”, i.e., Gentiles, who are not Jews,
and with Matthew 23:37, where Jesus referred to gathering the children of Israel in
Jerusalem together as a mother hen gathers her chicks. But the involvement of angels
seems strange to this interpretation.1
However, the Greek word for angels does not exclusively refer to supernatural beings,
but refers to human messengers as well.
6.0 Parable Of The Fig Tree (Mark 13:28-31)
13:28 “Learn this parable from the fig tree: Whenever its branch becomes tender and
puts out its leaves, you know that summer is near. 13:29 So also you, when you see
these things happening, know that he is near, right at the door. 13:30 I tell you the truth,
this generation will not pass away until all these things take place. 13:31 Heaven and
earth will pass away, but my words will never pass away.
6.1 Right At The Door
Here, Jesus emphasized the nearness of these events, especially once the signs begin.
Again this is a strong confirmation that we should seek their fulfillment in the first cen-
tury, and not in our own future. When the disciples saw these things (note the wording:
“when you see these things happening”, the “you” being the four that Jesus was speak-
ing to), they were to know that “it”, i.e., the thing they had just asked about (the
destruction of the temple) was right at the door. And in fact that was what happened.
1. See “The Eternal Gospel (Revelation 14:6-7)” on page 238. See “The Harvests” on page 240.
Stay Alert! (Mark 13:32-37)
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 159
6.2 This Generation
And if that wasn’t clear enough already that the Olivet Discourse deals with 1st century
events, Jesus explicitly said “this generation will certainly not pass away until all these
things have happened”. Those who take the Olivet Discourse as eschatological try to
deal with this by arguing that “generation” means “race” here, i.e., the Jewish people.
However, this is grasping at straws. Yes, the word can mean progeny, or descendents.
However, nearly always, this word denotes the set of people alive at a particular point in
time.
For example, look at Matthew 23:29-36. Here, Jesus recounted the sins of the Jew’s
forefathers, killing and persecuting the prophets. He then said that more prophets, wise
men, and teachers would be sent and “you”, i.e., the Jews he was addressing, would kill,
crucify, and flog them. Then finally he said all the blood of those previous martyrs will
be on “this generation” because by their actions they show they approved of there fore-
father’s persecutions. The temporal aspect shows clearly that a “generation” in the
sense of “those alive now” was intended.
Also compare this with Mark 9:1,
Mk 9:1 And he said to them, “I tell you the truth, there are some standing here who will
not experience death before they see the kingdom of God come with power.”
where I think Jesus was speaking of the same thing, that is, “the Son of Man coming in
clouds with great power and glory” (see on verse 26).
6.3 My Words Will Never Pass Away
This builds on the opening of the previous verse: “I tell you the truth,...”. It emphasizes
the certainty of what was just said. But it has significant theological implications as
well. In other scripture, such language is reserved for God alone. See Numbers 23:19,
where God does not lie or change his mind; Joshua 23:14-16, where all God’s promises
are fulfilled; Psalm 118:89, where his word is eternal; Psalm 118:152, where his statutes
last for ever; Isaiah 40:8 and 1 Peter 1:23-24, where his word stands forever; Matthew
5:18 and Luke 16:17, where not even a stroke of the pen will disappear from the law; 2
Timothy 2:13, where he is faithful; Hebrews 1:10-12, where he remains the same for-
ever. Jesus’ statement here would be tantamount to blasphemy if he wasn’t of the God-
head.
7.0 Stay Alert! (Mark 13:32-37)
Be Ready!
Mk 13:32 “But as for that day or hour no one knows it – neither the angels in heaven,
nor the Son – except the Father. 13:33 Watch out! Stay alert! For you do not know when
the time will come. 13:34 It is like a man going on a journey. He left his house and put
his slaves in charge, assigning to each his work, and commanded the doorkeeper to stay
alert. 13:35 Stay alert, then, because you do not know when the owner of the house will
return – whether during evening, at midnight, when the rooster crows, or at dawn –
Stay Alert! (Mark 13:32-37)
160 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
13:36 or else he might find you asleep when he returns suddenly. 13:37 What I say to
you I say to everyone: Stay alert!”
7.1 Similar Parables
Jesus told several parables where a landlord or king leaves and returns.
•Matthew 21:33-44 || Mark 12:1-11 || Luke 20:9-18
The landowner plants a vineyard, then rents it out and leaves on a journey. He sends
servants to collect his fruit, but they are beat, killed, and stoned. Finally, he sends
his son, who is killed. The implication of a return and retribution at the end of the
world is clear. The primary emphasis however is on how the tenants treated the ser-
vants and the son.
•Matthew 24:45-51 || Luke 12:42-48
The homeowner leaves a servant in charge of the household while he is gone. The
master will return when the servant doesn’t expect him. The primary emphasis is on
faithfulness in carrying out ones duties, with idea of a second coming being second-
ary, thought it is clearly there.
•Matthew 25:1-13
The bridegroom is on his way to the wedding, but five of the virgins are not prepared
for his arrival because he was a long time coming. The departure theme is missing
here, but none the less, it is clear that the second coming is in mind here too. How-
ever, the primary emphasis is preparedness.
•Matthew 25:14-30
A business man leaves various sums of money with his servants while he goes on a
journey. Two of them earn more money, but one hid his. Again, an end-of-the world
judgement is in mind, but the primary emphasis is making full use of what God has
given us.
•Luke 19:12-27
This parable is almost identical to the previous one, except that the amounts of
money are different, and it is a king who is the master.
•Luke 12:36-40
There are actually three parables here. The first is essentially a very short version of
Matthew 25:1-13. A bridegroom is coming, so the servants must keep ready for his
arrival (vv. 35-36). The second is similar to Matthew 24:45-51 || Luke 12:42-48.
The third also puts emphasis on being prepared, but instead of a master returning, a
thief is breaking in. The idea of the second coming is behind all three.
Like all parables with the theme of a bridegroom, master or king leaving on a journey
and returning at an unexpectedly, the second coming is in view. But that is almost inci-
dental to the parables. They are not told with the primary intent of teaching that doc-
trine, but with an emphasis on remaining faithful, or on being prepared, or in this case,
on alertness. The application goes beyond the end of the world.
In the present context, the alertness must be for the coming destruction of Jerusalem so
that the Christians can escape, as Eusebius recorded they in fact did do. Jesus didn’t
Bibliography
Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37) 161
predict the day of the destruction of Jerusalem, nor of his return. Note how in the para-
bles cited above, the return is often delayed and unexpected. This has application
beyond just the second coming. God’s answer to our prayers often seems delayed to us,
but we must always be alert and prepared for when the answer does come; for it will
come, and at the proper time.
7.2 Similarity of the Parables
The similarity of the above parables raises an interesting point about the transmission of
Jesus’ teaching. As Jesus went from town to town teaching, he would (a) retell the same
parables over and over again, and (b) adapt parables from his repertoire to specific situ-
ations. The fact that he told the same parables many times gave the apostles and disci-
ples ample opportunity to memorize his teaching. On the other hand, the fact that he
would adapt them to the situation meant that multiple versions would be known. Com-
pare especially Matthew 25:14-30 with Luke 19:12-27 for an example of this.
There are several implications of this in study of the Synoptic Gospels. Since the para-
bles were retold countless times, there is no particular significance to the order they are
presented in the Gospels. It is improper to regard differences in sequence between the
Synoptics as contradictions. Further, it by no means follows that variations in details
are contradictions, nor are they signs of long oral transmission (during which skeptics
allege the disciples adapted or invented them to later situations).
8.0 Bibliography
Gleason L. Archer, Jr.. “Daniel” in Frank E. Gaeblelein, ed. The Expositor’s Bible Com-
mentary. Volume 7.
David Benedict. A General History of the Baptist Denomination. Volume 1.
D. A. Carson. “Matthew” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. The Expositor’s Bible Commen-
tary. Volume 8.
W.A. Criswell, ed. The Believer’s Study Bible. Daniel 9.
John D. Goldingay. Word Bible Commentary: Daniel. Volume 30.
Donald A. Hagner. Word Bible Commentary: Matthew 13-28. Volume 33B.
Harold W. Hoehner “Chronological Aspects of the Life of Christ” in Bibliotheca Sacra.
Volume 132, Issue 525.
Irenaeus. Against Heresies.
Josephus. Wars of the Jews.
Walter L. Liefeld. “Luke” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. The Expositor’s Bible Commen-
tary. Volume 8.
Bibliography
162 Mark 13: Jesus Answers (vv. 5-37)
John Nolland. Word Bible Commentary: Luke 18:35-24:53. Volume 35C.
Henry T. Sell. Studies In Early Church History. Study 9.
Walter W. Wessel. “Mark” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. The Expositor’s Bible Commen-
tary.Vo l u m e 8.
“Roman Empire And Christianity” in International Standard Bible Encyclopedia.
“Jewish War” in The Anchor Bible Dictionary.
163
1 Thessalonians
It is important to strip away our
presuppositions and assumptions, and let a
passage say only what it says, and not read
into it more than that.
1.0 Introduction
Paul’s letters to the Thessalonians were probably his first, dating to about 50-51 AD.1
While only a portion of the letter deals with eschatology, it is important to view those
eschatological passages in context. This study will cite the larger context in its section
titles, quote the key eschatological passages from it, make some comments on individ-
ual phrases in the key passages, then conclude with some general comments.
2.0 1 Thessalonians 1:1-10
1 Th 1:9 For people everywhere report how you welcomed us and how you turned to
God from idols to serve the living and true God 1:10 and to wait for his Son from
heaven, whom he raised from the dead, Jesus our deliverer from the coming wrath.
10 wait for his Son from heaven: that is, wait for the eschatological parousia. whom
he raised from the dead: the resurrection is central to Paul’s message. the coming
wrath: the fate of the unsaved.
Paul had nothing but good things to say about the Thessalonian church. The citation of
the fundamentals of the Gospel here: the resurrection, his return, his delivering of the
church, and the wrath against those who are not saved, was incidental. These were
things the Thessalonian church had already been taught and which they accepted. They
were truths they already knew.
1. Milligan. St. Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians. p. xxxv-xxxvi, xxxix.
Mills, M. “The Historical Setting for the Apostolic Period” Letters to Thessalonica.
1 Thessalonians 2:1-20
164 1 Thessalonians
3.0 1 Thessalonians 2:1-20
1 Th 2:19 For who is our hope or joy or crown to boast of before our Lord Jesus at his
coming? Is it not of course you? 2:20 For you are our glory and joy!
19 his coming: the eschatological parousia.
“As you know” and the like (2:1, 2, 5, 9, 10, 11) are a common refrain in this chapter.
Paul was praising them and reminding them of the basis for that praise. Paul regarded
the Thessalonians as an example to be imitated (1:7).
The “wrath [that] has come on [the Jews] completely” in 1 Th 2:16 is not be confused
with the eschatological wrath referred to in 1:10. Many commentators regard this line
as a late interpolation referring to the destruction of Jerusalem in 70 A.D.1 Our late per-
spective distorts how we view such events. From Paul’s view in the early 50’s, there
are other events, while not so drastic as the destruction of Jerusalem, that could be what
he had in mind. The Jews had suffered under Caligula a decade earlier. Eusebius
reported “Philo has reported in five books what happened to the Jews in the reign of
Gaius, ..., the misery of the Jews in his time, Philo’s mission to Rome on behalf of his
compatriots ... and how he ... narrowly escaped with his life.” More recently, there had
been a famine in the mid 40’s that the Christians in Antioch had sent relief to Judea for
(Acts 11:29-30).2 And most immediately, the Jews had just been expelled from Rome
in 49 A.D. (Acts 18:2).3 These events are sufficiently traumatic to be taken as what
Paul had in mind by “wrath” here.
4.0 1 Thessalonians 3:1-13
1 Th 3:12 And may the Lord cause you to increase and abound in love for one another
and for all, just as we do for you, 3:13 so that your hearts are strengthened in holiness to
be blameless before our God and Father at the coming of our Lord Jesus with all his
saints.
13 coming of our Lord Jesus: the parousia again. with all his saints: literally, “holy
ones”, which could also mean angels. However, see below which makes it clear that it
is the dead in Christ that he has in mind.
Paul repeated mentions of the coming of Jesus as though they were a heart beat. This
doctrine was the life blood, so to speak, of Paul’s Gospel message. If Paul had not
already explained the resurrection of the dead, then the reference to “the coming of our
Lord Jesus with all his saints” in such an incidental manner would have been quite con-
founding. In 1 Th 3:3-4 Paul continued to emphasize that he was saying things they
already knew.
1. Interpreter’s Bible Commentary, loc cit.
2. “Famine” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
3. See NET footnote on the word “Claudius” loc cit.
1 Thessalonians 4:1-12
1 Thessalonians 165
5.0 1 Thessalonians 4:1-12
Paul continued to remind the Thessalonians what he had already taught them. It has
been suggested that he is responding to questions, but a close reading shows he was still
reiterating things already taught: “you have no need for anyone to write you” (4:9), “as
we commanded you” (4:11), “you have no need for anything to be written to you” (5:1),
and “you know quite well” (5:2). Rather, the letter reads more like a primitive cate-
chism.
Most commentators assume there is a problem with idleness in the Thessalonian church
that Paul is addressing in 4:10-12. Usually this is associated with the eschatological
teaching that follows by assuming that an expectation of an immanent parousia is the
cause. In actuality there is no such problem actually indicated in the letter. Even in 2
Thessalonians 3:11, where Paul was responding to such a problem in the church, no
connection was made to immanent eschatology. Rather it was connected to the idea of
living a disciplined life. Elsewhere such issues come up not because of eschatological
doctrine but because of misunderstanding of the doctrine of grace (Romans 3:8).
6.0 1 Thessalonians 4:13-18
1 Th 4:13 Now we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those
who are asleep, so that you will not grieve like the rest who have no hope. 4:14 For if
we believe that Jesus died and rose again, so also we believe that God will bring with
him those who have fallen asleep as Christians. 4:15 For we tell you this by the word of
the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will surely
not go ahead of those who have fallen asleep. 4:16 For the Lord himself will come
down from heaven with a shout of command, with the voice of the archangel, and with
the trumpet of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. 4:17 Then we who are alive,
who are left, will be suddenly caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the
Lord in the air. And so we will always be with the Lord. 4:18 Therefore encourage one
another with these words.
13 asleep: common euphemism for death1. no hope: condemned to hell. 14 God will
bring with him: alluded to in 1 Thessalonians 3:13 above. The dead saints are with
Christ. 15 by the word of the Lord: Paul claims direct revelation as authority. 16 the
dead in Christ: that is, the dead who are saved. will rise first: a clear reference to
physical resurrection. The disembodied souls were with Christ2, and brought with him
to earth to be rejoined with physical bodies and raised into the clouds. 17 we who are
alive, who are left: the living who are saved when Christ returns. Wesley suggested
that “we who are left” implies fewness of number3, but that reads too much into the
phrase. caught up together with them: with the resurrected dead, in the air. always
be with the Lord: the eternal eschatological state.
1. BDAG. p. 551. koima,w definition 2.
2. See Philippians 1:20-24 for Paul’s expectation of being with Christ without the body immedi-
ately after death.
3. Wesley’s Notes: First Thessalonians. 1 Th 4:15.
1 Thessalonians 4:13-18
166 1 Thessalonians
When Paul said “we do not want you to be uninformed .. about those who are asleep”,
we should not imagine that up until this point, Paul had not yet taught them about the
resurrection of the dead. 1 Thessalonians 3:13 certainly presupposed such teaching
already. Rather, with these words, Paul was gently reminding the Thessalonians of the
resurrection (and perhaps filling in some details) to encourage them in their grief.
While it is not explicitly stated that one or more Thessalonian church members had died,
the phrasing of “those who are asleep” is understood by most commentators to imply an
actual rather than a hypothetical situation.
Regarding “no hope”, Barclay cited a number of pagan sources from antiquity:
Aeschylus wrote, “Once a man dies there is no resurrection.” Theocritus wrote, “There
is hope for those who are alive, but those who have died are without hope.” Catullus
wrote, “When once our brief light sets, there is one perpetual night through which we
must sleep.” On their tombstones grim epitaphs were carved. “I was not; I became; I am
not; I care not.” One of the most pathetic papyrus letters that has come down to us is a
letter of sympathy which runs like this. “Irene to Taonnophris and Philo, good comfort.
I was as sorry and wept over the departed one as I wept for Didymas. And all things
whatsoever were fitting, I did, and all mine, Epaphroditus and Thermouthion and
Philion and Apollonius and Plantas. But nevertheless against such things one can do
nothing. Therefore comfort ye one another.”1
It has been suggested that Paul was responding to some sort of Gnostic spiritual resur-
rection heresy, but the early date of the letter makes it very unlikely that Gnosticism, per
se, could the issue.2 In fact, there is no indication of a theological problem existing in
the Thessalonian church at all. If there is a problem at all, it is emotional rather than
doctrinal.
The main points of Paul’s doctrine of resurrection are:
1. Jesus died and rose again.
2. Jesus will return.
3. God will bring the dead in Christ with him when he returns.
4. The dead in Christ will be physically resurrected first.
5. The living in Christ will be raised into the clouds with Jesus second.
6. All in Christ will be with him forever.
7. Paul gives no indication of a thousand year reign after his return.
Many commentators see Paul’s use of the first person plural in verse 17 to indicate that
Paul expected Jesus’ return within his lifetime. As the use of the first person plural is
incidental and the time frame of the return is not the point of the passage, that is reading
too much into it. It may, however, be fair to say that Paul had a reasonable hope for the
return happening in his lifetime.
1. Barclay. Daily Study Bible Series: The Letters to the Philippians, Colossians and Thessalo-
nians. p. 203.
2. Martin. The New American Commentary: 1, 2 Thessalonians. p. 141.
1 Thessalonians 5:1-11
1 Thessalonians 167
7.0 1 Thessalonians 5:1-11
1 Th 5:1 Now on the topic of times and seasons, brothers and sisters, you have no need
for anything to be written to you. 5:2 For you know quite well that the day of the Lord
will come in the same way as a thief in the night. 5:3 Now when they are saying, “There
is peace and security,” then sudden destruction comes on them, like labor pains on a
pregnant woman, and they will surely not escape. 5:4 But you, brothers and sisters, are
not in the darkness for the day to overtake you like a thief would. 5:5 For you all are
sons of the light and sons of the day. We are not of the night nor of the darkness. 5:6 So
then we must not sleep as the rest, but must stay alert and sober. 5:7 For those who
sleep, sleep at night and those who get drunk are drunk at night. 5:8 But since we are of
the day, we must stay sober by putting on the breastplate of faith and love and as a hel-
met our hope for salvation. 5:9 For God did not destine us for wrath but for gaining sal-
vation through our Lord Jesus Christ. 5:10 He died for us so that whether we are alert or
asleep we will come to life together with him. 5:11 Therefore encourage one another
and build up each other, just as you are in fact doing.
1 you have no need for anything to be written to you: the difficulty with understand-
ing this passage is we are entering the middle of a conversation and hearing only one
side of it. 2 the day of the Lord: the eschatological day of judgment. as a thief in the
night: only unbelievers are so surprised; believers are prepared (v.4).1 the metaphor
refers to its suddenness; not how soon it will be. 9 wrath: eternal judgment. salvation:
resurrection and being with Christ for eternity.
The metaphorical use of dark/light and night/day is well common in Jewish literature.
Clarke cited the Midrash Tehillim, on Psalm 9:8: “When the holy blessed God shall
judge the Gentiles, it shall be in the night season, in which they shall be asleep in their
transgressions; but when he shall judge the Israelites, it shall be in the day time, when
they are occupied in the study of the law.”2
Paul was reiterating what he already had taught them regarding the timing. He gave no
indicators of when it would be, but only said that it wouldn’t catch the Christians by sur-
prise. By this, he didn’t mean that they’d see it coming well in advance, but that when it
happens, they will not discover themselves to be destined for wrath.
8.0 1 Thessalonians 5:12-28
Paul concluded with a block of practical and ethical wisdom, continuing what appears to
be a catechistic purpose to the letter in his physical absence.
1. Martin. The New American Commentary: 1, 2 Thessalonians. p. 28.
2. Clarke. Clarke’s Commentary: First Thessalonians. 1 Th 5:4.
1 Thessalonians 5:12-28
168 1 Thessalonians
169
2 Thessalonians
Great caution should be exercised in
identifying the Man of Lawlessness and his
restrainer, dispite the tempation to read our
favorite speculations into this letter.
1.0 Introduction
Paul’s second letter to the Thessalonian church was written only a short time after the
first.1 The time frame is limited to when Silvanus and Timothy were with Paul. Several
scholars argue that the letter wasn’t actually written by Paul. Some cite alleged theolog-
ical differences with the first letter making it unlikely the same author wrote both. Oth-
ers cite similarities between the letters as evidence a forger is using the first to emulate
Paul’s style. Skeptics will see what they want to see. This essay will focus on the escha-
tological issues raised (or alleged to be raised) by this letter and how they relate to the
first letter (especially when apologetically important).
2.0 Suffering (2 Thessalonians 1:5-7)
2 Th 1:5 This is evidence of God’s righteous judgment, to make you worthy of the king-
dom of God, for which in fact you are suffering. 1:6 For it is right for God to repay with
affliction those who afflict you, 1:7 and to you who are being afflicted to give rest
together with us when the Lord Jesus is revealed9 from heaven with his mighty angels.
This passage is not eschatological itself, but it does segue into one that is. It is signifi-
cant apologetically however. This passage speaks of current suffering for the kingdom
of God. 1 Thessalonians 1:6, 2:2, 14 spoke only of opposition in the past. Some scholars
argue that this inconsistency is proof that Paul did not write both letters. There are oth-
ers who think this is evidence that the letters order in the wrong order chronologically.
However, the first letter was making mention of opposition during Paul’s preaching in
Thessalonica. It didn’t actually say anything about ongoing persecution during Paul’s
1. Milligan, p. xxxvi.
Hell (2 Thessalonians 1:8-10)
170 2 Thessalonians
absence one way or the other. And even if it did, persecution can come in waves. So,
drawing such conclusions over-reaches the evidence quite significantly.
3.0 Hell (2 Thessalonians 1:8-10)
2 Th 1:8 With flaming fire he will mete out punishment on those who do not know God
and do not obey the gospel of our Lord Jesus. 1:9 They will undergo the penalty of eter-
nal destruction, away from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his strength,
1:10 when he comes to be glorified among his saints and admired on that day among all
who have believed – and you did in fact believe our testimony.
Paul rarely spoke in detail about the ultimate fate of the unrighteous. Here Paul spoke of
“eternal destruction, separated from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his
might”. While evocative, the language in isolation is ambiguous. Was Paul speaking of
final annihilation or is destruction a process that lasts for eternity?1 Philippians 3:18-19
doesn’t clarify his meaning any. Nor did Paul here indicate whether their continued
existence (assuming he meant there is one) is physical or spiritual.
However, Luke records a speech of Paul’s where he clearly indicated a physical resur-
rection for both the righteous and the unrighteous. “I have a hope in God (a hope that
these men themselves accept too) that there is going to be a resurrection of both the
righteous and the unrighteous.” (Acts 24:15)
Other scriptures also indicate a continued existence for those in Hell. We should assume
that Paul knew and believed anything Jesus taught on the subject. Jesus referred to the
unrighteous being cast into “the eternal fire that has been prepared for the devil and his
angels” Matthew 25:41-46). Elsewhere he described Hell as “an unquenchable fire ..
where their worm never dies” (Mark 9:42-48). Jesus conceived of Hell as a place where
the body was eternally being consumed by fire & worm, but where conscious existence
continued (see also the story of Lazarus and the Rich Man in Luke 16:19-31). It was this
that Paul must have had in mind by his phrase “eternal destruction”.
Revelation further confirms the lake of fire as a place of “eternal torment” (Revelation
20:10-15, 21:8). It is impossible to argue for universalism from scripture. It clearly
teaches that people will go to Hell.
4.0 Warning of a Heresy (2 Thessalonians 2:1-3a)
2 Th 2:1 Now regarding the arrival of our Lord Jesus Christ and our being gathered to
be with him, we ask you, brothers and sisters, 2:2 not to be easily shaken from your
composure or disturbed by any kind of spirit or message or letter allegedly from us, to
the effect that the day of the Lord is already here. 2:3a Let no one deceive you in any
way.
1. Clarke, loc cit, argues that their being continues since the destruction is everlasting, which is
certainly what Paul intended, but the language in isolation is not so cut-and-dried.
Rebellion (2 Thessalonians 2:3b)
2 Thessalonians 171
Most commentaries make far too many presumptions about this passage. They tend to
presume that Paul was reacting to a problem already present and even originating in the
Thessalonian community. They often then go on to imagine that this heresy originated
as a misunderstanding of the first letter. Some skeptical scholars have even proposed
that 1 Thessalonians was the heretical letter opposed in this passage1 or that Paul had
changed his mind between the two letters!
The false teaching that Paul was opposing was not a simple misunderstanding of Paul’s
earlier teaching. Verse 3 refers to it as a deception. Verse 2 makes it clear that some her-
etic was even going so far as to forge letters from Paul. The heretic had not misunder-
stood Paul: he was actively creating a lie that he was knowingly attributing falsely to
Paul. There was no indication that the heresy had ever reached the Thessalonians yet.
Rather, the most natural way to read this passage is to see Paul as preemptively warning
them. Verse 5 indicates that Paul had already taught them these things. He was reiterat-
ing them so that the Thessalonians would be prepared to defend against the deception.
Paul said little about what the heresy actually was, just that it claimed “that the day of
the Lord is already here”. The commentaries are full of speculation. Some speculations
can be dismissed out of hand, such as suggestions that the heresy was Gnosticism.
While it is possible that this heresy was incorporated into Gnosticism, it wouldn’t be
until a half century later that we can really speak of Gnosticism per se2. Speculations
range from thinking the end-times tribulation had already started (see KJV. “the day of
the Lord is at hand”) to over-spiritualizing the concept so that the event doesn’t have
any direct effect in the physical world.
In a later letter Paul had to defend the concept of a physical resurrection to the Corin-
thians (1 Corinthians 15)3. Then, in a letter to Timothy, Paul condemned Hymenaeus
and Philetus who taught “that the resurrection had already occurred” (2 Timothy 2:16-
18)4. But if that were the heresy here, one might expect Paul to have focused on the
physicality of the event, appealing to Jesus’ resurrection as he did to the Corinthians.
Instead, he focused on the physical events that would lead up to the final events. This
strongly suggests that the heretic who was impersonating Paul was leading some sort of
doomsday cult not unlike the many we see from time-to-time even in the modern world,
and was preaching that God’s judgment on the world (i.e. “Rome”) was already under-
way.
5.0 Rebellion (2 Thessalonians 2:3b)
2 Th 2:3b For that day will not arrive until the rebellion comes
Paul’s reference to “the rebellion” is enigmatic. He was relying on the fact that he had
already taught the Thessalonians about it (v. 5) to make his reference clear to them. It is
1. Word Biblical Commentary Vol 45, p. 164 sites Lindemann.
2. Martin, p. 141.
3. See “1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection” on page 1.
4. Dictionary of Paul and His Letters, p. 257 also sites 1 Cor 4:8.
Man of Lawlessness (2 Thessalonians 2:3c-17)
172 2 Thessalonians
not explicit who would be doing the rebelling nor what they would be rebelling against.
The traditional understanding is that it is the actions of the man of lawlessness we read
of in the following verses. This seems very likely, but caution should be exercised when
deriving further conclusions from this interpretation1.
6.0 Man of Lawlessness (2 Thessalonians 2:3c-17)
6.1 Identity (2 Thessalonians 2:3c)
2 Th 2:3c and the man of lawlessness is revealed, the son of destruction.
The commentaries are varied in the identity of the man of lawlessness2. Dispensational-
ism sees him as a singular figure, the Antichrist, of the seven year tribulation before the
millennial reign. Traditionally, reformed Protestant theology saw him as the institution
of the papacy. 1 John 2:18-22 refers to many antichrists having already appeared3. Since
in apocalyptic literature, such as Daniel, an individual may stand for a whole empire or
dynasty, it is very prudent to avoid dogmatism and be tentative in identifying the man of
lawlessness.
6.2 Claims Deity (2 Thessalonians 2:4)
2 Th 2:4 He opposes and exalts himself above every so-called god or object of worship,
and as a result he takes his seat in God’s temple, displaying himself as God.
In the first century world, there was nothing remarkable about such a claim. Caligula
had the audacity to claim divine honors for himself while still alive. Other emperors had
been proclaimed gods upon their deaths. The idea seems foreign to us today, but even
atheistic despots of the modern world, such as Stalin, proclaim themselves to be gods by
their actions, if not by their words.
The reference to God’s temple is more difficult. If the temple in Jerusalem is meant, it
was destroyed in 70 A.D. An extreme preterist interpretation would allow for this, but it
puts at least nearly two millennia between the man of lawlessness and the day of judg-
ment. A future temple, as figures prominently in dispensational thought would bypass
this problem, but scripture nowhere clearly claims there will be a rebuilt temple. On the
other hand, everywhere else that Paul refers to a temple he does so in a metaphorical
sense, meaning the church or the individual believer4. One only need look at today’s lib-
eral denominations to imagine how this might play out.
6.3 Surely You Recall (2 Thessalonians 2:5)
2 Th 2:5 Surely you recall that I used to tell you these things while I was still with you.
1. Wesley loc cit said “This began even in the apostolic age”.
2. Weatherly, loc cit, lists some
3. Clarke, loc cit, sites Judas Iscariot being called by the same epithet in John 17:12.
4. See “Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor” on page 19.
Man of Lawlessness (2 Thessalonians 2:3c-17)
2 Thessalonians 173
This verse explains why this letter is so difficult to understand. Paul was not writing a
systematic theology. He had already taught them a more systematic explanation in per-
son. Now he was reminding them of select points that were relevant to refute the false
teaching that some nefarious cult leader was spreading in Paul’s name. Two millennia
later, we are listening in one side of the middle of a conversation.
6.4 Held Back (2 Thessalonians 2:6-8)
2 Th 2:6 And so you know what holds him back, so that he will be revealed in his own
time. 2:7 For the hidden power of lawlessness is already at work. However, the one who
holds him back will do so until he is taken out of the way, 2:8 and then the lawless one
will be revealed, whom the Lord will destroy by the breath of his mouth and wipe out
by the manifestation of his arrival.
Verse 3 has already mentioned that the man of lawlessness was yet to be revealed. Verse
6 indicates that there was some “thing”, emphasis on the impersonal “thing”, holding
him back. Verse 7 then indicates it was a person holding him back with the use of a per-
sonal pronoun. This has led to many interpretations being proposed. Recall that in apoc-
alyptic literature, such as Daniel, an individual King, his dynasty, and his kingdom are
referred to interchangeably in the symbols. The restrainer has been variously seen as the
Roman emperor, the Roman empire, civil order, an angel, Paul himself, Jesus, God, etc.
Despite the restraint, whatever or whoever was its agent, the hidden power of lawless-
ness (like the restrainer, the man of lawlessness was also referred to impersonally) was
active already however restrained that activity might be. This is not unlike how John
describes the antichrist(s) in 1 John 2:18-22. The relationship to Revelation 20 is not so
clear1. In that passage, the dragon is bound in chains and locked away in the abyss for a
thousand years. During that time, he no longer deceives the nations. This contrasts with
the restrained man of lawlessness who was none the less, still active (v. 7).
The man of lawlessness’ “15 minutes” of fame would be short-lived. He would be
destroyed by the arrival of Jesus.
6.5 Deception and Stand Firm (2 Thessalonians 2:9-17)
2 Th 2:9 The arrival of the lawless one will be by Satan’s working with all kinds of mir-
acles and signs and false wonders, 2:10 and with every kind of evil deception directed
against those who are perishing, because they found no place in their hearts for the truth
so as to be saved. 2:11 Consequently God sends on them a deluding influence so that
they will believe what is false. 2:12 And so all of them who have not believed the truth
but have delighted in evil will be condemned.
Call to Stand Firm
2:13 But we ought to thank God always for you, brothers and sisters loved by the Lord,
because God chose you from the beginning for salvation through sanctification by the
Spirit and faith in the truth. 2:14 He called you to this salvation through our gospel, so
that you may possess the glory of our Lord Jesus Christ. 2:15 Therefore, brothers and
sisters, stand firm and hold on to the traditions that we taught you, whether by speech or
1. See “Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)” on page 263.
Idleness (2 Thessalonians 3:6-15)
174 2 Thessalonians
by letter. 2:16 Now may our Lord Jesus Christ himself and God our Father, who loved
us and by grace gave us eternal comfort and good hope, 2:17 encourage your hearts and
strengthen you in every good thing you do or say.
The Olivet Discourse of Jesus warned of deceivers, false prophets and deceptive mira-
cles in the context of what the Apostles would face in the events leading up to the
destruction of Jerusalem in A.D. 70 (Mark 13:5-6, 21-22). Again we also see Paul’s
belief that some people would be condemned reiterated. (Issues about predestination
that this passage raises are beyond the scope of this essay).
7.0 Idleness (2 Thessalonians 3:6-15)
Response to the Undisciplined
3:6 But we command you, brothers and sisters, in the name of our Lord Jesus Christ, to
keep away from any brother who lives an undisciplined life and not according to the tra-
dition they received from us. 3:7 For you know yourselves how you must imitate us,
because we did not behave without discipline among you, 3:8 and we did not eat any-
one’s food without paying. Instead, in toil and drudgery we worked night and day in
order not to burden any of you. 3:9 It was not because we do not have that right, but to
give ourselves as an example for you to imitate. 3:10 For even when we were with you,
we used to give you this command: “If anyone is not willing to work, neither should he
eat.” 3:11 For we hear that some among you are living an undisciplined life, not doing
their own work but meddling in the work of others. 3:12 Now such people we command
and urge in the Lord Jesus Christ to work quietly and so provide their own food to eat.
3:13 But you, brothers and sisters, do not grow weary in doing what is right. 3:14 But if
anyone does not obey our message through this letter, take note of him and do not asso-
ciate closely with him, so that he may be ashamed. 3:15 Yet do not regard him as an
enemy, but admonish him as a brother.
The commentaries frequently link this passage to the eschatological issues. The situa-
tion imagined is that because some people thought the end of the world was immanent,
they saw no need to be industrious.1 It is not unlike modern Dispensationalists’ attitude
toward environmentalism: “why polish the brass on a sinking ship?”, as one is alleged to
have said2.
The fault with this interpretation is that the text neither makes nor implies any such
statement. As we’ve already seen, the eschatological error that Paul dealt with in chap-
ter 2 wasn’t even a problem internal to the Thessalonian community, but a threat from
without that he was warning them about. And even if the heresy did exist within the
Thessalonian church, no connection between the idleness and the heresy is even hinted
at! Later, when Paul dealt with the idleness issue in Romans 3:8, the context was not
eschatology but a misunderstanding of grace. Personal experience suggests that we
might imagine less-than-scrupulous individuals taking advantage of the love and for-
giveness of the Christian community as well.
1. 2 Th 3:11, Baker NT Commentary: Thessalonians.
2 Th 3:6, New American Commentary: 1, 2 Thessalonians.
2. Many variations are often cited unattributed. Sometimes attributed to D. L. Moody. I’ve not
been able to find a primary reference.
Summary
2 Thessalonians 175
8.0 Summary
Because this study looked at a whole letter, it touched briefly on a number of apologetic
and eschatological issues with limited interrelationships. The salient points made are:
•Alleged contradictions between the letters (1 and 2 Thessalonians) are imagined and
without substance;
•Although he usually focused only on the fate of the saved, Paul did teach that the
unregenerate will also be resurrected and will spend eternity in Hell;
•Paul was warning about a false teaching being spread in his name, but contrary to the
presumptions of most commentaries, said nothing that actually implies that it had
already reached, let alone originated in Thessalonica;
•The end of the world was still a ways off;
•The actual details preceding the end of the world (the rebellion, the man of lawless-
ness, the restrainer, etc) are difficult to understand because was presuming more
detailed teaching he already had told the Thessalonians in person;
•There is no indication that the problem with idleness had anything to do with faulty
eschatology.
The identity of the man of lawlessness and his restrainer evokes human curiosity
greatly. The temptation to take an interpretation and run with it is overwhelming. But
caution is greatly advised. Perhaps we can correlate Paul’s teaching with the book of
Revelation, though its ubiquitous use of symbolism means that even such a correlation
might not tell us anything with certainty.
Whoever these two figures are, the important point is God knows who they are and will
take care of the situation in his sovereignty when the time comes. Nothing will take him
by surprise. This is the important lesson to take away from Paul’s mention of these two
figures. Had God wanted us to know more, he would have told us.
9.0 Bibliography
Barclay, William. 1975. The Letters to the Philippians, Colossians, and Thessalonians.
Bruce, F. F. 2002. Word Biblical Commentary: 1 and 2 Thessalonians.
Clarke, Adam. Clarke’s Commentary: Second Thessalonians.
Hendricksen, W. & Kistemaker, S. J. Baker New Testament Commentary: Thessalo-
nians.
Kreitzer, L. J. “Eschatology” in Dictionary of Paul and His Letters.
Martin, D. M. 1995. Vol. 33: 1, 2 Thessalonians. New American Commentary.
Milligan, G., ed. 1908. St. Paul’s Epistles to the Thessalonians.
Bibliography
176 2 Thessalonians
Mills, Montague Stephan. 1998. Letters to Thessalonica.
Weatherly, J. A. 1996. 1 & 2 Thessalonians.
Wesley, J. Wesley’s Notes: Second Thessalonians.
177
Revelation 1:
Introduction
Introduce the Biblical, Cultural, Historical,
and Literary Context of the book of
Revelation
1.0 Author and Date
1.1 Tradition: John the apostle in the late 1st Century
See Justin Martyr [d. 165], Clement of Alexandria [d. c. 220], Hippolytus [d. c. 236],
Origen [d. c. 254] for authorship and Irenaeus [185] for the date.1 The author identifies
himself simply as “John”.
1.2 Often Challenged on Authorship and Date
1.2.1 Authorship
The Greek of Revelation if much less refined and grammatical than that of Gospel and
Letters of John. It is unlikely that the same individual was solely responsible for both.
The text of Revelation only identifies its author as “John”, without specifying which
one. If John the apostle wrote both, then perhaps Revelation is in his own writing style
while the Gospels and Letters were filtered through an amanuensis (compare with John
21:24-25 which refers to John in the third person). Since John was in exile on Patmos
when he wrote Revelation, it would be likely that would be cut off from such assistance.
1.2.2 Date
Some interpreters argue for a pre-70 AD date (before the destruction of Jerusalem).
This is not based on any tradition or explicit claims of the text, but on the presupposition
that the text is predictive of the events surrounding 70 AD, the so-called preterist2 inter-
pretation. We will see in our study that this approach is very unlikely to be correct.
1. pp. 404, 406, Johnson, Expositors Bible Commentary
2. From, preterit, or past tense
Genre
178 Revelation 1: Introduction
1.2.3 Conclusion
For the purposes of this study, we will assume that John the Apostle wrote Revelation
near the end of the first century.
1.3 Historical Background
After the close of Acts, Rome burned in AD 64. Nero found a convenient scapegoat in
the Christians (it has been alleged that Nero burned Rome himself). The remainder of
the decade saw Rome in civil war, and the Jewish War culminating in the destruction of
Jerusalem and the Temple in AD 70.
The break between Judaism and Christianity is generally considered to be complete
after that (compare with Paul teaching in the synagogues; around AD 90, the Jews for-
mulated curses against heresy, including Christianity, at Jamnia). Toward the end of the
century, Emperor Domitian is reputed to have persecuted Christians, although the
extend of that persecution is debated. It was Domitian who Irenaeus says exiled John to
Patmos (the text of Revelation is somewhat ambiguous on this point saying only “I ...
was on the island called Patmos because of the word of God and the testimony about
Jesus” [Revelation 1:9].
2.0 Genre
Revelation is of mixed genre.
2.1 Gospel
Revelation 1:1-3 opens somewhat like a Gospel. Compare “The Revelation of Jesus
Christ” with “This is the record of the genealogy of Jesus Christ” [Matthew 1:1] or “The
beginning of the gospel of Jesus Christ” [Mark 1:1]. In a very real sense, Revelation is
a recounting of the Gospel story: see Revelation 12:1-5 especially, which is only a thinly
veiled telling of the incarnation and resurrection of Jesus.1 Revelation also shares with
Luke and Acts having an introduction like a letter, identifying sender and recipient but
subsequent to chapter 3, like Luke and Acts, does not address the recipients directly
again.
2.2 Letter
After the prologue, Revelation 1:1-3, that refers to John in the third person, John speaks
in the first person. He opens the book as though it were a letter although the bulk of the
book (chapters 4-22) are not in the form of a letter. This is not surprising as John is iso-
lated on Patmos from his home community. If were in Asia, it would seem a little silly
to write a letter to people he sees every day.
1. See “The Woman, Child, and Dragon (Revelation 12:1-6)” on page 223.
Genre
Revelation 1: Introduction 179
Chapters 2-3 are short messages addressed to seven different churches, addressed in the
sequence one would following moving from church to church, making the passage a
sort of circular letter.1
2.3 Apocalypse
After chapter 3, John does not address the recipients again, nor does the book close with
the greetings typical of a letter. These chapters, the bulk of Revelation, are what is
often called an apocalypse. The word tends to be used in many senses, which can be
rather confusing.
•The Greek word apocalupsis means revelation, what is revealed, disclosure2.
•When applied to Biblical, cultic, and other religious literature, it refers to a particular
mode of revelation: symbolic dream or vision accompanied by partial interpretation.
•Because apocalyptic literature often involves judgements and destruction, it is often
applied to catestrophic events such as the Mt. St. Helen eruption, Hurricanes, and
especially global cataclysm, such as nuclear war or runaway greenhouse effects.
•Often used to refer specifically to end-of-the-world type events (parousia, asteroid
collision, etc.).
For the purposes of these studies, apocalypse will be used to refer to the mode of revela-
tion without any particular implication about the content. The content will be allowed
to speak for itself.
The apocalyptic form was a popular one in cultic literature. In its cultic form, apoca-
lypses were written in the name of a great hero of the past. Thus we have Apocalypses
1. Map traced from Classic Map Collection. Ages.
2. Swansen, A Dictionary of Biblical Languages: Greek
Background of Symbolic Visions
180 Revelation 1: Introduction
of Enoch, the Sibyls, Shem, Ezekiel, Zephaniah, Ezra, Baruch, Abraham, Adam, Elijah,
and Daniel.1 Revelation contrasts with these in a very stark manner. John addresses his
audience as himself. He is well known to his audience, and so doesn’t even bother to
identify himself as more than “John” (a rather common name of the time). Whereas the
cult leaders had to pass off their apocalypsis as some recently discovered ancient text,
John claims his as his own. One should be vary cautious about using the non-canonical
apocalypses, therefore, in trying to understand the imagery and circumstances of Reve-
lation.
3.0 Background of Symbolic Visions
I highly recommend that you read some of the following passages for Biblical back-
ground of the symbolic visions in Revelation. We will refer back to many of these as we
work our way through the book.
3.1 Genesis
The Joseph stories have several dream...interpretation passages.
•Genesis 37:5-10 - visions of sheaths of grain; sun, moon, stars
•Genesis 40:5-23 - visions of butler and baker
•Genesis 41:1-37 - pharaoh’s visions of ears of grain and cattle
3.2 Isaiah’s Commissioning Vision (Isaiah 6)
3.3 Ezekiel & Zechariah
3.4 Daniel
•Daniel 2 - Nebuchadnezzar’s dream
•Daniel 7 - Four Beasts
•Daniel 8 - Ram and Goat
•Daniel 11-12 - Battles of Kings
3.5 Cultic Writings
Apocalypse was a favorite form of various early cults. Enoch was popular in the Dead
Sea Scrolls. See “Apocalypse” on page 179 above where this was already discussed.
4.0 Interpretations of the Bulk of the Visions
Here I will just overview the basic vocabulary. How these various interpretations play
out will be sketched in more detail when we cover the relevant passages. Interpretations
1. Charlesworth, The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Literature & Testaments.
Interpretations of the Bulk of the Visions
Revelation 1: Introduction 181
of the millennium is orthogonal to these schemes and will be discussed in the next sec-
tion.
4.1 Futurist
Everything after chapter 3 is a prediction of the events surrounding the end times (usu-
ally, the 7 years prior to the inauguration of the Millennium -- called the tribulation).
This includes, but is not limited to Dispensationalism.
4.2 Historicist
Everything, including chapters 2 and 3, are predictions of events throughout history,
especially of the church age. This was the approach of the reformers.
4.3 Preterist
Everything after chapter 3, but before the last few chapters, predict events surrounding
the destruction of the temple in 70 AD. Some see events surrounding the Jewish revolt
of AD 135, or even the fall of Rome. The difference between Historicist and Preterist
is one of degree: how wide a period of history is specifically covered.
Some extreme “hyper-preterists” (also called full preterists) even include the final chap-
ters of Revelation that nearly all other interpreters believe refer to the end times. This
heretical view also denies physical resurrection since the passages everyone else takes
as referring to the resurrection must be spiritualized to refer to events in AD 70.
4.4 Idealist
The bulk of the material between chapters 3 and the clearly eschatological chapters do
not refer to specific historical events, but to general principles (or ideals). The images
are often described as spiritual images.
4.5 Literary Critical (Skeptical)
This approach treats Revelation and the cultic apocalypses as a single kind. John is
regarded as either creating the work out of whole cloth, or plagiarizing from others who
had done so themselves. This is the view of those who do not regard the Bible as scrip-
ture, and won’t be discussed in as great detail as the other approaches.
4.6 Some Thoughts about Hermeneutics
The problem with all these approaches is the tendency to decide on one, then try to
force-fit every passage into that mold. Rather, I think we need to use these labels
descriptively, rather than prescriptively, and let each passage and image speak for itself
first, acknowledging the tension when it seems two passages suggest differing interpre-
tations.
On the whole, my opinion about the interpretation of Revelation would be described as
Idealist, although the other orthodox views1 make valid points that Idealists are some-
times reluctant to admit. Historicists are often right to see parallels between history and
Interpretation of the Millennium
182 Revelation 1: Introduction
Revelation’s images. This is not to say that the Revelation passages are predicting those
events particularly, but expressing spiritual truths that play out throughout history. An
analogy would be: Ben Franklin was not prophesying about “Honest Abe” Lincoln
when he said “Honesty is the best policy”, but Abraham Lincoln can be said to have
illustrated the statement’s truth.
What was said about Historicist interpretation is also true of Preterist interpretation.
Moreover, since the events of AD 70 were in the recent past for John and his readers, we
may well see references to those events, not as predictions of those events, but as those
events being archetypes of spiritual principles that will play out throughout history.
Even if one of the futurist, historicist, or preterist interpretation is “the” correct one, the
idealist has truth to contribute because those specific events, whether in history or end
times, illustrate spiritual truths that have application throughout history.
5.0 Interpretation of the Millennium
To a degree, interpretation of the millennium in Revelation is independent of the inter-
pretation of the rest of Revelation. One can find nearly all combinations of intepreta-
tions. The basic terms will be defined here, but will be discussed in more detail when
we reach the relevant passages.
5.1 Hyper-preterist
This heretical view spiritualizes the resurrection and regards all prophecy in the Bible as
already fulfilled by 70 AD. See “1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection” on page 1.
for a discussion of the Biblical doctrine of resurrection in contrast to the full preterist
view.
5.2 Premillennial
Christ will return before the millennium, and reign on earth for 1000 years. Dispensa-
tionalism is a modern form of this, but other variations existed as early as the 2nd cen-
tury (e.g., Justin Martyr). Dispensationalism of one form or another is most common in
modern evangelical Protestant churches.
5.3 Postmillennial
Christ will return after the millennium. The millennium is either the whole church age,
ending with the world being more or less converted to Christianity, or a future “silver”
age (in contrast to the eternal state being the “golden” age) during which the world is
more or less converted to Christianity. The latter is my view. This has some popularity
in Reformed circles, often combined with “partial” preterism. It was the view of the
Puritans.
1. The full preterist and literary critical approaches are well beyond the pale of orthodox.
Revelation 1
Revelation 1: Introduction 183
5.4 Amillennial
The millennium is the whole church age, but there is no general conversion to Christian-
ity of the whole world (a pessimistic amillennialism, in contrast to some forms of post-
millennialism sometimes called optimistic amillennialism). This is the interpretation
most common in Reformed (combined with idealistic interpretation) and Roman Catho-
lic (combined with idealistic or “partial” preterist) circles.
5.5 Who’s Right?
Albertus Pieters wrote:
None of these schools of interpretation can claim any monopoly on scholarship or faith.
Each group numbers many fine scholars and devout Christian believers. Therefore com-
plete certainty in regard to the interpretation of the Apocalypse is not to be had. It is our
duty to do the best we can, to study the various systems and accept the view that seems
to us right, but always with a certain amount of reservation and of respect for the opin-
ions of others.1
6.0 Revelation 1
6.1 Prologue (Revelation 1:1-3)
The Prologue
Rev 1:1 The revelation of Jesus Christ, which God gave him to show his servants what
must happen very soon. He made it clear by sending his angel to his servant John, 1:2
who then testified to everything that he saw concerning the word of God and the testi-
mony about Jesus Christ. 1:3 Blessed is the one who reads the words of this prophecy
aloud, and blessed are those who hear and obey the things written in it, because the time
is near!
John. John is referred to in the third person: a sort of “publisher’s forward”.
Blessed is the one who reads... blessed are those who hear. In the culture of the time
most Christians would be functionally illiterate. The contrast in number reflects the ser-
vice of the time: one reads (aloud), everyone else hears.
6.2 Greetings and Doxology (Revelation 1:4-8)
Rev 1:4 From John, to the seven churches that are in the province of Asia: Grace and
peace to you from “he who is,” and who was, and who is still to come, and from the
seven spirits who are before his throne, 1:5 and from Jesus Christ – the faithful witness,
the firstborn from among the dead, the ruler over the kings of the earth. To the one who
loves us and has set us free from our sins at the cost of his own blood 1:6 and has
appointed us as a kingdom, as priests serving his God and Father – to him be the glory
and the power for ever and ever! Amen.
1. The Lamb, the Woman and the Dragon, p. 42, quoted in Steve Gregg, Revelation: Four Views.
Revelation 1
184 Revelation 1: Introduction
1:7 (Look! He is returning with the clouds,
and every eye will see him,
even those who pierced him,
and all the tribes on the earth will mourn because of him.
This will certainly come to pass! Amen.)
1:8 “I am the Alpha and the Omega,” says the Lord God – the one who is, and who was,
and who is still to come – the All-Powerful!
From John. Opening like a letter. Compares to Paul’s letters. Addressed to seven
churches. The number seven is very prominent in the book. “Grace and peace” is Paul’s
customary creating too: it combines the common Greek greeting (charis) with the com-
mon Semitic greeting (shalom).
He who is ... Seven spirits ... Jesus Christ. Revelation is the most explicitly trinitarian
book in the New Testament. Like Paul, John cites the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit
(though Paul usually focuses on the Father and Son (“Grace and peace to you from God
our Father and the Lord Jesus Christ!” Romans 1:7). “The seven spirits” -- no where
else in Scripture, except Revelation, is the Holy Spirit described this way. In Revela-
tion, “seven” is a highly symbolic number (of completeness or perfection). Some such
symbolic sense is surely meant here.
Clouds. Rev 1:7 (Look! He is [coming]1 with the clouds,
and every eye will see him,
even those who pierced him,
and all the tribes on the earth will mourn because of him.
This will certainly come to pass! Amen.) [NET]
Verse 7 has allusions to Daniel 7:13 and Zechariah 12:10. In Daniel, the one “like a son
of man” is coming to God on the throne in heaven on clouds, not returning to Earth.
Jesus interprets this in Matthew 26:64 when he tells the priests: “But I tell you, from
now on you will see the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of the Power and coming on
the clouds of heaven.” That is, it is fulfilled on the church’s very continued existence.
Similarly, Zechariah 12:10 reads, “I will pour out upon the kingship of David and the
population of Jerusalem a spirit of grace and supplication so that they will look to me,
the one they have pierced. They will lament for him as one laments for an only son, and
there will be a bitter cry for him like the bitter cry for a firstborn.” That is, the mourning
is not because of judgment, but because of a pouring out of grace, which happened
when Christ was crucified and raised from the dead. The majority of interpreters, how-
ever, see a reference to the parousia here, but I just can’t justify that from scripture.
Alpha and Omega. God identifies himself as Alpha and Omega (A and Z, so to speak).
Jesus also will make claim to be the first and the last.
The one who is. This is probably a play on the meaning of YHWH or “I am” (Exodus
3:14-15).
1. NET has “returning” here, but “coming” which most translations have, is more accurate.
Revelation 1
Revelation 1: Introduction 185
6.3 Introduction of the Vision (Revelation 1:9-11)
Rev 1:9 I, John, your brother and the one who shares with you in the persecution, king-
dom, and endurance that are in Jesus, was on the island called Patmos because of the
word of God and the testimony about Jesus. 1:10 I was in the Spirit on the Lord’s Day
when I heard behind me a loud voice like a trumpet, 1:11 saying: “Write in a book what
you see and send it to the seven churches – to Ephesus, Smyrna, Pergamum, Thyatira,
Sardis, Philadelphia, and Laodicea.”
Tribulation. “Persescution” [Revelation 1:9] is the same word translated “tribulation”
elsewhere. This is overlooked by dispensationalists, who see the tribulation as the
seven year period before the second coming. Note the kingdom is also shared already:
the kingdom of God is a present reality now.
6.4 Seven Lampstands and Son of Man (Revelation 1:12-16)
Rev 1:12 I turned to see whose voice was speaking to me, and when I did so, I saw
seven golden lampstands, 1:13 and in the midst of the lampstands was one like a son of
man. He was dressed in a robe extending down to his feet and he wore a wide golden
belt around his chest. 1:14 His head and hair were as white as wool, even as white as
snow, and his eyes were like a fiery flame. 1:15 His feet were like polished bronze
refined in a furnace, and his voice was like the roar of many waters. 1:16 He held seven
stars in his right hand, and a sharp double-edged sword extended out of his mouth. His
face shone like the sun shining at full strength.
Son of man. This alludes to Daniel 7:13 again. It was Jesus’ usual self-identification.
His clothing may be high priestly (Exodus 28:4). The hair alludes back to Daniel’s
description of God (Daniel 7:9). The firey eyes and metalic feet allude to the mysteri-
ous figure in Daniel 10:5-6). Stars are associated with angels (Job 38:7) and with those
who lead people to righteousness (Daniel 12:3).
6.5 John Commissioned (Revelation 1:17-20)
Rev 1:17 When I saw him I fell down at his feet as though I were dead, but he placed his
right hand on me and said: “Do not be afraid! I am the first and the last, 1:18 and the one
who lives! I was dead, but look, now I am alive – forever and ever – and I hold the keys
of death and of Hades! 1:19 Therefore write what you saw, what is, and what will be
after these things. 1:20 The mystery of the seven stars that you saw in my right hand and
the seven golden lampstands is this: The seven stars are the angels of the seven churches
and the seven lampstands are the seven churches.
First and Last. Jesus makes claim to Diety: first and last, compare with Alpha and
Omega. He also presents the basic Gospel core: I was dead... I am alive -- forever”.
The Commission. John was commissioned to write “what you saw, what is, and what
will be after these things.”, that is, all history from the incarnation of Christ to the escha-
tology (John’s lifetime -- “what you saw” -- and forward). This is the problem with
Futurist and Preterist views in that they focus too exclusively on the end times and the
first century.
Revelation 1
186 Revelation 1: Introduction
187
Revelation 2-3: Letters to
the Seven Churches
Jesus directs John to write letters to
seven churches in Asia before
beginning the apocalypse proper.
1.0 The Seven Churches
Located in the Roman Provence of Asia (modern western Turkey). The order of the cit-
ies follows the path one would use to visit them all.1
1. Map traced from Classic Map Collection. Ages.
The Letters
188 Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches
2.0 The Letters
2.1 Structure
Each letter has a common structure:
•Address
•Description of Christ
•Blame and/or Praise
•Threat and/or Admonition
•Exhortation and Promise1
2.2 Ephesus (Revelation 2:1-7)
To the Church in Ephesus
Rev 2:1 “To the angel of the church in Ephesus, write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who has a firm grasp on the seven stars in
his right hand – the one who walks among the seven golden lampstands: 2:2 ‘I know
your works as well as your labor and steadfast endurance, and that you cannot tolerate
evil. You have even put to the test those who refer to themselves as apostles (but are
not), and have discovered that they are false. 2:3 I am also aware that you have persisted
steadfastly, endured much for the sake of my name, and have not grown weary. 2:4 But
I have this against you: You have departed from your first love! 2:5 Therefore, remem-
ber from what high state you have fallen and repent! Do the deeds you did at the first; if
not, I will come to you and remove your lampstand from its place – that is, if you do not
repent. 2:6 But you do have this going for you: You hate what the Nicolaitans practice –
practices I also hate. 2:7 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to
the churches. To the one who conquers, I will permit him to eat from the tree of life that
is in the paradise of God.’
One should go through the outline above for each church. Beyond that, I’m just going
to make notes about what I find to be the more interesting points. While it would be
interesting to go through this phrase by phrase (and I encourage you to do so on your
own), we need to maintain a reasonable pace.
Ephesus. Capital of the Provence of Asia.
Angels. Why would John be addressing spiritual beings? “Who are the angels? There is
no totally satisfactory answer to this question.”2 The Greek word can also mean “mes-
senger” (Luke 7:24; 9:52; James 2:25). My opinion is that the text makes much more
sense if it is taken to indicate a human, perhaps a preacher (hence, a messenger from
God). Most commentaries would probaby disagree, but then struggle to make sense of
what that would mean.
1. List is adapted from NAB footnotes
2. Johnson. p. 430. Expositor’s Bible Commentary Vol 12.
The Letters
Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches 189
Nicolaitans. “The Nicolaitans were a sect (sometimes associated with Nicolaus, one of
the seven original deacons in the church in Jerusalem according to Acts 6:5) that appar-
ently taught that Christians could engage in immoral behavior with impunity.”1
The identification with that Nicolaus is probably nothing more than a guess.
2.3 Smyrna (Revelation 2:8-11)
To the Church in Smyrna
Rev 2:8 “To the angel of the church in Smyrna write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who is the first and the last, the one who
was dead, but came to life: 2:9 ‘I know the distress you are suffering and your poverty
(but you are rich). I also know the slander against you by those who call themselves
Jews and really are not, but are a synagogue of Satan. 2:10 Do not be afraid of the things
you are about to suffer. The devil is about to have some of you thrown into prison so
you may be tested, and you will experience suffering for ten days. Remain faithful even
to the point of death, and I will give you the crown that is life itself. 2:11 The one who
has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the churches. The one who conquers
will in no way be harmed by the second death.’
Tribulation. Tribulation (distress, etc.) is something suffered in 95 AD: not an eschato-
logical tribulation.
“Those who call themselves Jews and really are not, but are a synagogue of
Satan”. This could be either Judaizing Christians like Paul struggled with, or post-Jam-
nia ethnic Jews in conflict with the Christians. (Around AD 90, the Jews formulated
curses against heritics and Christians at Jamnia).
Ten days. I would suggest that time references like this are intended to be symbolic in
Revelation, this one as a way of stating a relative short period of time. This will be
returned to later, so I will not dwell on it here.
Second death. A metaphorical way of refering to damnation. It is used here in such a
way that presuposses the readers would already be familiar with the metaphor.
2.4 Pergamum (Revelation 2:12-17)
To the Church in Pergamum
Rev 2:12 “To the angel of the church in Pergamum write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who has the sharp double-edged sword:
2:13 ‘I know where you live – where Satan’s throne is. Yet you continue to cling to my
name and you have not denied your faith in me, even in the days of Antipas, my faithful
witness, who was killed in your city where Satan lives. 2:14 But I have a few things
against you: You have some people there who follow the teaching of Balaam, who
instructed Balak to put a stumbling block before the people of Israel so they would eat
food sacrificed to idols and commit sexual immorality. 2:15 In the same way, there are
1. NET note Rev 2:6
The Letters
190 Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches
also some among you who follow the teaching of the Nicolaitans. 2:16 Therefore,
repent! If not, I will come against you quickly and make war against those people with
the sword of my mouth. 2:17 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit
says to the churches. To the one who conquers, I will give him some of the hidden
manna, and I will give him a white stone, and on that stone will be written a new name
that no one can understand except the one who receives it.’
Satan’s Throne. Perhaps the white marble altar erected and dediciated to Zeus by
Eumenes II (197-160 BC).1
Teaching of Balaam. They were probably not looking to Balaam himself as their spiri-
tual leader, but following the same sort of teaching. This particular teaching is distinct
from the Nicolaitans (v. 15).
Which thing I Hate. This phrase was copied from the description of the teaching of the
Nicolaitans in Revelation 2:6. It is not found in the earlier manuscripts. In modern
translations, it is found only in the NKJV. KJV-only zealots often point to “omissions”
like this in modern translations as evidence that they are corrupt: covering over God’s
hate for the Nicolaitan’s practices. If that were the intent of modern translators, they
needed to delete it from Revelation 2:6 well. None do. Such “missing phrases” are
nearly always redundant like this.
If not, I will come quickly. Here, Jesus’ coming does not appear to be eschatological.
Compare with similar phrases in the letters to the other churches.
2.5 Thyatira (Rev 2:18-29)
To the Church in Thyatira
Rev 2:18 “To the angel of the church in Thyatira write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the Son of God, the one who has eyes like a fiery
flame and whose feet are like polished bronze: 2:19 ‘I know your deeds: your love,
faith, service, and steadfast endurance. In fact, your more recent deeds are greater than
your earlier ones. 2:20 But I have this against you: You tolerate that woman Jezebel,
who calls herself a prophetess, and by her teaching deceives my servants to commit sex-
ual immorality and to eat food sacrificed to idols. 2:21 I have given her time to repent,
but she is not willing to repent of her sexual immorality. 2:22 Look! I am throwing her
onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her into terrible suf-
fering, unless they repent of her deeds. 2:23 Furthermore, I will strike her followers
with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who
searches minds and hearts. I will repay each one of you what your deeds deserve. 2:24
But to the rest of you in Thyatira, all who do not hold to this teaching (who have not
learned the so-called “deep secrets of Satan”), to you I say: I do not put any additional
burden on you. 2:25 However, hold on to what you have until I come. 2:26 And to the
one who conquers and who continues in my deeds until the end, I will give him author-
ity over the nations –
2:27 he will rule them with an iron rod
and like clay jars he will break them to pieces
1. NAB
The Letters
Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches 191
2:28 just as I have received the right to rule from my Father – and I will give him the
morning star. 2:29 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the
churches.’
Jezebel. The name is a reference to Jezebel in the Old Testament, who introduced pagan
practices to Israel (1 Kings 16:31; 18:1-5; 19:1-3; 21:5-241). Jezebel was probably not
her actual name.
Her Children. This probably means her followers, not those she has literally given
birth to.
Morning Star. This is rather enigmatic. The commentaries make some guesses. An
important hermenuetic principle is that it is not necessary to come up with a good
sounding meaning for every idiom, figure of speach, and symbol in Revelation. It is
better to leave such mysteries open rather than force fit everything into some interpre-
tive scheme. Whatever is meant, it is clearly meant to be something good.
Hear What the Spirit Says. This is very trinitarian. The Spirit is identified with Christ
who as already been identified with God.
2.6 Sardis (Rev 3:1-6)
To the Church in Sardis
Rev 3:1 “To the angel of the church in Sardis write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the one who holds the seven spirits of God and
the seven stars: ‘I know your deeds, that you have a reputation that you are alive, but in
reality you are dead. 3:2 Wake up then, and strengthen what remains that was about to
die, because I have not found your deeds complete in the sight of my God. 3:3 There-
fore, remember what you received and heard, and obey it, and repent. If you do not
wake up, I will come like a thief, and you will never know at what hour I will come
against you. 3:4 But you have a few individuals in Sardis who have not stained their
clothes, and they will walk with me dressed in white, because they are worthy. 3:5 The
one who conquers will be dressed like them in white clothing, and I will never erase his
name from the book of life, but will declare his name before my Father and before his
angels. 3:6 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the churches.’
Like a Thief. This suggests the unexpectedness their judgment. Compare What Jesus
said in Matthew 24:42-44.
White Clothing. Colors are significant in Revelation. In general, white symbolizes
purity and sinlessness in the Bible (Isaiah 1:18). In the opening chapters of Revelation,
God’s hair is white as wool or snow (Rev 1:14), a white stone is a reward for the one
who conquers (Revelation 2:17), white clothing is worn because “they are worthy” or
because they conquer/overcome (Revelation 3:4-5). It’s a symbol worth paying atten-
tion to, especially when we come to the seven seals in a few weeks.
1. NET
The Letters
192 Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches
I will never erase his name. On first blush this seems to suggest the possibility of a
name being erased. However, we could think of the act of erasing as a symbolic act rep-
resenting the reprobate, without suggesting there was a salvation that was had, then lost.
Moreover, the focus is on the elect, not the reprobate, so we should be extra cautious
about over-interpreting the symbolism.
2.7 Philadelphia (Revelationi 3:7-13)
To the Church in Philadelphia
Rev 3:7 “To the angel of the church in Philadelphia write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the Holy One, the True One, who holds the key
of David, who opens doors no one can shut, and shuts doors no one can open: 3:8 ‘I
know your deeds. (Look! I have put in front of you an open door that no one can shut.) I
know that you have little strength, but you have obeyed my word and have not denied
my name. 3:9 Listen! I am going to make those people from the synagogue of Satan –
who say they are Jews yet are not, but are lying – Look, I will make them come and bow
down at your feet and acknowledge that I have loved you. 3:10 Because you have kept
my admonition to endure steadfastly, I will also keep you from the hour of testing that is
about to come on the whole world to test those who live on the earth. 3:11 I am coming
soon. Hold on to what you have so that no one can take away your crown. 3:12 The one
who conquers I will make a pillar in the temple of my God, and he will never depart
from it. I will write on him the name of my God and the name of the city of my God (the
new Jerusalem that comes down out of heaven from my God), and my new name as
well. 3:13 The one who has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the churches.’
Key of David. A symbol of the authority of the Davidic king. See Isaiah 22:20-25.
Verse 22 is virtually quoted here.
A Piller in the Temple of my God. The temple is a symbolic temple, not an eschato-
logical building in Jerusalem (a person is a pillar).1
The New Jerusalem. The descent of New Jerusalem from the heavens occurs in Reve-
lation 21:10ff. The reference here seems to presuppose the readers already knew about
this. It is likely that the first century church had teaching regarding this directly from
the apostles even before the book of Revelation, though Revelation is the only scripture
that happens to tell us today about it.
2.8 Laodicea (Revelation 3:14-22)
To the Church in Laodicea
Rev 3:14 “To the angel of the church in Laodicea write the following:
“This is the solemn pronouncement of the Amen, the faithful and true witness, the orig-
inator of God’s creation: 3:15 ‘I know your deeds, that you are neither cold nor hot. I
wish you were either cold or hot! 3:16 So because you are lukewarm, and neither hot
nor cold, I am going to vomit you out of my mouth! 3:17 Because you say, “I am rich
1. See “Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple” on page 15.
See “Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor” on page 19.
Historicist Interpretation
Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches 193
and have acquired great wealth, and need nothing,” but do not realize that you are
wretched, pitiful, poor, blind, and naked, 3:18 take my advice and buy gold from me
refined by fire so you can become rich! Buy from me white clothing so you can be
clothed and your shameful nakedness will not be exposed, and buy eye salve to put on
your eyes so you can see! 3:19 All those I love, I rebuke and discipline. So be earnest
and repent! 3:20 Listen! I am standing at the door and knocking! If anyone hears my
voice and opens the door I will come into his home and share a meal with him, and he
with me. 3:21 I will grant the one who conquers permission to sit with me on my throne,
just as I too conquered and sat down with my Father on his throne. 3:22 The one who
has an ear had better hear what the Spirit says to the churches.’”
This letter plays off several cultural items specific to Laodicea.
Cold nor Hot. Water from the hot springs of Hierapolis were tepid by the time they
reached Laodicea.
White Clothing. Laodicea was well known for its glossy black wool.
Eye Salve. Laodicea was also famous for “Phrygian powder”, an eye ointment.
3.0 Historicist Interpretation
The Reformers and early Dispensationalists believed that the letters to the seven
churches were not literal letters to the seven churches in Asia of AD 95, but to churches
of seven different periods of church history.
•Ephesus: the apostolic church AD 30-100
•Smyrna: the persecuted church AD 100-313
•Pergamos: the compromised church AD 313-500
•Thyatira: the papal church AD 500-1500
•Sardis: the reformation church AD 1500-1700
•Philadelphia: the missionary church AD 1700-present
•Laodicea: the liberal church of the present1
We may criticize this approach on several points:
•The correspondences are easily forced: there’s nothing that stands out as being
unambiguously about the church of a particular age.
•There are churches like each of the seven in every age.
•Genre-wise, they are letters, not apocalypses, and so the natural reading would be
that they are addressed to who they claim to be addressed too.
•If the letters were not truely addressed to the addressees and their actual situations,
then they would have been offensive: consider if I wrote a letter addressed to you
and published it in the newspaper accusing you of serious sins, but then claimed it
was just a symbol for some future person a thousand years from now.
1. Revelation: Four Views
Historicist Interpretation
194 Revelation 2-3: Letters to the Seven Churches
•The cultural references, especially in the letter to Laodicea, make more sense for that
specific historical time and place.
•There is no explicit description of who the Nicolaitans were, implying that they were
a well-known problem in the churches addressed, and thus citing them by name was
sufficient.
Now, this is not to say the Reformers were totally off base. They were not wrong to see
papal Rome reflected in the condemnations of the church of Thyatira, nor were they
wrong to see themselves as “a few individuals in Sardis who have not stained their
clothes”. The diversity of the seven churches insures that every church of every age will
see some of themselves in one or more of them.
195
Revelation 4-5:
Theophany and the
Sealed Scroll
Now we begin the Apocalypse proper. It
begins with a glorious vision of God in
Heaven.
1.0 Structure of the Book
1.1 High Level Structure
We’ve identified some high level structure in the book already. Chapters 1-3 are letters
addressed to specific churches while chapters 4-22 are the apocalypse proper. In the
apocalypse, the churches are not addressed using the form of a letter. Twenty-two chap-
ters is a substantially sized book, so it is prudent to identify more easily processed and
digested sections. Chapter 12 forms a significant division. We’ll deal with that when
we get there. For now, we’ll deal with chapters 4-11 as a unit.
1.2 Revelation 4-11
We may outline this section thusly:
1.2.1 Revelation 4 — Theophany
1.2.2 Revelation 5 — The Sealed Book and the Lamb
1.2.3 Revelation 6-8:1 — The Seven Seals Opened
•Revelation 6:1-2 — Seal 1: White Horse
•Revelation 6:3-4 — Seal 2: Red Horse
•Revelation 6:5-6 — Seal 3: Black Horse
•Revelation 6:7-8 — Seal 4: Pale Horse
•Revelation 6:9-11 — Seal 5: Altar
•Revelation 6:12-19 — Seal 6: Earthquake
Relationship of Revelation 4-5 to Ezekiel 1-2
196 Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll
•Revelation 7:1-8 — 144,000 Sealed
•Revelation 7:9-17 — Great Multitude of Every Nation
•Revelation 8:1 — Seal 7: Silence
1.2.4 Revelation 8:2-11:19 -- The Seven Trumpets Blown
•Revelation 8:7 — Trumpet 1: Hail and Fire
•Revelation 8:8-9 — Trumpet 2: Great Mountain
•Revelation 8:10-11 — Trumpet 3: Wormwood
•Revelation 8:12 — Trumpet 4: Darkness
•Revelation 8:13 — Woe Woe Woe
•Revelation 9:1-12 — Trumpet 5: Locusts for 5 Months
•Revelation 9:13-21 — Trumpet 6: Three Plagues
•Revelation 10:1-11 — Little Scroll
•Revelation 11:1-14 — Two Witnesses for 1260 Days
•Revelation 11:15-19 — Trumpet 7: Kingdom of our Lord
1.2.5 Discussion
The two sequences of seven (seals and trumpets) share a distinct pattern. The first four
and last three are distinct groupings within each, and there are two interludes between
six and seven. Although we have a clear break after chapter 11, chapters 4-11 have
many common symbols and references.
2.0 Relationship of Revelation 4-5 to Ezekiel 1-2
2.1 Survey of Ezekiel 1-2
Read through the following passages from Ezekiel 1-2:
•Ezekiel 1:1-11
•Ezekiel 1:22-31
•Ezekiel 2:1-2
•Ezekiel 2:9-10
We may highlight a number of phrases:
•Ezekiel 1:2 — “the heavens opened”
•Ezekiel 1:4 — “I watched ... flashing fire ... glowing substance”
•Ezekiel 1:5 — “four living creatures”
•Ezekiel 1:6 — “Each had four faces and four wings”
•Ezekiel 1:10 — “face of a man ... a lion ... an ox ... an eagle”
•Ezekiel 1:22 — “a platform [dome], glittering awesomely like ice stretched out over
their heads”
Rev 4-5
Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll 197
•Ezekiel 1:23 — “a throne made of sapphire... on the throne ... a man”
•Ezekiel 1:25 — “a voice”
•Ezekiel 1:28 — “light all around him was like a rainbow”
•Ezekiel 2:2 — “a wind [spirit] came into me”
•Ezekiel 2:9 — “a written scroll”
•Ezekiel 2:10 — “He unrolled it ... it had writing on the front and back ... lamentation,
mourning and woe”
2.2 Survey of Revelation 4-5
Now we may look at revelation 4-5 and see many parallels as well as distinct contrasts.
•Revelation 4:1 — “I looked” cf. Ezekiel 1:4; “a door standing open in heaven” cf.
Ezekiel 1:1; “the first voice” cf. Ezekiel 1:25
•Revelation 4:2 — “in the Spirit” cf. Ezekiel 2:2; “a throne ... someone seated on it”
cf. Ezekiel 1:23
•Revelation 4:3 — “jasper ... carnelian ... emerald” cf. Ezekiel 1:23
•Revelation 4:5 — “flashes of lightning ... flaming tourches” cf. Ezekiel 1:4
•Revelation 4:6 — “Sea of glass, like crystal” cf. Ezekiel 1:22; “four living creatures”
cf. Ezekiel 1:5
•Revelation 4:7 — “a lion .. an ox ... a man’s ... an eagle flying” cf. Ezekiel 1:10
•Revelation 4:8 — “six wings” cf. Ezekiel 1:6, Isaiah 6:2
•Revelation 5:1 — “a scroll” cf. Ezekiel 2:9; “written on the front and back” cf. Ezek-
iel 2:10
•Revelation 5:4 — “no one ... was able to open the scroll” cf. Ezekiel 2:10
2.3 Literary Criticism
The skeptic would assume that John was inventing his account of a vision (i.e., that it is
a work of fiction) and had borrowed heavily from Ezekiel to do so. To those congenial
to such a view, the parallels might even seem as evidence of same. While the two
accounts were written by two separate persons, Ezekiel and John, over six centuries
apart, it was the same God who “scripted” both visions. The subtle, and not so subtle,
differences between the two scenes reminds us that the visions are not simple literal
views of objective reality, but symbolic representations. While there may well be four
living creatures in front of God’s throne, their actual appearance (if that is even a mean-
ingful term for spiritual beings!) is not likely to be like either of these two descriptions.
We have evidence of neither literary borrowing nor contradiction here.
3.0 Rev 4-5
The Amazing Scene in Heaven
Rev 4:1 After these things I looked, and there was a door standing open in heaven! And
the first voice I had heard speaking to me like a trumpet said: “Come up here so that I
can show you what must happen after these things.” 4:2 Immediately I was in the Spirit,
Rev 4-5
198 Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll
and a throne was standing in heaven with someone seated on it! 4:3 And the one seated
on it was like jasper and carnelian in appearance, and a rainbow looking like it was
made of emerald encircled the throne. 4:4 In a circle around the throne were twenty-
four other thrones, and seated on those thrones were twenty-four elders. They were
dressed in white clothing and had golden crowns on their heads. 4:5 From the throne
came out flashes of lightning and roaring and crashes of thunder. Seven flaming torches,
which are the seven spirits of God, were burning in front of the throne 4:6 and in front
of the throne was something like a sea of glass, like crystal.
In the middle of the throne and around the throne were four living creatures full of eyes
in front and in back. 4:7 The first living creature was like a lion, the second creature like
an ox, the third creature had a face like a man’s, and the fourth creature looked like an
eagle flying. 4:8 Each one of the four living creatures had six wings and was full of eyes
all around and inside. They never rest day or night, saying:
“Holy Holy Holy is the Lord God, the All-Powerful,
Who was and who is, and who is still to come!”
4:9 And whenever the living creatures give glory, honor, and thanks to the one who sits
on the throne, who lives forever and ever, 4:10 the twenty-four elders throw themselves
to the ground before the one who sits on the throne and worship the one who lives for-
ever and ever, and they offer their crowns before his throne, saying:
4:11 “You are worthy, our Lord and God,
to receive glory and honor and power,
since you created all things,
and because of your will they existed and were created!”
The Opening of the Scroll
Rev 5:1 Then I saw in the right hand of the one who was seated on the throne a scroll
written on the front and back and sealed with seven seals. 5:2 And I saw a powerful
angel proclaiming in a loud voice: “Who is worthy to open the scroll and to break its
seals?” 5:3 But no one in heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the
scroll or look into it. 5:4 So I began weeping bitterly because no one was found who
was worthy to open the scroll or to look into it. 5:5 Then one of the elders said to me,
“Stop weeping! Look, the Lion of the tribe of Judah, the root of David, has conquered;
thus he can open the scroll and its seven seals.”
5:6 Then I saw standing in the middle of the throne and of the four living creatures, and
in the middle of the elders, a Lamb that appeared to have been killed. He had seven
horns and seven eyes, which are the seven spirits of God sent out into all the earth. 5:7
Then he came and took the scroll from the right hand of the one who was seated on the
throne, 5:8 and when he had taken the scroll, the four living creatures and the twenty-
four elders threw themselves to the ground before the Lamb. Each of them had a harp
and golden bowls full of incense (which are the prayers of the saints). 5:9 They were
singing a new song:
“You are worthy to take the scroll
and to open its seals
because you were killed,
and at the cost of your own blood you have purchased for God
persons from every tribe, language, people, and nation.
5:10 You have appointed them as a kingdom and priests to serve our God, and they will
reign on the earth.”
God
Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll 199
5:11 Then I looked and heard the voice of many angels in a circle around the throne, as
well as the living creatures and the elders. Their number was ten thousand times ten
thousand – thousands times thousands – 5:12 all of whom were singing in a loud voice:
“Worthy is the lamb who was killed
to receive power and wealth
and wisdom and might
and honor and glory and praise!”
5:13 Then I heard every creature – in heaven, on earth, under the earth, in the sea, and
all that is in them – singing:
“To the one seated on the throne and to the Lamb
be praise, honor, glory, and ruling power forever and ever!”
5:14 And the four living creatures were saying “Amen,” and the elders threw them-
selves to the ground and worshiped.
4.0 God
4.1 Theophany
Theophany is from the Greek for “appearance of god”. Anchor Bible Dictionary
defines it as “the self-disclosure of God”. Such appearances display through visual and/
or auditory symbols something of the attributes of God, usually focusing on his awe-
some power. The chief Canaanite gods, such as Baal, were usually storm gods. It is
thus especially significant when Yahweh is accompanied by weather phenomena in the
Old Testament as it underscores that he is the one in control
4.2 Doxologies
Accompanying the theophany in Revelation is a crescendo of five doxologies. An ever
increasing number of beings praise God:
•Revelation 4:8 — four living creatures praise him in the third person
•Revelation 4:11 — twenty-four elders praise him directly in the second person
•Revelation 5:9-10 — both the living creatures and the twenty-four elders praise him
directly in the second person
•Revelation 5:12 — the angels praise him in the third person
•Revelation 5:13 — all creatures in creation praise him in the third person
We see many attributes of God praised:
•Holiness
•Power
•Eternal Existence
•Worthiness of Glory, Honor, and Power
•Creator
•Will
The Scroll and the Lamb/Lion
200 Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll
•Worthiness to open the seals
•Sacrifice
•Elector
•Worth of Power, Wealth, Wisdom, Might, Honor, Glory, Praise
•Dominion
5.0 The Scroll and the Lamb/Lion
The scroll parallels the scroll in Ezekiel. Each has writing on both sides and reveals
“lamentation, mourning, and woe” (Ezekiel 2:10, cf. Revelation 8:13). A significant
contrast though is its being opened. In Ezekiel 2:10, it is unrolled immediately; “He
unrolled it before me”. In Revelation, it seemingly can’t be opened. “But no one in
heaven or on earth or under the earth was able to open the scroll or look into it” [Reve-
lation 5:3].
I would suggest that it is because the scroll reveals more than just woe. Not to get ahead
of ourselves here, but see the interlude between the sixth and seventh seals and the sev-
enth trumpet. There is grace revealed in the opening of the scroll, and that could only be
brought about by the justification brought about by the sacrifice of the Christ.
You are worthy to take the scroll
and to open its seals
because you were killed,
and at the cost of your own blood you have purchased for God
persons from every tribe, language, people, and nation.
You have appointed them as a kingdom and priests to serve our God,
and they will reign on the earth. [ Revelation 5:9b-10, NET ]
“New” songs (Revelation 5:9a) in the Old Testament are usually in celebration of God
intervening in the world, especially in a “fresh and exciting way”.1 They are always
praise songs (doxologies).
6.0 Interpretive Issues
Issues raised by the various interpretive schemes intrude little in this passage. This part
of the visions describes the circumstances under which John is to receive the rest of the
vision, and so is rooted in John’s present time. Dispensationalists tend to identify the
the twenty-four elders as the resurrected church, but that is just one of at least a dozen
other speculations about their identity.
Such speculation is not particularly fruitful as there is no concrete evidence of their
identity. We should simply accept that they are there for purpose of proclaiming God’s
praise. Since we find twelve and its multiples associated with God-ordained organiza-
tion (twelve tribes, twelve governors, twelve apostles, twenty-four groups of twelve
1. Psalms 33, 40, 95, 98, 144, 149, Isaiah 42:10. See NET notes on “new song” as well.
Interpretive Issues
Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll 201
musicians in the temple, etc.) their number may express something of God’s govern-
ment and sovereignty.
Another hint at trinitarianism appears at Revelation 5:8 where the living creatures and
twenty-four elders fall down before the lamb in what appears to be an act of worship.
Revelation 5:10 suggested a millennarian interpretation: “You have appointed them as a
kingdom and priests to serve our God, and they will reign on the earth.” What is the
timeframe of the church’s reigning? As translated by nearly all translations, it is future
tense “they will reign”. Postmillennialists would identify this as a future millenium
when most of the earth has been converted to Christianity. Premillennialists would
identify it as a future millennium inaugerated by the return of Jesus. Amillennialists
must spiritualize the meaning of “reign” to mean “a spiritual reign over their own spirits
(no longer as slaves of sin) in the spiritual kingdom at the present time”.1 The problem
with this is the use of future tense suggests something that is not yet so. Unfortunately,
the textual evidence is actually split between future and present tense.
1. On Rev 5:10 in Revelation: Four Views.
Interpretive Issues
202 Revelation 4-5: Theophany and the Sealed Scroll
203
Revelation 6-7: The
Scroll Unsealed
We will overview the interpretive schools of
thought regarding the meaning of the seals,
and examine some debates in more detail.
1.0 Overview of the Interpretive Schools1
1.1 Historicist
The visions accompanying the seals represent events beginning with the reign of Domi-
tian (d. AD 96) and tracing the decline of the empire through the fourth and fifth centu-
ries when the Goths and Vandals invaded. In this scheme, the first seal, the white horse
that conquers, represents the “five good emperors” of AD 96-180 that expanded Rome
by Conquest; The second seal, the red horse that brings war, represents the period of
civil war in Rome in AD 180-286; and so on through the silence of the seventh seal, a
half hour of silence, which represents the interval between Constantine’s victory over
Licinius in AD 324 and the invasion of Alaric in AD 395.
1.2 Preterist
The seals represent the war with Rome in AD 66-70 and the depravations that accompa-
nied that. The 144,000 sealed are the Christian Jews who escaped Jerusalem before it
fell.
Some historicists actually follow the Preterist view this far, and see later parts of the
vision advancing through the decline of Rome. Therein lies the weakness of these
schools. The symbols in the visions are interpreted so broadly so as to make them fit the
presupposition that the same hermeneutical principle could make them fit most any time
period.
1. Summarized from Steve Gregg, Revelation: Four Views.
First through Fourth Seal: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Revelation 6:1-
204 Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed
1.3 Futurist
The seals represent the beginning of the 7-year tribulation at the end of the world. The
white horse and rider of the first seal in particular are the appearance of the antichrist at
the beginning of the seven-year great tribulation. The 144,000 are generally taken to be
ethnic Jews converted during the tribulation.
1.4 Idealist
The seals represent principals of God’s dealing with the world, and not specific events.
In essence, this view (which is the one I will expand on below) takes the criticism of the
historicist and preterist school above to the logical conclusion that the symbols are in
fact about the whole time period rather than specific events in the time period.
2.0 First through Fourth Seal: The Four Horsemen of
the Apocalypse (Revelation 6:1-8)
2.1 The White Horse and Rider: Christ or Antichrist?
The Seven Seals
Rev 6:1 I looked on when the Lamb opened one of the seven seals, and I heard one of
the four living creatures saying with a thunderous voice, “Come!” 6:2 So I looked, and
here came a white horse! The one who rode it had a bow, and he was given a crown, and
as a conqueror he rode out to conquer.
The range of interpretation of the first seal (the white horse and its rider) is an exercise
in extremes. The historical interpretation, as early as Irenaeus in the second century,
was that they represent Christ and the Gospel. A more modern view, popular especially
with dispensationalists, but also found in some reformed commentaries, is that the con-
queror is the antichrist, the man of lawlessness in 2 Thessalonians 2.
Since there is no passage anywhere that says the white horse and its rider of the first seal
is one or the other, we must decide on the meaning through logical deduction (assuming
we can decide at all). To this end, we will examination the text of Revelation for facts
from which we can deduce conclusions.
First, the symbols God uses in Revelation show something of the true nature of the thing
symbolized, whether it is Christ as a lamb, or Satan as a beast.
Second, white, not only in Revelation, but in all of scripture, symbolizes purity. We
may list the occurrences in Revelation here:
•Revelation 1:14 — of the hair of the “one like a son of man”;
•Revelation 3:4 — of the (figurative) clothing of the men of Sardis whose deeds are
not dead;
•Revelation 3:5 — of the (figurative) clothing of those who conquer, whose name
will never be erased from the book of life;
First through Fourth Seal: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Revelation 6:1-
Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed 205
•Revelation 3:18 — of the (figurative) clothing that the men of Laodicea are advised
to buy from one like a son of man;
•Revelation 4:4 — of the clothing of the 24 elders around the throne;
•Revelation 6:11 — of the robe given to the souls under the altar;
•Revelation 7:9-14 — of the robes of the multitude before the throne;
•Revelation 14:14 — of the cloud the one like a son of man is seated on;
•Revelation 19:11-14 — of the horse the Messiah is riding on, and of the clothing and
horses of the armies of heaven;
•Revelation 20:11 — the throne of God
Given this, it would seem the first horseman is representing something pure that will
conquer. Further, in the seven letters, it is the elect who conquer. In the theophany, it is
the Lion of the tribe of Judah who conquered. In chapter 12, Satan is conquered by the
blood of the Lamb, etc.
To be fair, the beast is also said to conquer the saints temporarily. The arguments for the
white horse and rider being antichrist go something like this1:
•the parallelism with the other horses suggests it being part of a sequence of calami-
ties (but, we will see these represent not a series of events, let alone calamities, but
the situation of man in the church age)S
•Christ is already represented by the lamb in this vision (but, the Holy Spirit is repre-
sent by both the seven flames in Revelation 4:5 and the seven eyes of the Lamb in
Revelation 5:6; these are symbolic visions, and thus not bound by the conventions of
physical reality);
•parallelism with the Olivet Discourse (Matthew 24, Luke 21, Mark 13) line up the
white horse with false christs (but, the parallelism isn’t as strong as suggested2, and
I’ve elsewhere argued that the Olivet Discourse is specifically about the destruction
of Jerusalem in AD 70, and so has little bearing on this passage unless one argues for
a preterist interpretation);
•there are differences between this white horse and the one in Revelation 19:11 that is
Christ (but, there are differences between Revelation 19:11 that and the Lamb in
Revelation 5, yet both are Christ as well; they’re symbols after all).
On the whole, I think we must side with the traditional interpretation that the white
horse conquering must represent either Christ, the Gospel, or the elect conquering.
Since the elect conquer by the blood of Christ with the Gospel, the distinction is effec-
tively moot.
1. See David J. MacLeod. “The Four Horsemen Of Apocalypse”. Emmaus Journal Volume 1.
Winter 1991.
2. Mt 24:5 is lined up with the white horse, but they mislead, not conquer. Wars, rumours of war,
famines, plauges and earthquakes are grouped together in Mt 24:6-7 || Lk 21:10-11, but
rumors, famine, and disease are a normal part of any war; there is nothing remarkable about
this clustering, which is the point of the idealist interpretation. Also, the horsemen symbology
says nothing about earthquakes.
First through Fourth Seal: The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse (Revelation 6:1-
206 Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed
2.2 The Horsemen as Representing History in General
Rev 6:3 Then when the Lamb opened the second seal, I heard the second living creature
saying, “Come!” 6:4 And another horse, fiery red, came out, and the one who rode it
was granted permission to take peace from the earth, so that people would butcher one
another, and he was given a huge sword.
6:5 Then when the Lamb opened the third seal I heard the third living creature saying,
“Come!” So I looked, and here came a black horse! The one who rode it had a balance
scale in his hand. 6:6 Then I heard something like a voice from among the four living
creatures saying, “A quart of wheat will cost a day’s pay and three quarts of barley will
cost a day’s pay. But do not damage the olive oil and the wine!”
6:7 They when the Lamb opened the fourth seal I heard the voice of the fourth living
creature saying, “Come!” 6:8 So I looked and here came a pale green horse! The name
of the one who rode it was Death, and Hades followed right behind. They were given
authority over a fourth of the earth, to kill its population with the sword, famine, and
disease, and by the wild animals of the earth.
Read Revelation 6:1-8. What characters are introduced, what roles do they play, and
what events are predicted? That was a trick question. Four characters and their roles
are given, but precious little is said about specific events.
The first seal brings a white horse whose rider has the role of conqueror. As discussed
above, if the rider is not Christ himself, then it is something like the Gospel personified.
The Gospel advances, conquering by the double edged sword that comes from Christ’s
mouth (Revelation 1:16 and the references to conquering in the seven letters) through-
out the Church Age.
The second seal brings a red horse. Where white symbolizes purity, red symbolizes evil
in Revelation. We’ll see this use of red later in Revelation with the beasts.1 The rider is
a satanic force who agitates people to kill one another. Every generation has seen war-
fare. There is nothing exceptional about this in history.
The third seal brings a black horse. It’s rider brings subsistence living. A day’s wages
barely pays for the food an individual or family needs in a day. But regardless of the
severity of famine conditions, the rich have all the oil and wine they could want! Com-
pare this with the complaints of Job (Job 21:7 ff) and of Solomon (Ecclesiastes 7:15).
The 20th century western standard of living has been an blip on the screen of history.
Even today, in Africa, Asia, South America, etc., this seal reflects the standard of living
of most of the world’s population2. There is nothing exceptional about this seal in his-
tory.
The fourth seal brings a horse with a sickly pallor (pale green). It’s rider is Death and
Hades. They kill a fourth of the earth with sword, famine, disease, and wild animals. In
most of history, as in many parts of the world today, people did not live to their 80’s and
die of old age very often. The stark view of death by violence presented by this seal is
the normal, not an exceptional, course of history.
1. Though the blood of Christ is red, it is always associated with washing clothes white!
2. For that matter, the inner city of New Orleans too, as we have learned.
Fifth Seal: The Altar of Martyrs (Revelation 6:9-11)
Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed 207
An interesting parallel to this passage is Zechariah 6:1-7, where red, black, white, and
dappled horses are seen in a vision and described by an angle as “the four spirits [or
winds] of heaven that have been presenting themselves before the Lord of all the earth”.
3.0 Fifth Seal: The Altar of Martyrs (Revelation 6:9-11)
Rev 6:9 Now when the Lamb opened the fifth seal, I saw under the altar the souls of
those who had been violently killed because of the word of God and because of the tes-
timony they had given. 6:10 They cried out with a loud voice, “How long, Sovereign
Master, holy and true, before you judge those who live on the earth and avenge our
blood?” 6:11 Each of them was given a long white robe and they were told to rest for a
little longer, until the full number was reached of both their fellow servants and their
brothers who were going to be killed just as they had been.
With the fifth seal we are introduced to the martyrs. Their martyrdom is symbolized by
their being in an altar. Because of this clear symbolism, we shouldn’t necessarily pull
from this any particular details about what the intermediate state1 is like. That isn’t the
point of this passage.
John is looking at the altar in a particular point in time, presumably his own. Many of
the elect, including Old Testament saints, had been martyred in the past, and more
would be in the future. Thus even though the scene is rooted in a point in time, it tells us
something about the whole age - there will be martyrdom - and that there will be a par-
ticular number, determined by God, that will be martyred before the end.
4.0 The Sixth Seal: Cosmological Signs (Rev 6:12-17)
Rev 6:12 Then I looked when the Lamb opened the sixth seal, and a huge earthquake
took place; the sun became as black as sackcloth made of hair, and the full moon
became blood red; 6:13 and the stars in the sky fell to the earth like a fig tree dropping
its unripe figs when shaken by a fierce wind. 6:14 The sky was split apart like a scroll
being rolled up, and every mountain and island was moved from its place. 6:15 Then the
kings of the earth, the very important people, the generals, the rich, the powerful, and
everyone, slave and free, hid themselves in the caves and among the rocks of the moun-
tains. 6:16 They said to the mountains and to the rocks, “Fall on us and hide us from the
face of the one who is seated on the throne and from the wrath of the Lamb, 6:17
because the great day of their wrath has come, and who is able to withstand it?”
Cosmological signs like this occur in a number of passages in the Bible. They never
signal literal cosmological upheaval or eschatological cataclysm. In Isaiah 13:10, 13,
they apply to the destruction of Babylon to happen in Isaiah’s time. In Isaiah 34:4, they
apply to Edom of Isaiah’s day. In the Olivet Discourse, Mark 13:24-27, they apply to
Jerusalem of AD 70.2 Similar language is found in Amos 8:8-9; Isaiah 50:2-3; Joel
2:10, 30-31.
1. The state of the soul between death and the resurrection.
2. See “Isaiah 13:10, 13 (Matthew 24:29, Mark 13:24-25, Luke 21:26)” on page 30.
See “Allusions From Old Testament Prophets (Mark 13:24-27)” on page 153.
The Interludes (Revelation 7)
208 Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed
If there is anything recent events1 should remind us of, it is that catastrophes happen
regularly in this age. So again, this seal seems to represent the normal course of history
under God’s providence.
5.0 The Interludes (Revelation 7)
The Sealing of the 144,000
Rev 7:1 After this I saw four angels standing at the four corners of the earth, holding
back the four winds of the earth so no wind could blow on the earth, on the sea, or on
any tree. 7:2 Then I saw another angel ascending from the east, who had the seal of the
living God. He shouted out with a loud voice to the four angels who had been given per-
mission to damage the earth and the sea: 7:3 “Do not damage the earth or the sea or the
trees until we have put a seal on the foreheads of the servants of our God.” 7:4 Now I
heard the number of those who were marked with the seal, one hundred and forty-four
thousand, sealed from all the tribes of the people of Israel:
7:5 From the tribe of Judah, twelve thousand were sealed,
from the tribe of Reuben, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Gad, twelve thousand,
7:6 from the tribe of Asher, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Naphtali, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Manasseh, twelve thousand,
7:7 from the tribe of Simeon, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Levi, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Issachar, twelve thousand,
7:8 from the tribe of Zebulun, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Joseph, twelve thousand,
from the tribe of Benjamin, twelve thousand were sealed.
7:9 After these things I looked, and here was an enormous crowd that no one could
count, made up of persons from every nation, tribe, people, and language, standing
before the throne and before the Lamb dressed in long white robes, and with palm
branches in their hands. 7:10 They were shouting out in a loud voice,
“Salvation belongs to our God,
to the one seated on the throne, and to the Lamb!”
7:11 And all the angels stood there in a circle around the throne and around the elders
and the four living creatures, and they threw themselves down with their faces to the
ground before the throne and worshiped God, 7:12 saying,
“Amen! Praise and glory,
and wisdom and thanksgiving,
and honor and power and strength
be to our God for ever and ever. Amen!”
7:13 Then one of the elders asked me, “These dressed in long white robes – who are
they and where have they come from?” 7:14 So I said to him, “My lord, you know the
answer.” Then he said to me, “These are the ones who have come out of the great tribu-
lation. They have washed their robes and made them white in the blood of the Lamb!
7:15 For this reason they are before the throne of God, and they serve him day and night
1. The tsunami in the Indian Ocean and Hurricane Katrina in New Orleans.
The Interludes (Revelation 7)
Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed 209
in his temple, and the one seated on the throne will shelter them. 7:16 They will never go
hungry or be thirsty again, and the sun will not beat down on them, nor any burning
heat, 7:17 because the Lamb in the middle of the throne will shepherd them and lead
them to springs of living water, and God will wipe away every tear from their eyes.”
Between the sixth and seventh seals, John sees two mini-visions. There is a similar sort
of interlude between the following sixth and seventh trumpets, unifying chapters 4-11
structurally.
In the first mini-vision, Revelation 7:1-8, John sees 12,000 of each of twelve tribes of
Israel, 144,000, sealed. In the second mini-vision, John sees an huge crowd, “made up
of persons from every nation, tribe, people, and language” worshiping God and the
Lamb. That the huge crowd are the redeemed can scarcely be denied as this language
was already used of them in the doxology of Revelation 5:9-10. The weakness of the
Historicist and Preterist views here is the convolutions that must be done to force fit this
passage into their schemes. They are described as having come out of “the great tribula-
tion”. If they are in fact all the redeemed (and the language suggest such), then that trib-
ulation is not just some final seven year period, but each individuals life experience in
this world. See Revelation 1:9; 2:9, 10, and 22 for uses of the word to describe the then
current situation.
The interpretation of the 144,000 is much more difficult. We can dismiss out of hand
cultic interpretations such as the Jehovah Witnesses, who believe only 144,000 will go
to heaven (the great crowd is before the throne in heaven after all!). The number itself
is almost certainly symbolic rather than literal. A common suggestion is that they also
represent the church. It is true that the church is identified with true Israel, especially by
Paul. In context though, there seems to be a distinction between the 144,000 and the
great crowd. One suggestion for understanding a distinction is that the 144,000 is the
church militant, the church present on earth at any given time, and the great crowd is the
church triumphant, all the elect from all the ages present in heaven with Christ. The
weakness of this is there is nothing in the passage to suggest there is a “moving win-
dow” of 144,000.
For my understanding, I look forward to Revelation 12 where we have a woman clothed
with the sun, moon, and twelve stars who seems to represent Israel. She gives birth to a
child who is clearly Jesus the Messiah. Then, after Satan is cast out of heaven to the
earth, he first pursues the woman, then makes war on “the rest of her children”, which
would seem to be the Gentile church. I therefore think the 144,000 from Israel are eth-
nic Jews, but, not Jews saved in the tribulation like dispensationalists would have it, but
the Jews who gave birth to the Messiah, that is, the Old Testament saints, while the great
crowd is the gentile church that sprang from them.
An apologetics issue in this passage is the list of twelve tribes. Many a skeptic has
pointed out that it is “wrong”. It omits the tribes of Dan and Ephraim. The twelve tribes
were originally descendants of each of the twelve sons of Jacob (aka Israel). But Jacob
declared of Joseph’s sons “Ephraim and Manasseh will be mine just as Reuben and Sim-
eon are” (Genesis 48:5). This would technically make 13 tribes. But, when the land
was divided, Levi did not receive an inheritance of land (Deuteronomy 18:1-5). They
did not “count” as part of the twelve, maintaining the convention of twelve tribes.
Later, when Israel split, it was in the tribes of Dan and Ephraim that golden calves were
The Seventh Seal: Silence and the Trumpets (Revelation 8:1)
210 Revelation 6-7: The Scroll Unsealed
set up for the Israelites to worship. Their omission from the list in Revelation is sym-
bolic that this is faithful Israel, and not rebellious Israel.1 To maintain the convention of
twelve tribes, Levi is included in the twelve again, and Joseph is listed instead of his son
Ephraim. The significance of the choice of tribal names is the symbolism, and not
genetic or political realities.
The sealing itself is remeniscent of Ezekiel 9 were angels put a mark on the foreheads of
“the men who moan and groan over all the abominations practiced in [Jerusalem]”.
Then angels are told to “strike people down ... But do not touch anyone who has the
mark.” The situation in Ezekiel is the destruction of Jerusalem in 586 BC by the Baby-
lonians. The sealing is symbolic of the fact that God has always preserved a rement of
his people who are faithful to him (compare with Elisha’s experience in 1 Kings 19:18).
6.0 The Seventh Seal: Silence and the Trumpets
(Revelation 8:1)
The Seventh Seal
Rev 8:1 Now when the Lamb opened the seventh seal there was silence in heaven for
about half an hour.
The seventh seal takes us into chapter 8-11. With it there is silence in heaven followed
by the seven trumpets. We will discuss this in the next lesson or two.
7.0 Sovereignty of God
Regardless of which interpretive school one takes regarding the events depicted in the
visions accompanying the opening of the seven seals, the central theme that comes
through is the Sovereignty of God. These events do not happen out of God’s control,
but are already scripted in the scroll long before they occur.
1. There is a tradition often cited that the antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan, but it is
quite an unsubstantiated leap to claim such a belief has anything to do with Dan’s omission
here, especially since it is paired with Ephraim’s omission.
211
Revelation 8-11: The
Seven Trumpets
The Seven Trumpets sound after the
seventh seal is opened. We’ll break this
section into two lessons, looking at the first
six seals one week, then the two interludes
and the seventh seal the following week.
1.0 Overview of the Interpretive Schools1
1.1 Historicist
The first four trumpets are the invasions of Rome by Goths, Vandals and Huns from AD
408 to 476 when the Western Empire came to and end. The fifth trumpet is the rise of
Islam and the invasions of the Saracens. The sixth trumpet is the rise of the Turks (the
Ottoman empire), ending with the fall of the Byzantine Empire. The first interlude, the
angle with the little book, represents the invention of the printing press and the greater
availability of the Bible. The second interlude represents the period of the papacy
between its rise and the reformation. The two witnesses are groups such as the
Waldenses who opposed the papacy before the reformation. The seventh trumpet brings
us to the eschaton (end-time).
On the details, the Historicist view spawns many speculations. For example, the moun-
tain that crashes into the sea in the second trumpet is seen as symbolizing the Vandals
under king Genseric, the leader or leaders of heretics, or the city of Rome. The great
star of the third trumpet is speculated to symbolize either Atilla the Hun, Pelagius, or
Arius.
1.2 Preterist
The trumpets represent the ever increasing deprivation of those trapped in Jerusalem by
the Romans. The three and one half years represents either Nero’s persecution or the
siege of Jerusalem. The two witnesses are either two men in Jerusalem warning the
1. Summarized from Steve Gregg, Revelation: Four Views.
The First Four Trumpets (Revelation 8:2-13)
212 Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets
Jews before AD 70 (such as James and Peter) or symbolize the witnesses of the old cov-
enant or the priestly and civil heads of the Jews or some such.
1.3 Futurist
The trumpets represent events in the seven-year tribulation preceding the eschaton. The
three and one half years are a literal portion of the tribulation and the two witnesses two
prophets who will appear then.
Many futurists try to take these visions literally as most of the descriptions are not so
remarkable as to be unthinkable in that way. On the other hand, in a book of visions full
of symbolic representations, it seems a strange hermeneutic to try and take these simply
literally, and in fact some futurists do read symbolism of one sort or another into them.
For example, Gaebelein takes the green things to represent economic prosperity. Hal
Lindsey takes to whole section to represent a nuclear war.
Speculations about the mountain-like object include a revived Roman Empire, spiritual
Babylon, a meteor, a satellite, and a nuclear bomb. Speculations about the darkness
include pollution and nuclear warfare. The wild range of such speculations should con-
vince one of the futility of the effort.
1.4 Idealist
The trumpets represent the tribulation the church experiences throughout the church
age, a period of time represented by the three and one half years. The two witnesses
represent the witness of the church.
2.0 The First Four Trumpets (Revelation 8:2-13)
Rev 8:2 Then I saw the seven angels who stand before God, and seven trumpets were
given to them. 8:3 Another angel holding a golden censer came and was stationed at the
altar. A large amount of incense was given to him to offer up, with the prayers of all the
saints, on the golden altar that is before the throne. 8:4 The smoke coming from the
incense, along with the prayers of the saints, ascended before God from the angel’s
hand. 8:5 Then the angel took the censer, filled it with fire from the altar, and threw it on
the earth, and there were crashes of thunder, roaring, flashes of lightning, and an earth-
quake.
8:6 Now the seven angels holding the seven trumpets prepared to blow them.
8:7 The first angel blew his trumpet, and there was hail and fire mixed with blood, and
it was thrown at the earth so that a third of the earth was burned up, a third of the trees
were burned up, and all the green grass was burned up.
8:8 Then the second angel blew his trumpet, and something like a great mountain of
burning fire was thrown into the sea. A third of the sea became blood, 8:9 and a third of
the creatures living in the sea died, and a third of the ships were completely destroyed.
8:10 Then the third angel blew his trumpet, and a huge star burning like a torch fell
from the sky; it landed on a third of the rivers and on the springs of water. 8:11 (Now the
name of the star is Wormwood.) So a third of the waters became wormwood, and many
people died from these waters because they were poisoned.
The First Four Trumpets (Revelation 8:2-13)
Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets 213
8:12 Then the fourth angel blew his trumpet, and a third of the sun was struck, and a
third of the moon, and a third of the stars, so that a third of them were darkened. And
there was no light for a third of the day and for a third of the night likewise. 8:13 Then I
looked, and I heard an eagle flying directly overhead, proclaiming with a loud voice,
“Woe! Woe! Woe to those who live on the earth because of the remaining sounds of the
trumpets of the three angels who are about to blow them!”
The first four trumpets (Revelation 8:2-12) are set off from the remaining ones by Rev-
elation 8:13. This parallels the seals, where the first four seals are set off from the
remaining ones. Accompanying the blowing of the trumpets are visions of calamities
that resemble in many ways the ten plagues on Egypt in Exodus.
The first four trumpets all detail things happening to the four divisions of the material
world commonly seen in ancient cosmologies: land, sea, fresh water, and sky. Each
effects a third of that realm. This fraction is an echo of Ezekiel 5. Such parallels
strongly suggest that we are not looking at eschatological calamities here. Nor is the
scale to be seen as worldwide. Think of John’s perspective here. He’s seeing these
things happen from a perspective that lets him see the details he’s mentioning. This is
not a “satellite view” of the world (even if he is in heaven).
In the seven letters, Jesus threatened coming in judgment if they did not repent. “Look!
I am throwing her onto a bed of violent illness, and those who commit adultery with her
into terrible suffering, unless they repent of her deeds. Therefore, I will strike her fol-
lowers with a deadly disease, and then all the churches will know that I am the one who
searches minds and hearts” [Revelation 2:22-23a]. These trumpets are representative of
the catastrophes that happen throughout the church age that God purposes for good. We
are seeing the trumpets fulfilled multiple times in the southeast United States with all
the severe hurricanes that have been striking. And they have been being so for the last
two thousand years.
TABLE 1. Exodus-Trumpets Parallels
Exodus Revelation
7:14-24 Water into Blood
7:25-8:15 Frogs
8:16-19 Gnats
8:20-32 Flies
9:1-7 Disease
9:8-12 Boils
9:13-35 Hail
10:1-20 Locusts
10:21-29 Darkness
11:1-10 Death of Firstborn
8:7 Hail and Fire mixed with
Blood
8:8-9 Sea became blood
8:10-11 Rivers and springs
become wormwood (bitter)
8:12 Sun, moon, stars dark-
ened
9:3 Locusts
9:19 Plagues from horses’
tails
The Fifth Trumpet (Revelation 9:1-12)
214 Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets
3.0 The Fifth Trumpet (Revelation 9:1-12)
Rev 9:1 Then the fifth angel blew his trumpet, and I saw a star that had fallen from the
sky to the earth, and he was given the key to the shaft of the abyss. 9:2 He opened the
shaft of the abyss and smoke rose out of it like smoke from a giant furnace. The sun and
the air were darkened with smoke from the shaft. 9:3 Then out of the smoke came
locusts onto the earth, and they were given power like that of the scorpions of the earth.
9:4 They were told not to damage the grass of the earth, or any green plant or tree, but
only those people who did not have the seal of God on their forehead. 9:5 The locusts
were not given permission to kill them, but only to torture them for five months, and
their torture was like that of a scorpion when it stings a person. 9:6 In those days people
will seek death, but will not be able to find it; they will long to die, but death will flee
from them.
9:7 Now the locusts looked like horses equipped for battle. On their heads were some-
thing like crowns similar to gold, and their faces looked like men’s faces. 9:8 They had
hair like women’s hair, and their teeth were like lions’ teeth. 9:9 They had breastplates
like iron breastplates, and the sound of their wings was like the noise of many horse-
drawn chariots charging into battle. 9:10 They have tails and stingers like scorpions,
and their ability to injure people for five months is in their tails. 9:11 They have as king
over them the angel of the abyss, whose name in Hebrew is Abaddon, and in Greek,
Apollyon.
9:12 The first woe has passed, but two woes are still coming after these things!
The fifth trumpet is set off from the previous four in two ways. First, it is introduced as
the first of three woes. Second, it afflicts man directly instead of aspects of man’s world
(Revelation 9:4).
If there is any question about the visions accompanying the trumpets being symbolic,
this vision should put those doubts to bed. A star fallen from heaven to earth (Satan,
perhaps) opens the abyss and releases a plague of locusts. Although this is reminiscent
of the plague of locusts in Egypt, these locusts are quite different.
There description is unlike anything that occurs in the natural world and is replete with
symbolism. They are:
•like horses equipped for battle and,
•with crowns on their heads,
•faces of men,
•hair like women,
•teeth like lions,
•iron breastplates,
•wings that sound like horse-drawn chariots, and
•tails like scorpion stingers.
All these are symbols of power and strength. The period of their time of terror is five
months. This number was probably selected because it is the normal life span of locusts
rather than representing a literal five month period in history. It serves to signify that
“this too will pass”. Their power is only for a limited time.
The Sixth Trumpet (Revelation 9:13-21)
Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets 215
The references to the abyss and the angel of the abyss indicate that these locusts are of a
demonic nature. We will meet these demonic forces in the world in later chapters.
4.0 The Sixth Trumpet (Revelation 9:13-21)
Rev 9:13 Then the sixth angel blew his trumpet, and I heard a single voice coming from
the horns on the golden altar that is before God, 9:14 saying to the sixth angel, the one
holding the trumpet, “Set free the four angels who are bound at the great river Euph-
rates!” 9:15 Then the four angels who had been prepared for this hour, day, month, and
year were set free to kill a third of humanity. 9:16 The number of soldiers on horseback
was two hundred million; I heard their number. 9:17 Now this is what the horses and
their riders looked like in my vision: The riders had breastplates that were fiery red,
dark blue, and sulfurous yellow in color. The heads of the horses looked like lions’
heads, and fire, smoke, and sulfur came out of their mouths. 9:18 A third of humanity
was killed by these three plagues, that is, by the fire, the smoke, and the sulfur that came
out of their mouths. 9:19 For the power of the horses resides in their mouths and in their
tails, because their tails are like snakes, having heads that inflict injuries. 9:20 The rest
of humanity, who had not been killed by these plagues, did not repent of the works of
their hands, so that they did not stop worshiping demons and idols made of gold, silver,
bronze, stone, and wood – idols that cannot see or hear or walk about. 9:21 Further-
more, they did not repent of their murders, of their magic spells, of their sexual immo-
rality, or of their stealing.
With the sixth trumpet, four angels are released from the Euphrates, and with a vast
army, they kill one third of all mankind. The symbolism of a threat from that region is
striking to the milieu. Rome’s only real external threat of the time was the Parthian
Empire, and the Euphrates River was the border between them. In the fifth trumpet, the
iron breastplates may echo the bright armor of the Parthians, and the ability to wound
with their tails echoes the Parthian tactic of shooting two volleys of arrows: one on
charge and another on withdraw. The vast, even hyperbolically huge, army described
here would reflect the Roman fears of the Parthians, whose empire was second only to
the Roman’s in size.1 Rome thought of the Parthians in the same way as the United
States thought of the Soviet Union during the Cold War or al Qaeda today.
That said, the fifth and sixth trumpets are not actually about the Parthians. Not only did
the Parthians not conquer Rome, but the fantastic symbolism suggests these echoes are
being used as an archetype (a symbolic idea) for what is intended.
We have great violence represented here. A third of humanity is killed by three plagues
represented by fire, smoke, and sulfur that comes out of their mouths. Like the double
edge sword that comes out of Jesus’ mouth represents the teachings of Jesus, it would
seem likely that these plagues would also represent teachings, but of a more sinister
kind. They are also represented by colors: red, dark blue, and yellow, which resemble
the colors of the later three horses of the seals (red, black, and sickly pale green). They
contrast with white, which represents purity. Red later will be used to symbolize Satan
himself (the red dragon).
1. “Parthians” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Summary of the Fifth and Sixth Trumpets
216 Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets
The suffering of humanity is the consequence of the false teaching and of their actions
that result from it. Yet they refuse to learn their lesson from it (Revelation 9:20-21).
5.0 Summary of the Fifth and Sixth Trumpets
The fifth and sixth trumpets describe Satanic influence in the world. The locusts of the
fifth trumpet and the army of the sixth trumpet suggest Satan and his minions, both
demonic and human. The remarkable thing here is the statement that they are prepared
“for this hour, day, month, and year”. They are part of God’s plan and providence.
What specific hour, day, month, and year meant here will be discussed in a later lesson.
I have asserted much here without really building a strong case for it. That case is com-
ing. When we cover Revelation 12, a lot of pieces will come together. Once we under-
stand the less ambiguous symbolism in that chapter, I believe the Idealist1 view
presented here will make a lot more sense.
6.0 First Interlude: The Little Book (Revelation 10)
The Angel with the Little Scroll
Rev 10:1 Then I saw another powerful angel descending from heaven, wrapped in a
cloud, with a rainbow above his head; his face was like the sun and his legs were like
pillars of fire. 10:2 He held in his hand a little scroll that was open, and he put his right
foot on the sea and his left on the land. 10:3 Then he shouted in a loud voice like a lion
roaring, and when he shouted, the seven thunders sounded their voices. 10:4 When the
seven thunders spoke, I was preparing to write, but just then I heard a voice from
heaven say, “Seal up what the seven thunders spoke and do not write it down.” 10:5
Then the angel I saw standing on the sea and on the land raised his right hand to heaven
10:6 and swore by the one who lives forever and ever, who created heaven and what is
in it, and the earth and what is in it, and the sea and what is in it, “There will be no more
delay! 10:7 But in the days when the seventh angel is about to blow his trumpet, the
mystery of God is completed, just as he has proclaimed to his servants the prophets.”
10:8 Then the voice I had heard from heaven began to speak to me again, “Go and take
the open scroll in the hand of the angel who is standing on the sea and on the land.” 10:9
So I went to the angel and asked him to give me the little scroll. He said to me, “Take
the scroll and eat it. It will make your stomach bitter, but it will be as sweet as honey in
your mouth.” 10:10 So I took the little scroll from the angel’s hand and ate it, and it did
taste as sweet as honey in my mouth, but when I had eaten it, my stomach became bitter.
10:11 Then they told me: “You must prophesy again about many peoples, nations, lan-
guages, and kings.”
In chapter five, we saw that the sealed scroll echoed the scroll in Ezekiel 2. In Ezekiel
3, Ezekiel is told to eat the scroll and it is described as tasting sweet (Ezekiel 3:3). Here
in Revelation 10, an angel descends with an open scroll that John is commanded to eat
and it too is described as tasting sweet (though bitter in the stomach). The continuation
of the allusion to Ezekiel strongly suggests the recently unsealed scroll and this scroll
are the same scroll, although the text does not explicitly say so.
1. Also called Spiritualist, but that word can be misleading as it can also mean occultist.
Second Interlude: The Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14)
Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets 217
The act of eating the scroll is a symbolic commissioning to prophecy.
Eze 3:1 He said to me, “Son of man, eat what you see in front of you —eat this scroll—
and then go and speak to the house of Israel.” [NET]
Words of prophecy are symbolically given to John to speak. Given that the bulk of the
vision of the seals and trumpets is already over, and (judging from Revelation 10:4)
already written down, this commissioning must be for an additional prophecy. In fact
Revelation 10:11 says
Rev 10:11 Then they told me: “You must prophesy again about many peoples, nations,
languages, and kings.” [ emphasis added ] [NET]
It would appear then that this vision is a commissioning to deliver the message of Reve-
lation chapter 12-22, which, we will see, is a recapitulation of chapters 4-11.
There is some speculation that the “powerful angel” here is Christ as he is accompanied
by some symbols one ordinarily associates with Jesus or God, like the rainbow, the
cloud, etc. However it would be highly unusual, even jarring, for Christ to be referred
to as an angel (contrast with Hebrews 1:3-4, 13-14). The symbols probably are meant to
indicate that the angel is acting on God’s behalf. Revelation 19:10 shows us we must be
very careful about such identifications.
The seven thunders were evidently meant for John’s ears only as he is forbidden to write
them. That he appears to be recording the vision as he receives it, is also a fascinating
tidbit. The vision is not happening during sleep, but in a wakeful state.
7.0 Second Interlude: The Two Witnesses (Revelation
11:1-14)
The Fate of the Two Witnesses
Rev 11:1 Then a measuring rod like a staff was given to me, and I was told, “Get up and
measure the temple of God, and the altar, and the ones who worship there. 11:2 But do
not measure the outer courtyard of the temple; leave it out, because it has been given to
the Gentiles, and they will trample on the holy city for forty-two months. 11:3 And I
will grant my two witnesses authority to prophesy for 1,260 days, dressed in sackcloth.
11:4 (These are the two olive trees and the two lampstands that stand before the Lord of
the earth.) 11:5 If anyone wants to harm them, fire comes out of their mouths and com-
pletely consumes their enemies. If anyone wants to harm them, they must be killed this
way. 11:6 These two have the power to close up the sky so that it does not rain during
the time they are prophesying. They have power to turn the waters to blood and to strike
the earth with every kind of plague whenever they want. 11:7 When they have com-
pleted their testimony, the beast that comes up from the abyss will make war on them
and conquer them and kill them. 11:8 Their corpses will lie in the street of the great city
that is symbolically called Sodom and Egypt, where their Lord was also crucified. 11:9
For three and a half days those from every people, tribe, nation, and language will look
at their corpses, because they will not permit them to be placed in a tomb. 11:10 And
those who live on the earth will rejoice over them and celebrate, even sending gifts to
each other, because these two prophets had tormented those who live on the earth. 11:11
But after three and a half days a breath of life from God entered them, and they stood on
their feet, and tremendous fear seized those who were watching them. 11:12 Then they
Second Interlude: The Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14)
218 Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets
heard a loud voice from heaven saying to them: “Come up here!” So the two prophets
went up to heaven in a cloud while their enemies stared at them. 11:13 Just then a major
earthquake took place and a tenth of the city collapsed; seven thousand people were
killed in the earthquake, and the rest were terrified and gave glory to the God of heaven.
11:14 The second woe has come and gone; the third is coming quickly.
At the time John is writing, the Temple in Jerusalem had been destroyed some 25 years
earlier. Dispensationalists, and presumably most other futurists, see in this chapter the
idea that a new temple will be constructed. This only works if the forty-two months
(aka 1,260 days) are a literal period. The fact that a stylized calendar using round num-
bers of 30 days per month and 360 days per year is used here and in other passages in
Revelation might suggest something other than literal days, months, and years are in
mind.1
Revelation 12, in fact, will indicate that this three and one half year period represents a
much longer time period: the entire church age, nearly 2000 years and counting so far.
Now given this as a presupposition (for now), there are great ramifications for the
understanding of the text of this passage. The two witnesses cannot be two literal indi-
viduals.
Now what witness have we had through the ages? What witness is Satan trying to kill
even in our time? Here’s some hints:
Lk 11:49 For this reason also the wisdom of God said, ‘I will send them prophets and
apostles, some of whom they will kill and persecute,’... [NET]
Eph 2:20 ... because you have been built on the foundation of the apostles and prophets,
with Christ Jesus himself as the cornerstone.2 [NET]
2 Pe 3:2 I want you to recall both the predictions foretold by the holy prophets and the
commandment of the Lord and Savior through your apostles. [NET]
Re 18:20 (Rejoice over her, O heaven, and you saints and apostles and prophets, for
God has pronounced judgment against her on your behalf!) [NET]
Further, since literal temple has not existed all these centuries either, the temple too
must represent something else. We find the clue for this after one of the above passages.
Eph 2:21 In him the whole building, being joined together, grows into a holy temple in
the Lord, 2:22 in whom you also are being built together into a dwelling place of God in
the Spirit. [NET]
1. The Essenes used a 364 day year, that is exactly 52 weeks, which caused the holy days to
always fall on the same day of the week from year to year. The normal Jewish calendar was a
354 day year, with occasional additional months to bring it in sync with the 365.2440 solar
year.
2. Many interpreters see this pairing as meaning New Testament prophets, but the same pairing in
2 Peter 3:2, quoted next, clearly indicates a merism encompasasing the writers of the Old and
New Testaments.
Second Interlude: The Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14)
Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets 219
In short, the temple is the church, and the witnesses are the scriptures of the old and new
testaments (the prophets and the apostles).1
Many interpreters would see the church militant as being symbolized by the two wit-
nesses, the pairing being an echo when Jesus sent out disciples to teach (Luke 10:1-2).
The witnesses are called two Olive trees. When Paul used this metaphor in Romans
11:17-24, Israel was the cultivated Olive Tree and the Gentiles wild Olive shoots that
are grafted into Israel. Thus only one of the trees is the church, so Paul’s usage would
seem to be somewhat different. To the extent that both the Jews and the Gentiles are
witnesses, it is through the Old and the New Testaments. The two witnesses are also
called lampstands. This symbol was used of the individual congregations that John was
addressing in Revelation 1:20, but surely more than two congregations are meant if this
is the meaning of the symbol here.
Although the best hermenuetic for identifying symbols is to see how they are used else-
where in scripture, in this case it doesn’t seem to lead us to a definitive conclussion. At
any rate, the difference between the two understandings is fairly subtle. If the Gospel
itself is being fought against, it is the church that suffers persection. This would seem to
be the point of the image of the outer courtyard of the temple (i.e., the church) being
trampled on for fourty-two months.
Verse 7 refers to “the beast that comes up from the abyss”. We have not as of yet
encountered this beast in Revelation. If the Book of Revelation was the original
reader’s only knowledge of this beast, then this “out of the blue” reference would be
rather perplexing. However, Revelation did not spring out of a theological vacuum. At
the very least, they would have had familiarity with the four beasts of Daniel. Paul’s let-
ters to the Thessalonians make it clear he had eschatological teachings he had taught
that went beyond what was in the letters. The original readers had an easier time under-
standing Revelation because they had had the eye-witness testimony of the Apostles
that went beyond what comes down to us in scripture. In this case, the image of “the
beast that comes up from the abyss” was probably an already familiar one for them.
Why would three and a half years (forty-two months or 1,260 days) be chosen as the
symbol for the church age? Recall that Revelation also calls this a period of tribulation,
a fact reflected in the symbolism in the visions accompanying the opening of the seals
and the blowing of the trumpets. The period is one that has recurred several times dur-
ing Israel’s history. The drought in Elijah’s time was three and one half years (Luke
4:25, James 5:17). The Sieges of Samaria (2 Kings 18:10) by the Assyrians, and Jerus-
alem (2 Kings 25:1-2) by the Babylonians were about three years. More importantly,
and recently, the desecration of Jerusalem by Antiochus IV lasted three and a half years
(1 Maccabees 1:20, 29; 4:52) as did Rome’s siege of Jerusalem. Nero’s persecution of
Christians a generation earlier had also lasted about three and one-half years. Three and
one-half years therefore became an archetype for the history of tribulation that extends
through the whole church age.
There are allusions to the Elijah and Moses stories here:
1. See “Ezekiel 40-48: Ezekiel’s Temple” on page 15.
See “Paul’s Use of “Temple” as a Metaphor” on page 19.
The Seventh Seal (Revelation 11:15-19)
220 Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets
•Revelation 11:5 — compare 2 Kings 1:9-15 (Note the symbolic significance of the
fire coming from the mouth in the Revelation passage)
•Revelation 11:6a — 1 Kings 17:1
•Revelation 11:6b — Exodus 7-11 (compare with the trumpets as well)
But these are not literal events being described (although their archetypes are literal
events). These are symbolic representations of the power of the Gospel and of its pro-
phetic origin.
Resurrection was used symbolically in Ezekiel 37, the vision of the valley of dry bones.
In this vision, Ezekiel sees a valley full of dry bones. Flesh returns to the bones and the
bodies come to life. This represents the restoration of the people to their land (as
explained by Ezekiel 37:11-12), and not literal resurrection.1 Likewise here, the witness
of the apostles and prophets is “resurrected” after their temporary defeat. In Revelation
9:21, we are told that men did not repent of their evil. Here, in a picture that is a nega-
tive image of another Elijah episode, they do repent!
In 1 Kings 19:18, God tells Elijah that He still had seven thousand followers who had
not worshipped Baal. They were a remnant that had been preserved. Here in Revela-
tion 11:13, seven thousand are destroyed rather than reserved, and the balance gave
glory to God!
These symbols are open to several different specific interpretations within the Millen-
nial frameworks. I don’t think at this point in Revelation that it is possible to exegete a
resolution to the Millennial question. It is rather easy, on the other hand, to read into
them (eisegete) presuppositions. At this point, we should just focus on the “pan-millen-
nial” implications: everything will “pan out” according to God’s plan in the end.
8.0 The Seventh Seal (Revelation 11:15-19)
The Seventh Trumpet
Rev 11:15 Then the seventh angel blew his trumpet, and there were loud voices in
heaven saying:
“The kingdom of the world
has become the kingdom of our Lord
and of his Christ,
and he will reign for ever and ever.”
11:16 Then the twenty-four elders who are seated on their thrones before God threw
themselves down with their faces to the ground and worshiped God 11:17 with these
words:
“We give you thanks, Lord God, the All-Powerful,
the one who is and who was,
because you have taken your great power
and begun to reign.
1. Although, the concept is presupposed.
Questions to Ponder
Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets 221
11:18 The nations were enraged,
but your wrath has come,
and the time has come for the dead to be judged,
and the time has come to give to your servants,
the prophets, their reward,
as well as to the saints
and to those who revere your name, both small and great,
and the time has come to destroy those who destroy the earth.”
11:19 Then the temple of God in heaven was opened and the ark of his covenant was
visible within his temple. And there were flashes of lightning, roaring, crashes of thun-
der, an earthquake, and a great hailstorm.
The proclamation of verse 15, “The kingdom of the world has become the kingdom of
our Lord and of his Christ, and he will reign for ever and ever”, is a rather provocative
statement. However, it’s interpretation is no easy matter. Preterists say it means only
that Christianity became a world religion. This is interpretation rather forced, and is a
result of a priori adoption of Preterism as a hermeneutic. Most other interpreters see
this as bringing us to the end of the age.
There is a sense in which Christ reigns now. The Kingdom of God was always some-
thing within reach in Christ’s teaching. The amillennialist sees the resurrection of the
saints in the “kingdom of the world” becoming the “kingdom of our Lord”. Millennial-
ists (pre- and post-) would see the inauguration of the millennium. Either way, Christ’s
reign is “for ever and ever” after that.
Verses 16-18 give us hint of the eschatological judgment. It does not describe it. It is
given thanks for and praised by the worship of the twenty-four elders. The visions we
have encountered up to this time where of the actions of “those who destroy the earth”,
and hence were of events throughout history. Now we come to the “end game” of his-
tory.
Verse 19 emphasizes that the temple in view is in heaven, and so is not a literal “brick-
and-mortar” building in Jerusalem. It is representative of the resurrected church.
9.0 Questions to Ponder1
•How does the visions of the seals and trumpets help us understand the world in
which we live? (Matthew 24:6-8)
•What role do demons have in the world?
•How should God be praised and thanked?
•What is our role in conveying the witness of the Apostles and Prophets?
•What is the world’s response to the witness of the Apostles and Prophets?
•Is God absent or present in times of hardship? How?
1. Mick Welton and Drew DiNardo, class notes.
Questions to Ponder
222 Revelation 8-11: The Seven Trumpets
223
Revelation 12: Woman,
Child, and Dragon
This chapter is the keystone to
understanding Revelation. In it, that
Revelation is a broad view of the tribulation
of the whole church age, represented by
three and one-half years, can be
demonstrated exegetically.
1.0 Protevangelion
Ge 3:15 And I will put hostility between you and the woman and between your offspring
and her offspring; her offspring will attack your head, and you will attack her off-
spring’s heel. [NET]
Genesis 3:15 is referred to as the “protevangelion” or “proto-gospel”. It tells of the con-
flict between Satan and Eve’s “seed” (offspring). Revelation 12 also tells this story. It
is the story of Christ’s birth, death, and resurrection. Since it is so key to understanding
Revelation, we shall go through this chapter verse by verse in more detail than we have
been doing.
2.0 The Woman, Child, and Dragon (Revelation 12:1-6)
The Woman, the Child, and the Dragon
Rev 12:1 Then a great sign appeared in heaven: a woman clothed with the sun, and with
the moon under her feet, and on her head was a crown of twelve stars. 12:2 She was
pregnant and was screaming in labor pains, struggling to give birth. 12:3 Then another
sign appeared in heaven: a huge red dragon that had seven heads and ten horns, and on
its heads were seven diadem crowns. 12:4 Now the dragon’s tail swept away a third of
the stars in heaven and hurled them to the earth. Then the dragon stood before the
woman who was about to give birth, so that he might devour her child as soon as it was
born. 12:5 So the woman gave birth to a son, a male child, who is going to rule over all
the nations with an iron rod. Her child was suddenly caught up to God and to his throne,
12:6 and she fled into the wilderness where a place had been prepared for her by God,
so she could be taken care of for 1,260 days.
The War in Heaven (Revelation 12:7-12)
224 Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon
1 a woman clothed with the sun, and with the moon under her feet, and her on her
head was a crown of twelve stars: A echo of Joseph’s dream occurs here. In Genesis
37:9, he has a vision of the sun, moon, and 11 stars bowing down to him. They repre-
sented his farther, mother, and brothers. Here, this symbol is adapted to represent Israel.
2 pregnant ... in labor pains: She’s about to give birth to her offspring. Many com-
mentators think this refers specifically to the Jews under Roman oppression.
3 in heaven ... a red dragon: Dramatically, the dragon is not identified right away. We
have encountered the symbolism of the color red there in the context of war and killing.
He is Satan of course (Revelation 12:9).
4 swept away a third of the stars: This probably represents “his angels” (Revelation
12:8-9). the dragon stood before the woman ... so that he might devour her child:
He is planning to “attack her offspring’s heel” as described in the Protevangelion.
5 the woman gave birth to a son ... who is going to rule over all the nations with an
iron rod: The identity of the son should be rather obvious. The description of the son is
an allusion to Psalm 2:9. Revelation 19:15 also says this of Christ. Now given the iden-
tity of the son, one might be tempted at this point to identify the woman with just Mary
rather than Israel (or rather elect Israel). We will see why this isn’t the correct below.
Her child was suddenly caught up to God and to his throne: Revelation’s telling of
the Gospel story skips from the incarnation directly to the resurrection. See Hebrews
8:1 — “Now the main point of what we are saying is this: We have such a high priest,
one who sat down at the right hand of the throne of the Majesty in heaven,...”.
Now that we’ve identified the child, we can see that Satan’s first attack on the child was
the slaughter of the children in Bethlehem by Herod. Reread verse 4 in this light.
6 she fled into the wilderness ... so she could be taken care of for 1,260 days: This
is symbolic. There was no literal three and one-half years beginning with the resurrec-
tion during which events like these took place. This is faithful Israel being “in the wil-
derness”, in tribulation, through out the church age. In the context of AD 30, this would
have been the Jewish Church. We’ll see how the Gentiles fit into this below. The 40
years wondering in the wilderness is central to the Jewish religion, and would also have
been a significant image to the Jewish church even in John’s day because they had fled
Jerusalem before its fall.1
3.0 The War in Heaven (Revelation 12:7-12)
War in Heav en
Rev 12:7 Then war broke out in heaven: Michael and his angels fought against the
dragon, and the dragon and his angels fought back. 12:8 But the dragon was not strong
enough to prevail, so there was no longer any place left in heaven for him and his
angels. 12:9 So that huge dragon – the ancient serpent, the one called the devil and
1. According to Eusebius
The War on Earth and Sea (Revelation 12:13-18)
Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon 225
Satan, who deceives the whole world – was thrown down to the earth, and his angels
along with him.
The vision now turns its attention to events in heaven. Until this time, Satan had access
to heaven. See Job 1-2 and Zechariah 3.1 Here Satan and his angles battle Michael2 and
his angels (presumably the third of the stars his tail swept away in verse 4) and are cast
down to the earth “so there was no longer any place left in heaven for him and his
angels”.
Rev 12:10 Then I heard a loud voice in heaven saying,
“The salvation and the power
and the kingdom of our God,
and the ruling authority of his Christ, have now come,
because the accuser of our brothers and sisters,
the one who accuses them day and night before our God,
has been thrown down.
12:11 But they overcame him
by the blood of the Lamb
and by the word of their testimony,
and they did not love their lives so much that they were afraid to die.
12:12 Therefore you heavens rejoice, and all who reside in them!
But woe to the earth and the sea
because the devil has come down to you!
He is filled with terrible anger,
for he knows that he only has a little time!”
This song of rejoicing says that “the overcame him by the blood of the Lamb and by the
word of their testimony”. Compare this to what Jesus said when the 72 disciples he sent
out to preach returned — “I saw Satan fall from heaven like lightning” [ Luke 10:18 ].
There, the battle began, and was completed in Jesus’ resurrection and the preaching
(testimony) of the word. Compare verse 12 with the sounding of the trumpets (“woe to
the earth and the sea because the devil has come down to you!”).
4.0 The War on Earth and Sea (Revelation 12:13-18)
Rev 12:13 Now when the dragon realized that he had been thrown down to the earth, he
pursued the woman who had given birth to the male child. 12:14 But the woman was
given the two wings of a giant eagle so that she could fly out into the wilderness, to the
place God prepared for her, where she is taken care of – away from the presence of the
serpent – for a time, times, and half a time. 12:15 Then the serpent spouted water like a
river out of his mouth after the woman in an attempt to sweep her away by a flood,
12:16 but the earth came to her rescue; the ground opened up and swallowed the river
that the dragon had spewed from his mouth.
The dragon, cast from heaven now persecutes the woman. But she is protected for “a
time, [two] times, and half a time” — three and a half years, forty two months, 1,260
days.
1. See “Fourth Vision (Zechariah 3:1-10)” on page 69.
2. Some interpreters identify Michael with Jesus Christ. This is speculative in the extreme.
The Meta-narrative
226 Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon
Rev 12:17 So the dragon became enraged at the woman and went away to make war on
the rest of her children, those who keep God’s commandments and hold to the testi-
mony about Jesus.
Now, here’s they key to understanding the identity of the women. The woman has other
children: those who keep God’s commandments and hold to the testimony about Jesus.
The symbolism of verse 1 had already suggested that the woman was Israel. Here we
see the Jewish church “giving birth” to the Gentile church “her other children”. The
period of their tribulation is not a literal 1,260 days beginning in the spring of AD 30,
but the entire time of Church history that Satan is making war on the woman and her
children.
Rev 12:18 And the dragon stood on the sand of the seashore.
This verse segues us into the next vision. The manuscripts differ on whether it is the
dragon or John (“I”) who stands at the seashore. It makes little or no difference to the
interpretation of the texts however, as it merely serves to shift our focus to the next
scene.
5.0 The Meta-narrative
Salvation history is a narrative thread that runs from ethnic Israel in Old Testament
times to “persons from every tribe, language, people, and nation” [ Revelation 5:9, 7:9 ]
before the throne of God. We’ve seen this expressed several ways in Revelation and the
rest of the New Testament. In the interludes of the Seals, we saw 144,000 Israelites
sealed before the tribulation began (Revelation 7:3) followed by an uncountable multi-
tude (presumably after the resurrection) before the throne in heaven. We see this in the
two witnesses being the Apostles and the Prophets: the testimony of the New and the
Old Testaments. We see this in the woman being Israel and her children being the Gen-
tile church. This later metaphor is similar to Paul’s where Israel is the cultivated olive
tree. Those who are not faithful are cut off (like Ephraim and Dan are omitted from the
list of twelve tribes in Revelation) and the Gentiles are grafted in.
We may lay out the time-line surrounding the three and a half years with this table:
Other Interpretations
Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon 227
6.0 Other Interpretations
As clear as the interpretation of this chapter seems to be, there are other interpretations.
I believe we will see that these are the result of eisegesis. That is, the assumption of par-
ticular interpretation schools have been decided a priori, which results in the need to
force fit everything into those frameworks.
6.1 Historicist
Since the seventh trumpet of brings us up to the Eschaton, the remainder of the book
must logically be recapitulating some earlier history. In spite of the rather clear refer-
ence to the incarnation of chapter 12, the historicist presuppositions dictate this must
refer to a later point in time. This is because for them the 42 months (aka 1,260 days)
represents 1,260 years during which the church is oppressed by the papacy, roughly 254
to 1514 AD, although many other beginning and end dates have been suggested.
For Historicist, the woman represents the true church. Her nearing birth represents the
potential and promise of growth. The Dragon is imperial Rome. The child being caught
up to heaven represents the enthronement of Constantine, who ended the persecutions.
We could go on, but a moments reflection will show the ad hoc nature of these assign-
ments. It seems especially strange that Constantine’s enthronement would be represent
by the child being with God and His throne, since the historicists also regard that as the
beginning of the corruption of the church that led to the papacy.
6.2 Preterist
The ease with which both Preterists and Historicists assign the same visions to various
historical events is their great weakness. After chapter 12, the Preterists split into two
camps, further multiplying the number of interpretations. Some Preterists see these
chapters as continuing to deal with the destruction of Jerusalem in AD 70 from another
perspective, identifying Babylon with Jerusalem. Others identify Babylon with Rome.
TABLE 1. The Three and a Half Years
Revelation 11 Revelation 12:1-6 Revelation 12:7-17 Revelation 13
Messiah
Revelation 12:1-5
Fall of Satan
Revelation 12:7-12
Woman Protected for ...
Courtyard tram-
pled 42 months;
Two Witnesses
for 1,260 Days
Revelation 11:2-3
1,260 Days
Revelation 12:6
Time, Times, Half a
Time
Revelation 12:13-16
Beast Has Rul-
ing Authority for
42 Months
Revelation 13:5
Rest of Her Children
Revelation 12:17
Other Interpretations
228 Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon
For chapter 12 itself, Preterists generally interpret the woman, dragon, and child in line
with the Idealist view discussed above. For the three and a half years though, they skip
to the Jewish war. They regard the woman fleeing to the desert as representing the Jew-
ish church fleeing Jerusalem before the city fell as warned to do by Jesus and recorded
by the church historian Eusebius. Actually, this isn’t too far off the mark. The Jewish
war is one of the archetypes that the three and a half years as a symbol is based on. The
woman fleeing into the desert is certainly an echo of the Jewish Christians fleeing Jerus-
alem.
6.3 Futurist
Futurists have many interpretations of this passage. Some would see the woman repre-
senting the professing church while the child represents the true overcoming church.
There are a number of cultic interpretations broadly in the futurist camp as well. For
example, Christian Scientists identify the woman as their founder.
The majority however would, like the Idealists and Preterists, identify the woman with
Israel and the Child with Christ. Some would see the third of the stars representing the
fallen angels, but others, anxious to skip to the seven-year tribulation see them as politi-
cal powers brought under Satan’s control.
The 1,260 days are generally viewed as the second half of the tribulation. This means
the passage invisibly skips from the ascension to the end times. In fact, a troubling prin-
ciple of dispensationalism in general is the idea that prophetic scripture skips over the
church age entirely. They regard the time that we are in to be a dispensation about
which the Bible says nothing about. That alone should make it suspect. The dating of
the fall of Satan from heaven seems to strange too, given Jesus’ statement Luke 10:18
discussed above.
Dispensationalists often make some fantastic and specific speculations about some of
the symbols. For example, regarding the woman being given “two wings of a giant
eagle so that she could fly out into the wilderness” Hal Lindsey writes:
Some kind of massive airlift will rapidly transport these fleeing Jews
across the rugged terrain to their place of protection. Since the eagle
is the national symbol of the United States, it’s possible that the airlift
will be made available by aircraft from the U. S. Sixth Fleet in the
Mediterranean.1
This symbolism is actually based on the poetic images used in Exodus 19:4 and Deuter-
onomy 32:11-12, which many, more sober, dispensationalists point out as well.
Some see the flood as a literal flood. Others, rightly, see it symbolizing evil teaching. It
is to be compared with other symbolism of things coming out of mouths, such as the
double-edge sword from Jesus’ mouth or the three plagues from the rider’s mouths in
the sixth trumpet vision.
1. Quoted in Revelation: Four Views
Road Map
Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon 229
7.0 Road Map
We’ve passed the half-way point in Revelation now, so now would be a good time to
review where we’ve been and overview where we’re going.
7.1 The Letters (Revelation 1-3)
The first three chapters are in the form of a circular letter sent to seven churches in Asia
Minor (modern Turkey). While Historicists and early Dispensationalists saw these
seven churches as symbolic, we saw they more likely were the literal contemporary
churches named. The Apostle John was writing around AD 95 from the island of Pat-
mos, where he was exiled. Unlike cultic adaptations of the Apocalypse genre, which
wrote in the name of Old Testament heros, John wrote in his own name to churches that
know him.
7.2 The Unsealing of the Book (Revelation 4-11)
7.2.1 Theophany (Revelation 4-5)
The first set of visions are of the unsealing of a scroll. With each of the seven seals
being opened, John saw a symbolic vision. With the last seal, John saw a another series
of seven visions accompanied by trumpet blasts. The whole scene opens with a vision
of God in heaven that reveals is power and majesty. The visions emphasis the sover-
eignty of God over history.
7.2.2 The Seven Seals (Revelation 6-8:1)
The opening of the seals introduces characters and forces at work in history, but don’t
really detail a sequence of events.
Seals 1-4: The Four Horsemen (Revelation 6:1-8). The Gospel, Conflict, Subsis-
tence Living, Death.
Seal 5: Martyrs Under the Altar (Revelation 6:9-11). Their number is not yet com-
plete.
Seal 6: Cosmological Signs (Revelation 6:12-16). Hyperbolic language identical to
that used in the Old Testament to describe historical destruction of cities. Here it repre-
sents the wars and conflicts that are ever with us.
Interlude 1: The Sealing of the 144,000 (Revelation 7:1-8). These are the remnant of
Israel, marked for preservation: God’s first fruits of redemption.
Interlude 2: Persons of Every Nation, Tribe, People, and Language (Revelation
7:9-16). These are the whole church, the Gentiles who are “grafted” into Israel.
Seal 7: Silence before the Trumpets (Revelation 8:1). The Seven Trumpets should
probably be seen as part of the seventh seal.
Road Map
230 Revelation 12: Woman, Child, and Dragon
7.2.3 The Seven Trumpets (Revelation 8-11)
Trumpets 1-4: Judgments on the Earth, Sea, Fresh Water, and Sky (Revelation 8).
Trumpet 5: The Locust Plague (Revelation 9:1-12).
Trumpet 6: The Army from the Euphrates (Revelation 9:13-21). “Furthermore,
they did not repent...”
Interlude 1: The Little Scroll (Revelation 10).
Interlude 2: The Temple and the Two Witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14). “the rest
were terrified and gave glory to the God of heaven”
Trumpet 7: The Kingdom (Revelation 11:15-19). “The kingdom of the world has
become the kingdom of our Lord and of his Christ, and he will reign for ever and ever”.
7.3 Women, Beasts, and Judgment (Revelation 12-22)
7.3.1 The Woman, Child, and Dragon (Revelation 12)
7.3.2 Two Beasts (Revelation 13)
This is where the infamous “Mark of the Beast” is written about.
7.3.3 A New Song and Three Messages (Revelation 14)
7.3.4 Seven Final Plagues (Revelation 15-16)
7.3.5 The Prostitute and Babylon (Revelation 17-18)
7.3.6 Judgment of the Beasts (Revelation 19-20)
This is where we’ll get heavily into Millennial issues
7.3.7 New Heaven and New Earth (Revelation 21-22)
231
Revelation 13: The Two
Beasts
The Mark of the Beast is probably the most
familiar images from Revelation in popular
culture.
1.0 Background From Daniel
The images from this chapter come largely from Daniel 7. Daniel saw a vision in which
four beasts came up from the sea:
•Lion with eagle’s wings (Daniel 7:4)
•Bear (Daniel 7:5)
•Leopard with Four Heads (Daniel 7:6)
•Dreadful Beast with Ten Horns (Daniel 7:7)
Careful study1 of Daniel shows that these four beasts represent four kingdoms: Babylon
of Daniel’s time, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome respectively. The final kingdom is
supplanted by the kingdom of God:
Dan 7:26 But the court will convene, and his ruling authority will be removed—
destroyed and abolished forever.
7:27 Then the kingdom, authority,
and greatness of the kingdoms under all of heaven
will be delivered to the people of the holy ones of the Most High.
His kingdom is an eternal kingdom;
all authorities will serve him and obey him.
1. See “The Kingdom Visions in Daniel” on page 41..
Beast with Seven Heads and Ten Horns (Revelation 13:1-10)
232 Revelation 13: The Two Beasts
2.0 Beast with Seven Heads and Ten Horns (Revelation
13:1-10)
2.1 Appearance (Revelation 13:1-2)
The Two Beasts
Rev 13:1 Then I saw a beast coming up out of the sea. It had ten horns and seven heads,
and on its horns were ten diadem crowns, and on its heads a blasphemous name. 13:2
Now the beast that I saw was like a leopard, but its feet were like a bear’s, and its mouth
was like a lion’s mouth. The dragon gave the beast his power, his throne, and great
authority to rule.
John sees a beast coming out of the see with the following attributes:
•Ten Horns
•Seven Heads
•Like a Leopard
•Feet like Bear’s
•Mouth like Lion’s
In other words, this beast was a chimera of the four beasts of Daniel. The beast is also
in the image of the dragon (Satan) as both have seven heads and ten horns.
This beast is not any one nation per se, but in the spirit of the symbolism from Daniel, it
represents the kingdoms of the world throughout history under the authority of Satan.
Revelation will use both Babylon and Rome as an archetypical symbols for this concept.
2.2 Wounded Head (Revelation 13:3-4)
Rev 13:3 One of the beast’s heads appeared to have been killed, but the lethal wound
had been healed. And the whole world followed the beast in amazement; 13:4 they wor-
shiped the dragon because he had given ruling authority to the beast, and they wor-
shiped the beast too, saying: “Who is like the beast?” and “Who is able to make war
against him?”
The image of one of the heads being fatally wounded and healed is almost certainly a
reference to the Roman civil war that occurred after Nero’s death, a year also known as
the year of four emperors. Interpreters of the literary-critical school will often identify
this with the Nero redivivus myth. They would date a source document that “John” is
using to shortly after Nero’s death and have it perpetuating the popular myth of that time
that Nero would come back to life and retake the empire. The evidence for this is noth-
ing more than wishful thinking. A writer in AD 95, inspired or not, could easily think of
the events of the year of four emperors as a death and resurrection of the empire.
2.3 Blasphemy and Authority (Revelation 13:5-8)
Rev 13:5 The beast was given a mouth speaking proud words and blasphemies, and he
was permitted to exercise ruling authority for forty-two months. 13:6 So the beast
Beast with Two Horns (Revelation 13:11-18)
Revelation 13: The Two Beasts 233
opened his mouth to blaspheme against God – to blaspheme both his name and his
dwelling place, that is, those who dwell in heaven. 13:7 The beast was permitted to go
to war against the saints and conquer them. He was given ruling authority over every
tribe, people, language, and nation, 13:8 and all those who live on the earth will worship
the beast, everyone whose name has not been written since the foundation of the world
in the book of life belonging to the Lamb who was killed.
The beast is given a ruling authority of forty-two months. As the beast is not Rome in
particular, the forty-two months are not likely to be some literal forty two months that
Rome does something in particular (like besiege Jerusalem or persecute Christians).
Rather, we are looking again at the three and a half years representing the church age we
have seen repeatedly (and especially clearly in Revelation 12).
Note that the book of life was written “since the foundation of the world”. Compare
with Ephesians 1:4. Regardless of what one thinks about predestination verses free will,
election took place before the beginning of time. There is no room for the “open the-
ism” fad of late.
2.4 Providence (Revelation 13:9-10)
Rev 13:9 If anyone has an ear, he had better listen!
13:10 If anyone is meant for captivity,
into captivity he will go.
If anyone is to be killed by the sword,
then by the sword he must be killed.
This requires steadfast endurance and faith from the saints.
A common theme in Revelation is that the events of (to John) future history are under
God’s control. Here we see another statement of this. It is, in fact, a major theme of the
whole book.
3.0 Beast with Two Horns (Revelation 13:11-18)
3.1 Appearance (Revelation 13:11)
Rev 13:11 Then I saw another beast coming up from the earth. He had two horns like a
lamb, but was speaking like a dragon.
Daniel sees another beast, this one with two horns and the voice of a dragon. Many
commentaries make a big deal of the “like a lamb” phrase, but only the horns are
described as being like a lamb’s, not its general appearance. The beast is hardly lamb-
like in either appearance or comportment.
3.2 Authority (Revelation 13:12)
Rev 13:12 He exercised all the ruling authority of the first beast on his behalf, and made
the earth and those who inhabit it worship the first beast, the one whose lethal wound
had been healed.
Beast with Two Horns (Revelation 13:11-18)
234 Revelation 13: The Two Beasts
The authority of the second beast is derived from the first beast (which in turn was
derived from the red dragon). This beast directs worship to the first beast. Where the
first beast represents political power (à la Babylon, Medo-Persia, Greece, and Rome),
this beast seems to carry on a religious function. In fact, Revelation 16:13, 19:20, and
20:10 refer to it as “the false prophet”. There is an interesting chain of command here:
Satan, secular authority, and then religious authority. False doctrine is the servant of the
state, and the state is the servant of Satan.
3.3 Signs (Revelation 13:13-15)
Rev 13:13 He performed momentous signs, even making fire come down from heaven
in front of people 13:14 and, by the signs he was permitted to perform on behalf of the
beast, he deceived those who live on the earth. He told those who live on the earth to
make an image to the beast who had been wounded by the sword, but still lived. 13:15
The second beast was empowered to give life to the image of the first beast so that it
could speak, and could cause all those who did not worship the image of the beast to be
killed.
The second beast deceives people, partially by producing signs similar to those of the
two witnesses back in Revelation 11. The giving life to an image was a proverbial
deception of the pagan priesthoods in the ancient world. For one (probably fictional)
account, see the apocryphal Bel and the Dragon1 1-22. The signs that John sees the
beast performing are not specific literal actions. By evoking the story of the battle
between Elijah and the prophets of Baal, who were unable to bring fire down, the vision
is indicating an increase in the intensity of the battle. The beast does bring down fire.
3.4 The Mark of the Beast — 666 (Revelation 13:16-18)
Rev 13:16 He also caused everyone (small and great, rich and poor, free and slave) to
obtain a mark on their right hand or on their forehead. 13:17 Thus no one was allowed
to buy or sell things unless he bore the mark of the beast – that is, his name or his num-
ber. 13:18 This calls for wisdom: Let the one who has insight calculate the beast’s num-
ber, for it is man’s number, and his number is 666.
The Mark of the Beast enters the public consciousness through various occult themed
movies that have been made through the years as well as through dispensational litera-
ture, such as Hal Lindsey’s Late Great Planet Earth or the LaHaye’s Left Behind series.
Biblically it is analogical to the mark God placed on the 144,000 Jews in Revelation 7.
As such, one might expect that the mark is not literal, but a symbolic representation in
the vision of election. Economic isolation or shunning is hardly the invention of the
Kennedy administration for dealing with Cuba. The idea, and practice, has existed for
millennia. In an incident pointed to by Historicists, Pope Martin V issued a decree
requiring that “they permit not the heretics to have houses in their districts, or enter into
contracts, or carry on commerce.”2, referring to the Waldenses, which the Historicists
1. Also called Daniel 14.
2. Gregg. Revelation, Four Views.
Other Interpretations
Revelation 13: The Two Beasts 235
points to as one of the faithful remnants (symbolized by the two witnesses) before the
Reformation.
Here, the economic restriction seen in the vision almost certainly represents more than
mere boycott. For an example brewing today, see the editorial in the November 2005
issue of Analog: Science Fiction and Fact magazine. It is about the debate over phar-
macists who don’t dispense certain drugs (such as birth control) because of religious
objections. The editor’s argument was that the pharmacist’s right to freedom of religion
ends where it interferes with someone else’s rights1. He goes on to suggest that perhaps
the pharmacist who can’t dispense the drug should leave the field. The beast can be far
more subtle in restricting Christian’s economic activity than simple outright ban.
Far too much ink has been spilled indentifying the man represented by 666. Preterists
would generally identify it with Nero Caesar, which when spelled in Hebrew letters, and
the customary numeric values are assigned to each letter, the sum comes up 666. This is
not impossible from the Idealist perspective as Nero would then be serving as an arche-
type. One of the earliest suggestions known is Irenaeus’ suggestion that it is the Greek
word Lateinos, identifying the beast with the Roman Empire specifically. Historicists
often identified the number with the Latin title for the Pope: VICARIVS FILII DEI,
pulling out the letters that can represent numbers thusly: DCLVVIIIIII. More recently,
it was pointed out that Ronald Wilson Reagan has six letters in each of his name.
In short, identifying an specific individual or institution represented by 666 is a futile
exercise. Even the typical Idealist approach of finding meaning in the digit 6 as repre-
senting man falling short of perfection, represented by the digit 7, is little more than
numerological speculation. The number probably meant something specific to the
recipients in Ephesus and the other six cities. For us today, we need to humbly accept
that we just don’t know. We will be more productive as Christians to just accept the
mystery and move on to things we do know.
4.0 Other Interpretations
4.1 Historicist
Historicists are widely split three ways on the specifics of identifying the beasts. One
view is that both beasts represent pagan Rome. Others see the first beast as pagan
Rome, and the second beast as papal Rome. Others see both beasts as aspects of papal
Rome. Since the historicist presupposition precludes identifying the wounded head
with the death of Nero, they look elsewhere, such as the death of the last heathen
emperor, Julian the Apostate, and the end of tolerance of pagan ritual religion as the
fatal wound, and the rise of the papacy as the revival of the beast. Another view among
Seventh-Day Adventists has been that the wound was inflicted by Napoleon and
restored by Mussolini! Much anti-papal rhetoric of the Reformers looked to this pas-
sage for inspiration.
1. The argument is, of course, reversible. The customer’s rights end when they interfere with the
pharmacist’s rights. Further, forcing the pharmacist to sell the drug anyway not only violates
his religious freedom, but would amount to reducing him to slavery!
Other Interpretations
236 Revelation 13: The Two Beasts
4.2 Preterist
Preterists see Rome as a persecuting power, either under Nero and the Jewish War, or
subsequently, leading up to Constantine. The wounded head has been identified with
Nero, Julius Caesar, or the Empire being wounded by the spread of the Gospel.
4.3 Futurist
Futurists typically associate the first beast with a future “revived” Roman Empire. Back
when the European Union had only ten members, it was common to identify that as the
beast. The forty-two months is usually associated with the second half of the seven-year
tribulation. The antichrist is usually associated with the first beast, although some
would identify him with the second one. The mark of the beast is generally taken liter-
ally and expected to be the basis of a future cashless society.1
1. Even if that is not the intent of this passage, there are plenty of good reasons to fear such an
economy any way.
237
Revelation 14: The Great
Commission
This chapter is about the growth of the
Church and the spread of the Gospel
message through evangelism.
1.0 Introduction
Mt 28:19 Therefore go and make disciples of all nations, baptizing them in the name of
the Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit, 28:20 teaching them to obey everything I
have commanded you. And remember, I am with you always, to the end of the age.”
[NET]
Chapter 14’s vision is a series of seven short scenes:
•v. 1-5, The Lamb with the 144,000;
•v. 6-7, An angel proclaims the eternal gospel;
•v. 8, An angel proclaims the fall of Babylon;
•v. 9-12, An angel proclaims the judgment of those who worship the beast;
•v. 13, A voice proclaims the blessedness of “those who die in the Lord from this
moment on!”;
•v. 14-16, Christ reaps the elect;
•v. 17-20, An angel reaps the reprobate.
At first glance, these seem almost a random collection of unrelated scenes. I suggest
that the theme is a radical change in the heavenly economy: the opening up of Israel to
include the Gentiles through the Gospel Message, and the defeat of Satan’s hold on the
world. It recapitulates the time of the dragon (Revelation 12) and the beasts (Revelation
13).
The Lamb with the 144,000 (Revelation 14:1-5)
238 Revelation 14: The Great Commission
2.0 The Lamb with the 144,000 (Revelation 14:1-5)
An Interlude: The Song of the 144,000
Rev 14:1 Then1 I looked, and here was2 the Lamb standing on Mount Zion, and with
him were one hundred and forty-four thousand, who had his name and his Father’s
name written on their foreheads. 14:2 I also heard a sound3 coming out of heaven like
the sound of many waters and like the sound of loud thunder. Now4 the sound I heard
was like that made by harpists playing their harps, 14:3 and they were singing a new
song before the throne and before the four living creatures and the elders. No5 one was
able to learn the song except the one hundred and forty-four thousand who had been
redeemed from the earth.
14:4 These are the ones who have not defiled themselves6 with women, for they are vir-
gins. These are the ones who follow the Lamb wherever he goes. These were redeemed
from humanity as firstfruits to God and to the Lamb, 14:5 and no lie was found on their
lips;7 they8 are blameless.
The clock is set back to the incarnation. We see the Lamb, the Messiah, on Mount Zion
with the elect from Israel who are here described as firstfruits. It is they who give birth
to the church, the new Israel that includes people of “every nation, tribe, language, and
people”. The last time we encountered a “new song” was in Revelation 5:9 when the
four living creatures sang a “new song’, before the seals were opened and the trumpets
revealed:
Rev 5:9 You are worthy to take the scroll
and to open its seals
because you were killed,
and at the cost of your own blood you have purchased for God
persons from every tribe, language, people, and nation.... [NET]
Here, the 144,000 are celebrating their redemption. They are described as virgins. This
is symbolic. Worshiping other gods is repeatedly called adultery and prostitution in the
Bible. It is not their sexual practices, per se, that is at issue here, but their worship prac-
tices. They are the firstfruits1 of a crop that would yield “persons from every tribe, lan-
guage, people, and nation.”
3.0 Three Angels
Three angels fly overhead next in John’s vision, each proclaiming a message. The time
frame of each of these proclamations is also the beginning of the church age.
3.1 The Eternal Gospel (Revelation 14:6-7)
Three Angels and Three Messages
Rev 14:6 Then I saw another angel flying directly overhead, and he had an eternal gos-
pel to proclaim to those who live on the earth – to every nation, tribe, language, and
1. This term is discussed in more detail below in “Idealist” on page 244.
Three Angels
Revelation 14: The Great Commission 239
people. 14:7 He declared in a loud voice: “Fear God and give him glory, because the
hour of his judgment has arrived, and worship the one who made heaven and earth, the
sea and the springs of water!”
The first angel proclaims “the eternal gospel”, that is, the Gospel of Christ, to “every
nation, tribe, language, and people, that is the Gentiles. There is only one Gospel (con-
trary to many Dispensationalists), as Paul wrote to the Galatians, “not that there really is
another gospel .... But even if we (or an angel from heaven) should preach a gospel con-
trary to the one we preached to you, let him be condemned to hell!”1
While it is not a literal angel from heaven that proclaims the eternal gospel in the church
age, recall that the word angelos means messenger. The flying angel here represents the
evangelistic role of the church to preach the gospel. Compare this with the angels of the
seven churches that John addresses in Revelation 2-3.2
3.2 Fall of Babylon (Revelation 14:8)
Rev 14:8 A second angel followed the first, declaring: “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the
great city! She made all the nations drink of the wine of her immoral passion.”
The Fall of Babylon is here proclaimed, although Babylon is not yet identified. We’ll
see additional representations of this later in Revelation. In Daniel’s visions of four
kingdoms, the kingdom of God defeats them. Babylon’s defeat is insured by the resur-
rection. Prophetic literature sometimes uses what is called the “prophetic perfect
tense”: a future event is spoken of in a past tense because it is “as good as done”. We’ll
see this again in later chapters. Other terms used to describe this is “realized eschatol-
ogy” or “already, but not yet”. Or, to use an American idiom, he’s dead but he just
doesn’t know it yet. To take the tense literally requires the viewpoint of the passage to
jump back and forwards.
3.3 Judgment (Revelation 14:9-12)
Rev 14:9 A third angel followed the first two, declaring in a loud voice: “If anyone wor-
ships the beast and his image, and takes the mark on his forehead or his hand, 14:10 that
person will also drink of the wine of God’s anger that has been mixed undiluted in the
cup of his wrath, and he will be tortured with fire and sulfur in front of the holy angels
and in front of the Lamb. 14:11 And the smoke from their torture will go up forever and
ever, and those who worship the beast and his image will have no rest day or night,
along with anyone who receives the mark of his name.” 14:12 This requires the stead-
fast endurance of the saints – those who obey God’s commandments and hold to their
faith in Jesus.
Note that the form and tense of the condition suggests that the point of time in view is
not the end, but the beginning of the tribulation: “If anyone worships...”. It is looking
forward to the 42 months of the beast.
1. Galatians 1:7-8
2. See “Angels” on page 188.
A Voice of Blessing (Revelation 14:13)
240 Revelation 14: The Great Commission
Their torture will extend forever. There is no room for universalism, annihilation, or
any denial of Hell here. The saints will endure the tribulation of this world, but there is
no endurance for the reprobate whether they suffer in this world or not.
The judgment here encompasses both the tribulation and the eternal state after death.
4.0 A Voice of Blessing (Revelation 14:13)
Rev 14:13 Then I heard a voice from heaven say, “Write this:
‘Blessed are the dead,
those who die in the Lord from this moment on!’”
“Yes,” says the Spirit, “so they can rest from their hard work, because their deeds will
follow them.”
The wording “those who die in the Lord from this moment on” indicates that “this
moment” is not the eschaton. Rather, it is the other end of the church age. The phrase
marks the change in the divine economy marked by Christ’s redemption of the elect.
We opened the chapter with the 144,000, the redeemed of ethnic Israel. Their redemp-
tion awaited the sacrifice of the Messiah throughout the Old Testament era. From the
crucifixion and resurrection on, all who die in the Lord are redeemed. They they may
suffer some in the tribulation, at death they will find rest rather than torment.
5.0 The Harvests
5.1 Use of the “Harvest” Metaphor by Jesus
Matthew 9:36-38. “Harvest” is a metaphor for evangelistic activity. The “workers”
who “are few” are the disciples.
Mt 9:36 When he saw the crowds, he had compassion on them because they were
bewildered and helpless, like sheep without a shepherd. 9:37 Then he said to his disci-
ples, “The harvest is plentiful, but the workers are few. 9:38 Therefore ask the Lord of
the harvest to send out workers into his harvest.”
Matthew 12:30. “Gathering” (a word often used for gathering crops in Greek) is the
activity of those who are with Jesus. The sense is again one of evangelism.
Mt 12:30 Whoever is not with me is against me, and whoever does not gather with me
scatters.
Matthew 13:18-23. A crop a hundred, sixty, or thirty times, is produced by seed sown
in good soil. Elsewhere, we learn of the good works prepared for the Christian to do1
1. Ephesians 2:10
The Harvests
Revelation 14: The Great Commission 241
and the fruits of the Spirit1. Something like that is likely the crop produced (and hence
harvested) by the seed taking root in the individual.
Mt 13:18 “So listen to the parable of the sower: 13:19 When anyone hears the word
about the kingdom and does not understand it, the evil one comes and snatches what
was sown in his heart; this is the seed sown along the path. 13:20 The seed sown on
rocky ground is the person who hears the word and immediately receives it with joy.
13:21 But he has no root in himself and does not endure; when trouble or persecution
comes because of the word, immediately he falls away. 13:22 The seed sown among
thorns is the person who hears the word, but worldly cares and the seductiveness of
wealth choke the word, so it produces nothing. 13:23 But as for the seed sown on good
soil, this is the person who hears the word and understands. He bears fruit, yielding a
hundred, sixty, or thirty times what was sown.”
Matthew 13:36-43. The harvest is explicitly stated to be the end of the age, and the
reapers “angels”. Weeds are collected from Christ’s kingdom and burned in fire.
Mt 13:36 Then he left the crowds and went into the house. And his disciples came to
him saying, “Explain to us the parable of the weeds in the field.” 13:37 He answered,
“The one who sowed the good seed is the Son of Man. 13:38 The field is the world and
the good seed are the people of the kingdom. The weeds are the people of the evil one,
13:39 and the enemy who sows them is the devil. The harvest is the end of the age, and
the reapers are angels. 13:40 As the weeds are collected and burned with fire, so it will
be at the end of the age. 13:41 The Son of Man will send his angels, and they will gather
from his kingdom everything that causes sin as well as all lawbreakers. 13:42 They will
throw them into the fiery furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.
13:43 Then the righteous will shine like the sun in the kingdom of their Father. The one
who has ears had better listen!
Matthew 21:33-41. The harvest is near when the landowner sends his slaves, and ulti-
mately his son, to collect a portion of the crop. The tenants kill them. As the harvest is
something that was supposed to happen at that time (when the slaves and the son — the
prophets and Christ — were sent, it would have to be of something at that time. Either
the ingathering of the repentant into the Kingdom, or their righteous deeds.
Mt 21:33 “Listen to another parable: There was a landowner who planted a vineyard.
He put a fence around it, dug a pit for its winepress, and built a watchtower. Then he
leased it to tenant farmers and went on a journey. 21:34 When the harvest time was near,
he sent his slaves to the tenants to collect his portion of the crop. 21:35 But the tenants
seized his slaves, beat one, killed another, and stoned another. 21:36 Again he sent other
slaves, more than the first, and they treated them the same way. 21:37 Finally he sent his
son to them, saying, ‘They will respect my son.’ 21:38 But when the tenants saw the
son, they said to themselves, ‘This is the heir. Come, let’s kill him and get his inherit-
ance!’ 21:39 So they seized him, threw him out of the vineyard, and killed him. 21:40
Now when the owner of the vineyard comes, what will he do to those tenants?” 21:41
They said to him, “He will utterly destroy those evil men! Then he will lease the vine-
yard to other tenants who will give him his portion at the harvest.”
Mark 4:26-29. The harvest is probably the end of the age, and the crop the elect.
1. Gal 5:22-23
The Harvests
242 Revelation 14: The Great Commission
Mk 4:26 He also said, “The kingdom of God is like someone who spreads seed on the
ground. 4:27 He goes to sleep and gets up, night and day, and the seed sprouts and
grows, though he does not know how. 4:28 By itself the soil produces a crop, first the
stalk, then the head, then the full grain in the head. 4:29 And when the grain is ripe, he
sends in the sickle because the harvest has come.”
Mark 13:27. Discussed below.
Mk 13:27 Then he will send angels and they will gather his elect from the four winds,
from the ends of the earth to the ends of heaven.
John 4:35-38. The disciples are sent to reap a harvest among the fields ready for har-
vesting. The intent is clearly evangelistic.
Jn 4:35 Don’t you say, ‘There are four more months and then comes the harvest?’ I tell
you, look up and see that the fields are already white for harvest! 4:36 The one who
reaps receives pay and gathers fruit for eternal life, so that the one who sows and the
one who reaps can rejoice together. 4:37 For in this instance the saying is true, ‘One
sows and another reaps.’ 4:38 I sent you to reap what you did not work for; others have
labored and you have entered into their labor.”
Summary. Jesus used the harvest metaphor for a range of meanings. The harvest can
be of a crop of righteousness that results when the elect are saved. It can mean the
immediate results of evangelistic effort, the ingathering of the elect into the church. The
difference between the two is subtle as only the members of the kingdom, by the grace
of God, are capable of any truly good act. Or it can mean the end of the age separation
of the elect from the reprobate in the resurrection and judgment.
5.2 Reaping by the Son of Man (Revelation 14:14-16)
Rev 14:14 Then I looked, and a white cloud appeared, and seated on the cloud was one
like a son of man! He had a golden crown on his head and a sharp sickle in his hand.
14:15 Then another angel came out of the temple, shouting in a loud voice to the one
seated on the cloud, “Use your sickle and start to reap, because the time to reap has
come, since the earth’s harvest is ripe!” 14:16 So the one seated on the cloud swung his
sickle over the earth, and the earth was reaped.
The phrasing of verse 14 is an allusion to the Messianic passage in Daniel 7:13. The
important think to remember about that passage is that the son of man is coming to
heaven not to earth. It is a reference to the resurrection of Christ. If that is the time
frame of this vision, then the reaping would be the evangelistic use of the metaphor.
There is a very close parallel to this scene in the Olivet Discourse. In Mark 13:26, Jesus
alluded to this very passage of Daniel. In Matthew 26:64, Jesus made it very clear that
Daniel’s passage is not about the parousia at the end of time: “from now on you will see
the Son of Man sitting at the right hand of Power and coming on the clouds of heaven”
[Emphasis added]. In the very next verse of the Olivet Discourse, Jesus said, “Then he
will send angels and they will gather his elect from the four winds, from the ends of the
earth to the ends of heaven.” The time frame of this gathering is limited by Mark
13:30: “I tell you the truth, this generation will not pass away until all these things take
Summary
Revelation 14: The Great Commission 243
place”. Thus an evangelistic intent seems most likely for the metaphor in the Olivet
Discourse.
Given that Revelation here is putting the harvest metaphor adjacent to an allusion to the
same passage from Daniel, and that the context so far seems to be the beginning of the
church age, I believe that an evangelistic harvest is the intent of this passage as well.
5.3 Harvest of the Grapes (Revelation 14:17-20)
Rev 14:17 Then another angel came out of the temple in heaven, and he too had a sharp
sickle. 14:18 Another angel, who was in charge of the fire, came from the altar and
called in a loud voice to the angel who had the sharp sickle, “Use your sharp sickle and
gather the clusters of grapes off the vine of the earth, because its grapes are now ripe.”
14:19 So the angel swung his sickle over the earth and gathered the grapes from the
vineyard of the earth and tossed them into the great winepress of the wrath of God.
14:20 Then the winepress was stomped outside the city, and blood poured out of the
winepress up to the height of horses’ bridles for a distance of almost two hundred miles.
The Grapes are harvested to be placed through the “winepress of the wrath of God”.
One might be tempted to see this as eschatological judgment, but this is not necessarily
so. Recall that from the beginning of the book, imminent judgment was threatened on
certain of the churches. The whole sequence of seals and trumpets was one of judg-
ments and tribulation being visited upon the earth. Given that context, this is more
likely to be another symbolic representation of the tribulation, the whole church age.
Note that the location of this winepress is not Hell, but “outside the city”. This judg-
ment is something that happens on earth. It is the wrath of God seen in the seven trum-
pets and completed in the seven bowl judgments of Revelation 15-16.
6.0 Summary
We saw in the unsealing of the scroll and the trumpets that followed a representation of
tribulation throughout the church age, but with men not responding to the warning (Rev-
elation 6-11). Then we saw Israel (symbolized by a woman) giving birth to the Messiah
and Satan trying to destroy him. Messiah was resurrected to heaven and Satan pursued
to woman and her other children (the Gentile church) throughout the church age (Reve-
lation 12). Then we saw two beasts that derive their authority from Satan persecuting
the elect throughout the church age (Revelation 13).
Thus prior to this chapter we’ve seen three views of the church age. Revelation 14 is a
view of the same age. It opens with the elect of Israel singing a “new song” celebrating
their redemption by the risen Messiah. We then see a representation of the proclamation
of the Gospel, the defeat of “Babylon”, and the threat of judgment on anyone who wor-
ships the beast. We then see a statement that all who die “from now on”, that is the Gen-
tile church during the church age are blessed. Finally we see the harvest of the elect into
the church, and a harvest of wrath that the unregenerate world receives throughout the
church age.
Other Interpretations
244 Revelation 14: The Great Commission
7.0 Other Interpretations
7.1 Historicist
There is no small variability amongst the Historicist interpreters. The 144,000 are the
church, or they are representatives of the church. The new song is the doctrines of the
Reformation, coming at the end of the 42 months of the beast (1,260 days == 1,260
years of Papal rule). The proclamation of the “everlasting gospel” occurs after the fall
of a great anti-christian power at the end of the age, or it is the Great Awakening: the
preaching of the Wesleys, Whitefield, Edwards, and Finney. Babylon is equated with
papal Rome. The judgments and harvests are the final judgment of the Eschaton.
7.2 Preterist
Preterists are split on whether Babylon represents Jerusalem (judged in 66-70 AD ) or
Rome (judged in the third century). There are no images here that stand out as being
particular events. Babylon is obviously a symbol, an archetype for the idea of an
oppressor. References to Rome in Revelation should generally also be seen as an arche-
type for an oppressor.
7.3 Futurist
Dispensationalists often distinguish between the gospel of the kingdom, taught up
through John the Baptist, and the gospel of grace, taught in the church age; These inter-
preters believe “everlasting gospel” refers to the gospel of the kingdom that will apply
again after the church is raptured. Other Dispensationalists and futurists rightly reject
this approach as contradicting scripture about there being only one Gospel.
Babylon is seen as either the apostate church, a world government, or both. Both har-
vests are seen as harvests of judgment in the tribulation. This appears to be necessary
since they believe the rapture has already occurred before tribulation. The text though
has no indication of punishment associated with the first harvest, as it does with the sec-
ond.
7.4 Idealist
The approach I took with this section was to regard it as a scene from the beginning of
the church age in the first century recapitulating the previous scenes we have encoun-
tered. Other Idealist interpreters take it as taking place at the other end of the church
age. In this approach, the 144,000 are the entire resurrected church and Zion stands for
heaven. The sense of calling them firstfruits is that they are the portion of the eschato-
logical harvest that is dedicated to God, the remainder of the harvest being the repro-
bate. This is contrary to Paul’s usage of the firstfruit metaphor in Romans 8:23 and 1
Corinthians 15:20, 23. Jesus is called the firstfruits of the resurrection, meaning the first
of many. James 1:18 also refers to the early Jewish church as firstfruits.
This “futurist-idealist” approach must then shift back in time to just before the resurrec-
tion of the 144,000, treating the entreaties of the angels as “last chance” appeals. Then
the time frame must shift further back to the resurrection of Christ to understand “from
Other Interpretations
Revelation 14: The Great Commission 245
now on” in Revelation 14:13, before shifting back to the eschaton for the remainder of
the passage to represent the resurrection of the elect and reprobate.
Now it is true that time is somewhat nebulous in Revelation with its symbolism and ten-
dency to recapitulate. But recapitulation occurs at boundaries between larger text units,
and where time is non-linear, such as the seals trumpets not representing a specific
sequence of events, it doesn’t jump back and forwards: the seals and trumpets each rep-
resent aspects, including repeating events, of the whole church age. Reading chapter 14
at the beginning of the church age makes for a more consistent understanding.
Other Interpretations
246 Revelation 14: The Great Commission
247
Revelation 15-16: The
Seven Bowls of Wrath
“Then I saw another great and astounding
sign in heaven: seven angels who have
seven final plagues (they are final because
in them God’s anger is completed).”
1.0 The Heavenly Scene (Revelation 15)
The Final Plagues
Rev 15:1 Then I saw another great and astounding sign in heaven: seven angels who
have seven final plagues (they are final because in them God’s anger is completed).
15:2 Then I saw something like a sea of glass mixed with fire, and those who had con-
quered the beast and his image and the number of his name. They were standing by the
sea of glass, holding harps given to them by God. 15:3 They sang the song of Moses the
servant of God and the song of the Lamb:
“Great and astounding are your deeds,
Lord God, the All-Powerful!
Just and true are your ways,
King over the nations!
15:4 Who will not fear you, O Lord,
and glorify your name, because you alone are holy?
All nations will come and worship before you
for your righteous acts have been revealed.”
15:5 After these things I looked, and the temple (the tent of the testimony) was opened
in heaven, 15:6 and the seven angels who had the seven plagues came out of the temple,
dressed in clean bright linen, wearing wide golden belts around their chests. 15:7 Then
one of the four living creatures gave the seven angels seven golden bowls filled with the
wrath of God who lives forever and ever, 15:8 and the temple was filled with smoke
from God’s glory and from his power. Thus no one could enter the temple until the
seven plagues from the seven angels were completed.
Before the seven seals were opened, John saw a theophany scene in heaven. Chapter 15
is not strictly a theophany although it functions similarly. God is present in his temple
The Bowls of God’s Wrath Compared to the Trumpets (Revelation 16)
248 Revelation 15-16: The Seven Bowls of Wrath
and his awesomeness is represented by the smoke from his glory and power filling the
temple and keeping anyone from entering it.
If the temple represents the church, then the symbol of no one being able to enter the
heavenly temple suggests that its resurrection has not happened yet. “Those who have
conquered the beast” in verse 2 would be still disembodied souls.
Like in the previous theophany, here we have another doxology. This one is titled the
Song of Moses and the Song of the Lamb. Here we see yet another manifestation of the
metanarrative: the two witnesses, Israel giving birth to the Gentile Church.
2.0 The Bowls of God’s Wrath Compared to the
Trumpets (Revelation 16)
The Bowls of God’s Wrath
16:1 Then I heard a loud voice from the temple declaring to the seven angels: “Go and
pour out on the earth the seven bowls containing God’s wrath.” 16:2 So the first angel
went and poured out his bowl on the earth. Then ugly and painful sores appeared on the
people who had the mark of the beast and who worshiped his image.
16:3 Next, the second angel poured out his bowl on the sea and it turned into blood, like
that of a corpse, and every living creature that was in the sea died.
16:4 Then the third angel poured out his bowl on the rivers and the springs of water, and
they turned into blood. 16:5 Now I heard the angel of the waters saying:
“You are just – the one who is and who was,
the Holy One – because you have passed these judgments,
16:6 because they poured out the blood of your saints and prophets,
so you have given them blood to drink. They got what they deserved!”
16:7 Then I heard the altar reply, “Yes, Lord God, the All-Powerful, your judgments are
true and just!”
16:8 Then the fourth angel poured out his bowl on the sun, and it was permitted to
scorch people with fire. 16:9 Thus people were scorched by the terrible heat, yet they
blasphemed the name of God, who has ruling authority over these plagues, and they
would not repent and give him glory.
16:10 Then the fifth angel poured out his bowl on the throne of the beast so that dark-
ness covered his kingdom, and people began to bite their tongues because of their pain.
16:11 They blasphemed the God of heaven because of their sufferings and because of
their sores, but nevertheless they still refused to repent of their deeds.
16:12 Then the sixth angel poured out his bowl on the great river Euphrates and dried
up its water to prepare the way for the kings from the east. 16:13 Then I saw three
unclean spirits that looked like frogs coming out of the mouth of the dragon, out of the
mouth of the beast, and out of the mouth of the false prophet. 16:14 For they are the
spirits of the demons performing signs who go out to the kings of the earth to bring
them together for the battle that will take place on the great day of God, the All-Power-
ful.
16:15 (Look! I will come like a thief!
The Bowls of God’s Wrath Compared to the Trumpets (Revelation 16)
Revelation 15-16: The Seven Bowls of Wrath 249
Blessed is the one who stays alert and does not lose his clothes so that he will not have
to walk around naked and his shameful condition be seen.)
16:16 Now the spirits gathered the kings and their armies to the place that is called
Armageddon in Hebrew.
16:17 Finally the seventh angel poured out his bowl into the air and a loud voice came
out of the temple from the throne, saying: “It is done!” 16:18 Then there were flashes of
lightning, roaring, and crashes of thunder, and there was a tremendous earthquake – an
earthquake unequaled since humanity has been on the earth, so tremendous was that
earthquake. 16:19 The great city was split into three parts and the cities of the nations
collapsed. So Babylon the great was remembered before God, and was given the cup
filled with the wine made of God’s furious wrath. 16:20 Every island fled away and no
mountains could be found. 16:21 And gigantic hailstones, weighing about a hundred
pounds each, fell from heaven on people, but they blasphemed God because of the
plague of hail, since it was so horrendous
There are numerous parallels between the visions accompanying the bowls and the
visions accompanying the trumpets. The parallels are not exact, but as can be seen in
the table, the general trend is for an intensification of the trumpet judgments.
TABLE 1. Bowls and Trumpets Compared
Bowls of Wrath Trumpets
Revelation 16:2 Poured on the
earth; sores on people who had
the mark of the beast & wor-
shiped his image
Revelation 8:7 Hail and fire
with blood thrown at the earth; a
third of the earth burned up.
Revelation 16:3 Poured on the
sea; it turned to blood; every
living creature in sea died.
Revelation 8:8-9 Mountain of
burning fire thrown into the sea;
a third of the sea became blood;
a third of the sea creatures died.
Revelation 16:4-7 Poured on
the rivers and springs; they
turned to blood.
Revelation 8:10-11 Burning
star landed on the rivers and
springs; a third of them became
wormwood.
Revelationi 16:8-9 Poured on
the sun; it scorched people with
terrible heat.
Revelation 8:12-13 A third of
the sun, moon, and stars are
darkened.
Revelation 16:10-11 Poured on
the throne of the beast; darkness
covered his kingdom.
Revelation 9:1-12 Locust
plague (proverbial for swarming
so thick they turn the sky dark).
Armageddon
250 Revelation 15-16: The Seven Bowls of Wrath
For example, the first four of both involve the earth, sea, fresh water, and sky respec-
tively. But whereas in the trumpets, only a third are effected, in the bowls, the effect is
total. The effect isn’t always the same effect though. In the fourth ones, the trumpet
darkens the sun and other celestial lights, but the bowl intensifies the sun.
Idealists in general take two approaches to understanding the finality of the bowls. One
is that they represent a future intensification of the tribulation, and so represent a finality
of history. Another is that they represent the finality of death for the unrepentant sinner.
This latter approach is rather unconvincing. There is nothing in the vision to indicate
that the scope is the individual rather than humanity, especially when compared to the
scope of the trumpet judgments. People and other living creatures die in both sets of
judgments, so it makes little sense to apply only the bowls judgments to an individual’s
death and apply the trumpets only to warning judgments. This interpretation results
more from a presuppositional bias against seeing anything resembling a futurist inter-
pretation rather than allowing exegesis to lead where it leads.
We have some indication of an eschatological intensification of tribulation in the vision
of the two witnesses (Revelation 11:1-14). They witness throughout the tribulation, the
1,260 days representing the church age, but then, in what could be described as in inten-
sification of persecution against them, they are killed.
3.0 Armageddon
The name “Armageddon” is a transliteration of the Hebrew for “Mountain of Megiddo”.
The region is an ancient battleground for Israel (Judges 5:19; 2 Kings 23:29-30; Zecha-
riah 12:11).1 Contrary to the usual Dispensational view, it is not at all clear that we
Revelation 16:12-16 Poured on
the river Euphrates; river dried
up to prepare way for kings of
the east; three unlean spirits
from dragon, beast, and false
prophet bring kings of the earth
together for battle at Armaged-
don.
Revelation 9:13-21 Four angels
released from the Euphrates
with 200,000,000 angels set free
to kill a third of humanity.
Revelation 16:17-21 Pour on
the air; “It is done!”; weather
phenonoma and earthquake
occur; Babylon split into three;
cities of nations collapse; Baby-
lon given cup filled with the
wine made of God’s furious
wrath; Gigantic hailstones;
people blaspheme God.
Revelation 11:15-19 “The
kingdom of the world has
become the kingdom of our
Lord”; temple in heaven
opened; weather phenonoma
and an earthquake occur.
TABLE 1. Bowls and Trumpets Compared
Bowls of Wrath Trumpets
Other Interpretations
Revelation 15-16: The Seven Bowls of Wrath 251
should see Armageddon as a literal “Word War 3” (or whatever number we are up to by
then!). The fifth and sixth trumpets had images of demonic forces doing battle, so like-
wise here, we likely have a conflict at least in part in the spiritual or ideological realm.
The battle is describe in the future tense in Revelation 16:14. As a singular event at the
culmination of the intensification, it should probably be linked the the events surround-
ing the death of the two witnesses at the end of 1,260 days (the church age) that we
encountered in Revelation 11:7. In fact, “war” is also used to describe the conflict
resulting in their deaths in that passage.
4.0 Other Interpretations
4.1 Historicist
The first six bowl judgments are events surrounding the downfall of Papal power in the
18th, 19th, and 20th centuries, beginning with the French Revolution. The seventh
bowl is still future.
4.2 Preterist
The preterist views see the judgments on either Jerusalem (70 AD) or Rome (476 AD).
The early date preterists can site many parallels between the horrors of the bowl judg-
ments and the catastrophes surrounding the fall of Jerusalem described by Josephus. As
those events would be fresh on everyone’s minds in 95 AD, not only because of the
recentness of the event, but because Josephus’ Antiquities was just published about five
years earlier, the parallels are probably intentional. While the preterists are wrong about
the bowl judgments being about the fall of Jerusalem and the destruction of the temple
in particular, those events are referenced as an archetype for the symbols in the vision.
4.3 Futurist
Speculation on what in particular various symbols mean in terms of specific future
events is highly varied to the point that it should be clear it isn’t profitable. For exam-
ple, does the water turning to blood mean a literal transubstantiation? Or is it a hyper-
bolic statement meaning the water is tinted red by the blood of the slain? Or is it an
allegorical statement refering to water tinted red by algae blooms (red tide) or pollution?
Or is it entirely a metaphor having nothing to do with water literally being actually col-
ored red at all?
1. “Armageddon,” Anchor Bible Dictionary
Other Interpretations
252 Revelation 15-16: The Seven Bowls of Wrath
253
Revelation 17-18: The
Whore of Babylon
The seven headed dragon is Satan, the
seven headed beast is anti-Christian
government in the image of Satan, the two
horned beast, anti-Christian religion in the
service of the anti-Christian government,
and the whore of Babylon is....
1.0 Who or What is the Whore of Babylon?
Numerous interpretations have been made of the Whore of Babylon:
•The Roman Catholic Church (Historicist, Futurist)
•The Imperial City of Rome in contrast to the Empire (late date Preterist)
•Jerusalem (early date Preterist)
•Coalition of apostate churches headquartered in Rome (Futurist)
•Human civilization (Futurist)
•Literal reconstructed city of Babylon (Futurist)1
•Rome, but Rome itself being symbolic (Idealist)
•The world and its lusts (Idealist)
By carefully sifting through the text, I think we can come to a reasonably certain under-
standing. Recall first the other beasts we have seen. First, there was the red dragon that
is Satan. Then there was the seven headed, ten horned beast (in Satan’s image). It’s
symbolism came from the symbols Daniel used for four world empires, and represents
political power in the service of Satan. Then came a two horned beast with the voice of
a dragon that directed worship to the seven headed beast. Called a false prophet else-
where, it represents false religion supporting the anti-christian political power. Now we
see a whore whose name is Babylon. We will see that she represents materialism. She
is the marketplace of the world, alluring the world into spiritual adultery with the false
gods of greed and avarice.
1. Those that take this approach generally make a distinction between the Babylon of chapter 17
and of chapter 18. This interpretation only applies to chapter 18 then.
The Whore of Babylon
254 Revelation 17-18: The Whore of Babylon
2.0 The Whore of Babylon
2.1 The Whore Introduced (Revelation 17:1-6)
The Great Prostitute and the Beast
Rev 17:1 Then one of the seven angels who had the seven bowls came and spoke to me.
“Come,” he said, “I will show you the condemnation and punishment of the great pros-
titute who sits on many waters, 17:2 with whom the kings of the earth committed sexual
immorality and the earth’s inhabitants got drunk with the wine of her immorality.” 17:3
So he carried me away in the Spirit to a wilderness, and there I saw a woman sitting on
a scarlet beast that was full of blasphemous names and had seven heads and ten horns.
17:4 Now the woman was dressed in purple and scarlet clothing, and adorned with gold,
precious stones, and pearls. She held in her hand a golden cup filled with detestable
things and unclean things from her sexual immorality. 17:5 On her forehead was written
a name, a mystery: “Babylon the Great, the Mother of prostitutes and of the detestable
things of the earth.” 17:6 I saw that the woman was drunk with the blood of the saints
and the blood of those who testified to Jesus. I was greatly astounded when I saw her.
In the Bible, worship of false gods is likened to adultery. Recall, for example, the story
of Hosea and his wife in Hosea 1-3. That is the meaning behind the whoredom here,
which, while certainly includes illicit sex, is not limited to it.
The beast she sits on is the seven headed, ten horned beast we have previously encoun-
tered. A new detail is added: the beast is scarlet (a deep red) color, further linking its
appearance to the appearance of the red dragon. Sitting on the beast represents the fact
that economic activity depends on the stability of government.
Her clothing and jewelry are representations of ostentatious wealth.
Symbolism of the other beasts used Rome as an archetype, so why Babylon here? In
reality, Rome is probably still the archetype. To the Jews, Rome was another Babylon
and could be describe as such. When Peter refers the church in Babylon in his closing
in 1 Peter 5:13, he almost certainly means Rome and not the literal Babylon.
She is drunk on the blood of the saints and of those who testified to Jesus. Economic
concerns (that is, greed) can motivate persecution. There is much money to be made at
immorality, and the Christian faith can threaten that livelihood. For a biblical example
see Acts 19:23-41. Paul’s impact on the trade in silver shrines for Artemis triggered a
riot in Ephesus.
2.2 The Beast Interpreted (Revelation 17:7-14)
A common feature in apocalyptic literature, both canonical and cultic, is for a “guide”
angel to provide some interpretation of the symbols, though often,somewhat cryptic
terms.
2.2.1 The beast was, is not, and is to come (Revelation 17:7-8)
Rev 17:7 But the angel said to me, “Why are you astounded? I will interpret for you the
mystery of the woman and of the beast with the seven heads and ten horns that carries
The Whore of Babylon
Revelation 17-18: The Whore of Babylon 255
her. 17:8 The beast you saw was, and is not, but is about to come up from the abyss and
then go to destruction. The inhabitants of the earth – all those whose names have not
been written in the book of life since the foundation of the world – will be astounded
when they see that the beast was, and is not, but is to come.
By themselves, these word are rather confusing. However, they would seem to echo
back to Revelation 13 where the beast received a seemingly fatal wound to one of its
heads, then recovered. This alluded to the fatal wound the Roman Empire seemed to
receive when Nero died and it was plunged into a civil war in the year with four emper-
ors.
Throughout history, every empire has eventually fallen. Yet the beast has not yet been
defeated. From every fatal wound the beast comes back as yet another persecuting
empire.
2.2.2 Seven Mountains (Revelation 17:9a)
Rev 17:9a (This requires a mind that has wisdom.) The seven heads are seven moun-
tains the woman sits on.
The reference to seven mountains is ambiguously a reference to Rome, the “City on
Seven Hills” of the ancient poets. But remember that Rome is an archetype. The idea is
that of a world power, of which Rome was the immediate example.
2.2.3 Seven Kings (Revelation 17:9b-11)
Rev 17:9b They are also seven kings: 17:10 five have fallen; one is, and the other has
not yet come, but whenever he does come, he must remain for only a brief time. 17:11
The beast that was, and is not, is himself an eighth king and yet is one of the seven, and
is going to destruction.
This passage is very cryptic. Daniel slipped between referring to kings and kingdoms
freely, and so here the seven kings are probably kingdoms. The five that were past
would be the three from Daniel (Babylon, Medo-Persia, and Greece) and perhaps Egypt
and Assyria from earlier. The one that is would be Rome. It is not clear what the sev-
enth would be nor how the beast would be an eight, yet one of the seven. But the num-
ber of future kings are not limited to these...
2.2.4 Ten Kings (Revelation 17:12-14)
Rev 17:12 The ten horns that you saw are ten kings who have not yet received a king-
dom, but will receive ruling authority as kings with the beast for one hour. 17:13 These
kings have a single intent, and they will give their power and authority to the beast.
17:14 They will make war with the Lamb, but the Lamb will conquer them, because he
is Lord of lords and King of kings, and those accompanying the Lamb are the called,
chosen, and faithful.”
The ten horns are yet ten more kings. Trying to speculate which kingdoms of history
correspond to each of these kings is a futile effort. We can get the general gist though.
The beast will be active through many future kingdoms. In fact the numbers here are
probably more symbolic than limiting the number of kingdoms to some specific num-
ber. Just when one seems to have died another will spring up in its place.
The Destruction of Babylon
256 Revelation 17-18: The Whore of Babylon
2.3 The Whore in the Hands of the Beast (Revelation 17:15-18)
Rev 17:15 Then the angel said to me, “The waters you saw (where the prostitute is
seated) are peoples, multitudes, nations, and languages. 17:16 The ten horns that you
saw, and the beast – these will hate the prostitute and make her desolate and naked.
They will consume her flesh and burn her up with fire. 17:17 For God has put into their
minds to carry out his purpose by making a decision to give their royal power to the
beast until the words of God are fulfilled. 17:18 As for the woman you saw, she is the
great city that has sovereignty over the kings of the earth.”
In spite of the fact that the Beast and Babylon are on the same side (that is, evil), the
beast hates the whore. This is a reality we see in history. Economic prosperity creates
an educated middle class and a powerful aristocracy of powerful business interests.
Both are the enemy of despots everywhere. We saw this in Saddam Hussein executing
anyone in his inner circle who showed any competence. We see this in Africa where
governments institute poorly thought out “reforms” and actively resist outside groups
helping to feed their own starving population. Verse 17 says this is God’s doing. Think
also about what Jesus said about a house divided:
Mk 3:24 If a kingdom is divided against itself, that kingdom will not be able to stand.
3:25 If a house is divided against itself, that house will not be able to stand. 3:26 And if
Satan rises against himself and is divided, he is not able to stand and his end has come.
[NET]
3.0 The Destruction of Babylon
3.1 Fallen is Babylon (Revelation 18:1-3)
Babylon is Destroyed
Rev 18:1 After these things I saw another angel, who possessed great authority, coming
down out of heaven, and the earth was lit up by his radiance. 18:2 He shouted with a
powerful voice:
“Fallen, fallen, is Babylon the great!
She has become a lair for demons,
a haunt for every unclean spirit,
a haunt for every unclean bird,
a haunt for every unclean and detested beast.
18:3 For all the nations have fallen from
the wine of her immoral passion,
and the kings of the earth have committed sexual immorality with her,
and the merchants of the earth have gotten rich from the power of her sensual behavior.”
We have another declaration of the fall of Babylon. If this means her destruction, it is a
prophetic perfect. On the other hand it may indicate her moral fall. Note that the
description of her effect on the nations is that they have fallen as well. This would par-
allel the fall of Satan as well. Regardless of the intention of this statement, it is clear
that she is morally fallen and that she will fall into destruction as well.
The Destruction of Babylon
Revelation 17-18: The Whore of Babylon 257
3.2 Come Out (Revelation 18:4-8)
18:4 Then I heard another voice from heaven saying, “Come out of her, my people, so
you will not take part in her sins and so you will not receive her plagues, 18:5 because
her sins have piled up all the way to heaven and God has remembered her crimes. 18:6
Repay her the same way she repaid others; pay her back double corresponding to her
deeds. In the cup she mixed, mix double the amount for her. 18:7 As much as she
exalted herself and lived in sensual luxury, to this extent give her torment and grief
because she said to herself, ‘I rule as queen and am no widow; I will never experience
grief!’ 18:8 For this reason, she will experience her plagues in a single day: disease,
mourning, and famine, and she will be burned down with fire, because the Lord God
who judges her is powerful!”
God’s people are told to come out of Babylon. Jesus warning to leave Jerusalem before
its destruction is an archetype for this figure of speech (Mark 13:14, Eusebius Church
History 3.5.3). The meaning here is not to avoid physical co-location (“since you would
then have to get of the world” as Paul said in 1 Corinthians 5:10). Rather it is to avoid
the temptations and sins that she allures the world to.
Her destruction will be sudden, “in a single day”. Suddenness and unexpectedness of
destruction are frequent in judgment prophecies.
3.3 The Grief of the Kings and Merchants (Revelation 18:9-20)
Rev 18:9 Then the kings of the earth who committed immoral acts with her and lived in
sensual luxury with her will weep and wail for her when they see the smoke from the
fire that burns her up. 18:10 They will stand a long way off because they are afraid of
her torment, and will say,
“Woe, woe, O great city,
Babylon the powerful city!
For in a single hour your doom has come!”
18:11 Then the merchants of the earth will weep and mourn for her because no one buys
their cargo any longer – 18:12 cargo such as gold, silver, precious stones, pearls, fine
linen, purple cloth, silk, scarlet cloth, all sorts of things made of citron wood, all sorts of
objects made of ivory, all sorts of things made of expensive wood, bronze, iron and
marble, 18:13 cinnamon, spice, incense, perfumed ointment, frankincense, wine, olive
oil and costly flour, wheat, cattle and sheep, horses and four-wheeled carriages, slaves
and human lives.
18:14 (The ripe fruit you greatly desired
has gone from you,
and all your luxury and splendor
have gone from you –
they will never ever be found again!)
18:15 The merchants who sold these things, who got rich from her, will stand a long
way off because they are afraid of her torment. They will weep and mourn, 18:16 say-
ing,
“Woe, woe, O great city –
dressed in fine linen, purple and scarlet clothing,
and adorned with gold, precious stones, and pearls –
18:17 because in a single hour such great wealth has been destroyed!”
The Destruction of Babylon
258 Revelation 17-18: The Whore of Babylon
And every ship’s captain, and all who sail along the coast – seamen, and all who make
their living from the sea, stood a long way off 18:18 and began to shout when they saw
the smoke from the fire that burned her up, “Who is like the great city?” 18:19 And they
threw dust on their heads and were shouting with weeping and mourning,
“Woe, Woe, O great city –
in which all those who had ships on the sea got rich from her wealth –
because in a single hour she has been destroyed!”
18:20 (Rejoice over her, O heaven,
and you saints and apostles and prophets,
for God has pronounced judgment against her on your behalf!)
When she is destroyed, the kings and merchants that had their “affairs” with her will
mourn. It is here that we glean her identity as the economic lusts of materialism. See
the list of precious cargoes that she led people to through her allurement in verses 12-
14: gold, silver, precious stones, pearls, fine linen, purple cloth, silk, scarlet cloth, etc.
etc. etc...
3.4 Destruction Symbolized by an Angel (Revelation 18:21-24)
Rev 18:21 Then one powerful angel picked up a stone like a huge millstone, threw it
into the sea, and said,
“With this kind of sudden violent force
Babylon the great city will be thrown down
and it will never be found again!
18:22 And the sound of the harpists, musicians,
flute players, and trumpeters
will never be heard in you again.
No craftsman who practices any trade
will ever be found in you again;
the noise of a mill will never be heard in you again.
18:23 Even the light from a lamp
will never shine in you again!
The voices of the bridegroom and his bride
will never be heard in you again.
For your merchants were the tycoons of the world,
because all the nations were deceived by your magic spells!
18:24 The blood of the saints and prophets was found in her,
along with the blood of all those who had been killed on the earth.”
Finally an angel symbols the destruction of Babylon by throwing a huge stone into the
sea, where it would vanish suddenly without a trace. This image may echo Daniel 2:44-
45, but the symbolism is different. In Daniel the stone is what does the destroying,
while in Revelation, it is the thing thrown down to disappear under the sea.
259
Revelation 19-20: The
Millennium
This is the passage around which all
Millennial issues orbit. A comprehensive
discussion of all the issues surrounding
this passage is not practical. Whole books
have been devoted to the subject.
1.0 Definitions
This section is where controversy and interest in Revelation really centers: What and
When is the Millennium? Surprisingly, one’s answer to that question is largely indepen-
dent of how Revelation 1-18 is interpreted. Nearly all combinations of Historicist,
Preterist, Futurist, and Idealist with Premillennialist, Amillennialist, and Postmillennial-
ist can be found in the commentaries. That said, a few combinations are the most com-
mon encountered today: Futurist-Premillennialist, Idealist-Amillennialist, and
Preterist-Postmillennialist.
Before discussing this further, let’s review the definitions of these Millennialist terms.
The term Millennium means 1,000 years. “The” millennium refers to the 1,000 years
Satan is bound in Revelation 20:1-6. There are interpreters of all three Millennial
schools that acknowledge that the 1,000 years may be symbolic of a long period of time,
and not be literally 365,2421 literal 24-hour days, while others insist on such a literal
understanding.
All three schools begin a historic era termed the church age with the resurrection of
Jesus. This age extends through today and on into the future. The three schools differ
regarding what terminates the church age and what comes afterwards.
The term “Amillennialist” is a misnomer. It means literally one who believes in no mil-
lennium. What Amillennialism actually holds is that the millennium is a symbol for the
whole church age. Satan is bound now, and the church age AKA millennium will end
when he is released a short time, then thrown into Hell and everyone is resurrected to be
either cast into Hell or live with Christ forevermore.
1. Or 365,243 days if a third century leap year falls in the 1,000 years (Gregorian calendar)
Literary Structure
260 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
Premillennialists and Postmillennialists believe that the millennium is in the future. The
“Pre-” and “Post-” prefixes refer to the timing of the physical return (AKA the second
coming) of Jesus Christ being either before or after, respectively, the millennium.
Thus premillennialists believe Jesus will return to earth, resurrect the saints, reign over a
literal political kingdom for 1,000 years, then resurrect everyone else, sending the repro-
bate to Hell and dwelling with the redeemed eternally. Dispensational Premillennialists
are a particular offshoot of this school that was begun in the 1830’s by John Nelson
Darby. The main distinctions of this view are that there is a pre-tribulation rapture
seven years before the beginning of the millennium, that the Jews are eternally separate
from the Church, and that then the traditional Jewish worship with a temple and sacri-
fice will be restored. This Johnny-come-lately viewpoint is unfortunately the most
common found in Evangelical Christianity today, popularized in large part by the
Scofield Reference Bible of the early 20th century.
Postmillennialists believe that the millennium comes between the church age and the
physical second coming of Jesus. Either by the gradual growth of the church or a great
revival, a “silver age” will exist on a Christianized earth before Jesus returns, establish-
ing the eternal “golden age”. The Puritans combined this view with the Historicist inter-
pretation of Revelation 1-17, while the modern Reconstructionist movement combines
it with the Preterist interpretation of those earlier chapters. My own view combines it
with the Idealist view.
Some other variations exist. Some who identify the millennium with the church age
like the amillennialists also believe in a gradual Christianization of the earth like post-
millennialists. I prefer the term Optimistic Amillennialism for this school, but one finds
this school referred to as Postmillennialism as well, which can be rather confusing.
The blatantly heretical Full Preterist interpretation of Revelation regards all of Revela-
tion to have been fulfilled by 70 AD, and thus spiritualizes the references to resurrec-
tion. They don’t fit into any of the three Millennial views outlined above.
2.0 Literary Structure
Revelation 12-20 has a chiasmic structure. That is, after touching on A, B, C, and D, it
then reverses the pattern and touches on D, C, B, and A. In this case, the points touched
upon are the diabolical forces. First we are introduced to them acting out during the 3.5
year tribulation:
•The Red Dragon - Revelation 12,
•The Seven Headed Beast - Revelation 13:1-10,
•The Two Horned Beast - Revelation 13:11-181, and
•The Whore of Babylon - Revelation 17.
1. Revelation 14-16 are an interlude in this sequence. Interludes occur other sequences as well.
Celebrations in Heaven (Revelation 19:1-10)
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 261
Then in unwinding the sequence, we see the destruction of each in reverse order:
•Babylon - Revelation 18,
•The Beast and False Prophet - Revelation 19:11-19, and
•The Dragon - Revelation 20.
We will look back at this structure when we discuss whether the binding of the dragon
recapitulates the church age or deals strictly with the end of the church age.
3.0 Celebrations in Heaven (Revelation 19:1-10)
3.1 The Destruction of Babylon (Revelation 19:1-5)
Rev 19:1 After these things I heard what sounded like the loud voice of a vast throng in
heaven, saying,
“Hallelujah! Salvation and glory and power belong to our God,
19:2 because his judgments are true and just.
For he has judged the great prostitute
who corrupted the earth with her sexual immorality,
and has avenged the blood of his servants poured out by her own hands!”
19:3 Then a second time the crowd shouted, “Hallelujah!” The smoke rises from her
forever and ever. 19:4 The twenty-four elders and the four living creatures threw them-
selves to the ground and worshiped God, who was seated on the throne, saying: “Amen!
Hallelujah!”
19:5 Then a voice came from the throne, saying:
“Praise our God
all you his servants,
and all you who fear Him,
both the small and the great!”
The destruction of Babylon is celebrated in heaven. Since the “vast throng in heaven” is
not identified, we should not speculate on their identity. They could be angels, or in a
Dispensationalism, the resurrected church.
3.2 Wedding Celebration of the Lamb (Revelation 19:6-10)
The Wedding Celebration of the Lamb
Rev 19:6 Then I heard what sounded like the voice of a vast throng, like the roar of
many waters and like loud crashes of thunder. They were shouting:
“Hallelujah!
For the Lord our God, the All-Powerful, reigns!
19:7 Let us rejoice and exult
and give him glory,
because the wedding celebration of the Lamb has come,
and his bride has made herself ready.
Defeat of the Beast and False Prophet (Revelation 19:11-21)
262 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
19:8 She was permitted to be dressed in bright, clean, fine linen” (for the fine linen is
the righteous deeds of the saints).
19:9 Then the angel said to me, “Write the following: Blessed are those who are invited
to the banquet at the wedding celebration of the Lamb!” He also said to me, “These are
the true words of God.” 19:10 So I threw myself down at his feet to worship him, but he
said, “Do not do this! I am only a fellow servant with you and your brothers who hold to
the testimony about Jesus. Worship God, for the testimony about Jesus is the spirit of
prophecy.”
Continuing the metaphor started by describing Babylon as a whore, the church is
described here as a bride. She has made her self ready for her husband. The metaphor
is mixed, creating some confusion. In verse 9, we read “Blessed are those who are
invited to the banquet at the wedding celebration of the Lamb’. If the bride is the
church, who are these others invited? Jesus used this wedding guest image (Matthew
9:15; 22:2-14) to represent those called to be part of the kingdom, that is, Christians. It
would seem that both the bride and the guests both symbolize the redeemed. If some
distinction between members of the redeemed is intended, it is far from clear what that
might be, and so I will not speculate on that here.
It would appear that John misunderstood what the angel meant went he said “These are
the true words of God”, thinking he was being spoken to by God. The angel quickly
corrected John when tried to worship the angel. This passage is apologetically signifi-
cant. An admirer of John writing this as a forgery would hardly have invented such an
episode about his beloved hero. Nor would it be likely that John would create such an
episode about himself if he were writing a fiction.
4.0 Defeat of the Beast and False Prophet
(Revelation 19:11-21)
The Son of God Goes to War
Rev 19:11 Then I saw heaven opened and here came a white horse! The one riding it
was called “Faithful” and “True,” and with justice he judges and goes to war. 19:12 His
eyes are like a fiery flame and there are many diadem crowns on his head. He has a
name written that no one knows except himself. 19:13 He is dressed in clothing dipped
in blood, and he is called the Word of God. 19:14 The armies that are in heaven, dressed
in white, clean, fine linen, were following him on white horses. 19:15 From his mouth
extends a sharp sword, so that with it he can strike the nations. He will rule them with an
iron rod, and he stomps the winepress of the furious wrath of God, the All-Powerful.
19:16 He has a name written on his clothing and on his thigh: “King of kings and Lord
of lords.”
19:17 Then I saw one angel standing in the sun, and he shouted in a loud voice to all the
birds flying high in the sky:
“Come, gather around for the great banquet of God,
19:18 to eat your fill of the flesh of kings,
the flesh of generals,
the flesh of powerful people,
the flesh of horses and those who ride them,
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 263
and the flesh of all people, both free and slave,
and small and great!”
19:19 Then I saw the beast and the kings of the earth and their armies assembled to do
battle with the one who rode the horse and with his army. 19:20 Now the beast was
seized, and along with him the false prophet who had performed the signs on his behalf
– signs by which he deceived those who had received the mark of the beast and those
who worshiped his image. Both of them were thrown alive into the lake of fire burning
with sulfur. 19:21 The others were killed by the sword that extended from the mouth of
the one who rode the horse, and all the birds gorged themselves with their flesh.
We’ve encountered the symbol of a white horse before. Here it is unambiguously clear
that the one riding is the Messiah, the divine Logos of God. The White of his horse and
his armies symbolize purity. The clothing dipped (or perhaps soaked or drenched) in
blood may be a martial image. Ancient hand-to-hand combat was fought with swords,
so the soldiers would be covered in blood. In fact, the weapon he strikes the nations
with is a sword. On the other hand the blood could be the Messiah’s own.
The sword comes from his mouth. This indicates we are not dealing with a literal mar-
tial battle here, but one of theologies and ideologies. We’ve seen this sword referred to
earlier as a double-edged sword. But, he also “stomps the winepress of the furious
wrath of God”. We’ve seen this image explicitly in Revelation 14, and implicitly in the
judgments of the seals, trumpets, and bowls of wrath.
We saw an intensification of the conflict and the battle of Armeggedon with the bowl
judgments, and we saw the intensification of the conflict in the killing of the two wit-
nesses at the end of the 1,260 days in chapter 11. Here we see again the kings and
armies assembled for battle. The conclusion of the battle is revealed in greater detail:
The beast (the anti-Christian political powers) and the false prophet (the anti-Christian
religious powers) are cast into the lake of fire, that is, Hell, and their armies are killed.
Since the weapon (the sword from his mouth) is likely a symbol, it is hard to tell to what
degree the death and carnage here should be understood literally. The imagery here
reflects that found in Ezekiel 38-39.
5.0 Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
Except perhaps for Genesis 1, more ink has been spilled on these ten verses than any
other passage in the Bible. I have no delusions that I am going to settle the issue here. I
will present what is frankly my opinion. That fact alone presents two strikes against
this. First it’s mine, and second it’s an opinion. Good Christians of every age have had
a variety of opinions on understanding this passage, and the various opinions have
waxed and waned in popularity as though they were a brand of shoes or a hair style.
Thus one should approach this passage with humility and only with “fear and trem-
bling” approach any single interpretation.
I have made several rewrites of this section. The number of issues that it brings up is
overwhelming. There is no simple way to arrange the information.
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
264 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
5.1 Satan Bound (Revelation 20:1-3)
The Thousand Year Reign
Rev 20:1 Then I saw an angel descending from heaven, holding in his hand the key to
the abyss and a huge chain. 20:2 He seized the dragon – the ancient serpent, who is the
devil and Satan – and tied him up for a thousand years. 20:3 The angel then threw him
into the abyss and locked and sealed it so that he could not deceive the nations until the
one thousand years were finished. (After these things he must be released for a brief
period of time.)
The Abyss. We see a downward trajectory for Satan. First he is in heaven, then cast
down to the earth. Now he is relegated to the abyss. This would seem, then, to be in
sequence after the tribulation. Recall the chiasmic structure discussed above. The first
half deals with the dragon, beast, false prophet, and Babylon in their roles during the
three and one-half year tribulation. Then, in reverse order, we deal with their final dis-
position at the end of the tribulation. This is contrary to the amillennial position, which
equates the 1,000 years with the three and one-half years.
Recall in Revelation 11 the sequence of events after the two witnesses are killed. They
lie dead for three and one-half days (that is, the public proclamation of the Gospel is
silenced), then they are resurrected, 7,000 people are killed by an earthquake (a sym-
bolic number chosen to be a negative image of the 7,000 remnant in Elijah’s day), and
finally something unique happens that doesn’t happen after any of the other judgments:
“the rest were terrified and gave glory to the God of heaven”. Instead of a blaspheming
of God, a massive revival occurs!
Deception. Satan is specifically said to be kept from deceiving the nations (not the
church) during the 1,000 years. That is, a previous situation is brought to an end. Christ
warned about deception in the Olivet Discourse (Mark 13:5ff and parallels). Paul said:
2 Co 4:3 But even if our gospel is veiled, it is veiled only to those who are perishing, 4:4
among whom the god of this age has blinded the minds of those who do not believe so
they would not see the light of the glorious gospel of Christ, who is the image of God.
In Colossians 2:8 “deceitful philosophy” is attributed in part to “elemental spirits”, that
is, demonic forces. In Revelation itself, the role of the beast with two horns is to be a
false prophet and deceive the nations into worshiping the image of the seven headed
beast (Revelation 13:11-18, especially verse 14 “he deceived those who live on the
earth”). Babylon also deceived the nations (Revelation 18:23) by her magic (Satanic)
spells.
The straightforward reading of Revelation is that this deception ends with the destruc-
tion of Babylon, the false prophet, and the beast. Satan is effectively bound then (as
spirit, we should understand the chains as figurative, of course), lacking the means
through which he can deceive the nations. It is a common saying that if Satan is bound
now (the amillennial position), then the chain is too long.
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 265
5.2 The First Resurrection and Second Death (Revelation 20:4-6)
Rev 20:4 Then I saw thrones and seated on them were those who had been given author-
ity to judge. I also saw the souls of those who had been beheaded because of the testi-
mony about Jesus and because of the word of God. These had not worshiped the beast
or his image and had refused to receive his mark on their forehead or hand. They came
to life and reigned with Christ for a thousand years. 20:5 (The rest of the dead did not
come to life until the thousand years were finished.) This is the first resurrection. 20:6
Blessed and holy is the one who takes part in the first resurrection. The second death
has no power over them, but they will be priests of God and of Christ, and they will
reign with him for a thousand years.
Introduction. If we could understand what the first resurrection is and who is resur-
rected, it would go a long way to determining what the millennium is. Alas a definitive
answer escapes us. Gather ten scholars in a room, and you’ll end up with twenty inter-
pretations. I cannot hope to give a comprehensive overview of all the interpretations of
this passage, nor a rigorous proof that my opinion is right. None the less, this is scrip-
ture, and so I shall wrestle with it as best as I can.
The Martyrs. Martyrs have already been encountered in Revelation. When the fifth
seal was opened, John “saw under the altar the souls of those who had been violently
killed because of the word of God and because of the testimony they had given” [Reve-
lation 6:9]. They are described in almost identical words here.
The wording “souls of those...” indicates he is seeing disembodied souls. While the
word “souls” can mean in-the-flesh “people”, we cannot translate this as “people of
those...”; that would make no sense. They are described both positively and negatively
(that is, in terms of what they are and what they are not). ASV and NASB are in error
here in that they transform the relative clause into a second object (“I saw the souls of
those who had been beheaded ... and those who had not worshipped the beast”). See D.
E. Aune’s commentary, where he ponders whether one or two sets of martyrs (beheaded
for two different reasons) is in sight here, not whether martyrs and someone else are
listed:
One problem is whether two types of martyrs are in view in v 4bc, as Bousset ([1906]
437) claims, or just a single group. It is more natural to construe the text as referring to
a single group of martyrs, who had been executed for both positive reasons (v 4b: their
obedience to the commands of God and their witness to Jesus) and negative reasons (v
4c: their refusal to worship the beast or its image and to receive its brand on their fore-
heads and right hands).1
A legitimate question is to ask who these martyrs represent. That is, might they be sym-
bolic of more than literal martyrs? In both passages referring to martyrs, great emphasis
is given to the violence of their execution. In Revelation 6, they are under an altar, rep-
resenting a sacrificial death, and not just the death that comes to all men, and were “vio-
lently killed”. In our current passage, a specific, unambiguous, mode of execution is
called out (although it likely stands for all modes of execution). Absent strong evidence
to the contrary, I’m inclined to think actual literal martyrdom is referred to here.
1. D. E. Aune. 2002. Vol. 52C: Word Biblical Commentary : Revelation 17-22. p. 1088
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
266 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
came to life. The Greek verb here can be ingressive (came to life)1 or constative
(lived).2 That it is referred to as a resurrection in verse 5, in my opinion, pretty much
settles the issue that we should read it as an ingressive, as most translations in fact do.
first resurrection. One doesn’t usually describe something as first unless there is also a
second. While the term second resurrection does not occur in Revelation, it is certainly
implied. First we have the martyr come to life and reign with Christ for 1,000 years.
Then we have the statement “The rest of the dead did not come to life until the thousand
years were finished.” Some writers have attempted to read this to indicate only that they
didn’t “come to life” during the 1,000 years, but doesn’t say anything about their com-
ing to life afterwards.3 This is essentially the same exegesis of Matthew 1:24b-25a that
Roman Catholics use to argue for the perpetual virginity of Mary that Protestants,
rightly, disparage: “He took his wife, but did not have marital relations with her until
she gave birth to a son”. Further since Revelation 20:13 specifically refers to a resurrec-
tion event that includes those who are judged and cast into the lake of fire, it is pretty
clear that a second resurrection is implied at the end of the millennium.
second death. The second death is explicitly defined as being cast into the lake of fire
in verse 24. It is often contrasted with the first death, the physical death that all but the
last generation will experience, and so referred to as a spiritual or figurative death. This
dichotomy is then often linked to the first and second resurrection to treat them as dif-
ferent in kind as well. I’m not convinced this distinction between the two deaths is as
strong as often supposed.
First, it is important to note that the person does not cease to exist after either death.
After the first death, the soul is torn from the body and the body then decays. But at the
resurrection, body and soul are reunited. Even the reprobate become living, breathing,
walking around live people. But then they are cast into the lake of fire. Is it unreason-
able to describe what happens to the body in the second death then as a literal death?
Whatever it is that happens to the body, chemically, physically, or otherwise, it certainly
isn’t experiencing anything reasonably called a life.
the rest of the dead. The dead are divided into two explicitly disjoint subsets: the mar-
tyred dead and the rest of the dead. The former comes to life in a resurrection at the
beginning of the millennium, the later in a resurrection at the end of the millennium.
Given those terms, it seems unreasonable to assume the two resurrections are different
in nature, and given the doctrine of the physical resurrection from the rest of scripture
(not to mention Revelation 20:13), that resurrection is physical in nature.
How does this fit in with the rapture, that is, the transformation of the living that Paul
refers to in 1 Thessalonians 4:13-17?
1. See note in NET.
2. James A. Hugues. 1973. “Revelation 20:4-6 and the Question of the Millennium”. West min-
ster Theological Journal 35:3 Spring 1973. p. 289-290.
3. James A. Hugues. 1973. “Revelation 20:4-6 and the Question of the Millennium”. West min-
ster Theological Journal 35:3 Spring 1973.
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 267
1 Th 4:13 Now we do not want you to be uninformed, brothers and sisters, about those
who are asleep, so that you will not grieve like the rest who have no hope. 4:14 For if
we believe that Jesus died and rose again, so also we believe that God will bring with
him those who have fallen asleep as Christians. 4:15 For we tell you this by the word
of the Lord, that we who are alive, who are left until the coming of the Lord, will surely
not go ahead of those who have fallen asleep. 4:16 For the Lord himself will come
down from heaven with a shout of command, with the voice of the archangel, and with
the trumpet of God, and the dead in Christ will rise first. 4:17 Then we who are alive,
who are left, will be suddenly caught up together with them in the clouds to meet the
Lord in the air. And so we will always be with the Lord.
Those “who have died in the Lord” is broader than just martyrs, so the event that Paul
refers to must correspond to the resurrection that happens at the end of the millennium.
reign. revelation does not explain what it means for the martyrs to reign with Christ. It
does not tell us if the resurrected martyred are translated to heaven to reign with Christ
there, or whether they are on earth, walking around like those who were resurrected
when Jesus rose from the dead (Matthew 27:52-53). It is a mystery that will be resolved
when it happens.
We do see, however, in Revelation 22:4-5, that reigning is something that the entire
church does after the millennium (“and they will see his face, and his name will be on
their foreheads. Night will be no more, and they will not need the light of a lamp or the
light of the sun, because the Lord God will shine on them, and they will reign forever
and ever”). I think we can safely conclude from this that the reigning is not a simple
political reign as envisioned by Dispensationalists.
5.3 Satan Cast into the Lake of Fire (Revelation 20:7-10)
Satan’s Final Defeat
Rev 20:7 Now when the thousand years are finished, Satan will be released from his
prison 20:8 and will go out to deceive the nations at the four corners of the earth, Gog
and Magog, to bring them together for the battle. They are as numerous as the grains of
sand in the sea. 20:9 They went up on the broad plain of the earth and encircled the
camp of the saints and the beloved city, but fire came down from heaven and devoured
them completely. 20:10 And the devil who deceived them was thrown into the lake of
fire and sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet are too, and they will be tormented
there day and night forever and ever.
Deceive. The deception that had been interrupted for the thousand years is permitted
again. The immediate result is opposition to Christ’s saints. The target is the camp of
the saints. No mention is made of Christ being physically present. Instead, rescue
comes from heaven, and the devil is thrown into the lake of fire where the beast and
false prophet had been cast at the beginning of the millennium.
Gog and Magog. There was already one allusion in chapter 19 to Ezekiel 38-39. Gog
and Magog here is one. In Ezekiel, Gog is the prince of Magog who is prophesied to
attack Israel and be miraculously and thoroughly defeated. While a detailed exegesis of
the Ezekiel passage is beyond the scope of this study, we need to note that there are two
interpretations of it in its own context. One is that predicts a historical conflict that has
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
268 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
already taken place, usually the conflict with Antiochus IV. The other is that it is identi-
cal to the eschatological conflict here.
If the Ezekiel passage refers directly to a historical conflict, as seems very likely as it
makes no explicitly eschatological references, then the allusions in Revelation are
invoking the memory of that conflict by using symbols derived from that passage for the
purpose of assuring us of the power of God to defeat his saint’s enemies. He accom-
plished his purpose in the past and can do it again in the future.
5.4 Amillennialism
I have present a post-millennial view above. Within Reformed churches, Amillennial-
ism is actually more common. Amillennialism does not reach absolute consensus on
every point of interpretation, so I’ll touch on some of the main alternatives of exegesis
by surveying a small handful of representative writers, as well as critique their views. I
make no pretensions that this survey is comprehensive.
William Hendriksen1. Hendriksen argues for chapter 20 being a recapitulation of the
previous chapter. He writes, “the connection between chapters 19 and 20 is similar to
that between chapters 11 and 12.”2 However, recall the structural relationships we
noted within chapters 4-11 and how chapter 12 began anew with a representation of the
incarnation. Such a break is not in fact obvious at chapter 20. In fact, we’ve noted the
chiasmic structure of chapters 12-20 that links chapter 20 with events that specifically
take place at the end of the 1,260 days.
Hendriksen draws a number of parallels between chapters 11-14 and chapter 20 that he
believes illustrate that the 1,260 days and the millennium are the same time period,
reproduced below:3
1. William Hendriksen. 1967. More Than Conquerors.
2. p. 184
TABLE 1. Revelation 11-14 Compared With Revelation 20
Revelation 11-14 Revelation 20
12:5-12. In connection with Christ’s
birth, death, ascension, and coronation,
Satan is hurled down from heaven. His
accusations lose every semblance of jus-
tice.
20:1-3. Satan is bound and cast into the
abyss; his power over the nations is
curbed. Instead of the nations conquer-
ing the Church, the Church begins to
conquer (evangelize) the nations.
11:2-6; 12:14ff. A long period of power
and witness-bearing for the Church,
which is nourished ‘away from the face
of the serpent (Satan)’. The devil’s
influence is curbed.
20:2. A long period of power for the
Church, Satan having been bound. He
remains bound for a thousand years, that
is, during this entire gospel age. (In
heaven the souls of the redeemed are liv-
ing and reigning with Christ, 20:4-6.)
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 269
We may critique these parallels by noting that most are more accurately contrasts.
When Satan was “hurled down from heaven”, his domain was specifically cited as being
the earth (Revelation 12:12 “But woe to the earth and the sea because the devil has
come down to you”). When Satan is bound, it is in the abyss, a further removal down-
ward. The separation between the church and Satan in Revelation 12:14ff is by means
of the woman being translated away from Satan, but in Revelation 20, its by Satan being
translated away from the earth. After the showdown in Revelation 11:7ff and the wit-
nesses are killed, some sort of revival event happens that results in the survivors giving
“glory to the God of heaven”. In Revelation 20, the final battle is cut short before it
begins. Gog and Magog gather around the saints, and fire comes down from heaven and
consumes them.
Hendriksen exegetes the participants in the first resurrection as two groups:
First of all, all the souls of the martyrs, ‘those who had been beheaded
for the testimony of Jesus’. Secondly, all other believers who died in
their faith, ‘such as worshipped not the beast’, etc.
Hendriksen appears to be quoting the ASV, which we noted earlier, mistranslates the
relative clause. Most other interpreters resort to spiritualizing the martyrs instead to
achieve the same exegesis.
James A. Hughes1. Hughes takes the common position that the first resurrection refers
to the ascent of the elect souls to heaven to be with Christ at death. This of course
requires expanding the reference to martyrs to include all the elect, a questionable exe-
gesis in itself. But, he also proceeds to interpret numerous other references to resurrec-
tion in the New Testament to refer to this spiritual resurrection, and not the physical
resurrection. Space and time do not permit examining each of these, but note that the
effect of such unrestrained spiritualizing comes awfully close to full preterism.2
3. ibid. p. 184.
11:7ff; 13:7. A very brief period of most
severe persecution. This is Satan’s little
season; the most terrible and also the
final manifestation of the persecuting
power of antichrist.
20:7ff. A very brief period of most
severe persecution; Satan marshals the
army of Gog and Magog against the
Church. This is the Battle of Har-Mege-
don.
11:17,18; 14:14ff. The one and only sec-
ond coming of Christ in judgment.
20:11ff. The one and only second com-
ing of Christ in judgment.
1. James A. Hugues. 1973. “Revelation 20:4-6 and the Question of the Millennium”. West min-
ster Theological Journal 35:3 Spring 1973.
2. See “1 Corinthians 15: Physical Resurrection” on page 1.
TABLE 1. Revelation 11-14 Compared With Revelation 20
Revelation 11-14 Revelation 20
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
270 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
Hugues interprets the resurrection of the rest of the dead to be a non-event, using the
exegesis discussed above that is analogous to the Roman Catholic exegesis for the per-
petual virginity of Mary.
Norman Shepherd1. Shepherd looks to Paul’s use of resurrection as metaphor in
Colossians 2:12, 3:1, and Ephesians 2:6 to interpret the first resurrection of Revelation
20:4 to represent the “raising up” the Christian experiences at baptism (which of course
leads to an amillennial understanding of the thousand years). Seeking how symbols are
used elsewhere in scripture is a good hermeneutic to use, so this is a quite attractive
interpretation.
However, as we saw in the symbolism of the word “harvest”, where we saw it used three
different ways by Jesus, finding a symbolic use one place in scripture is not necessarily
a guarantee of its interpretation in another. The big problem here, as I see it, is the ques-
tionable exegesis of the “rest of the dead” clause that we’ve already encountered. That
is, Shepherd understands the clause “The rest of the dead did not come to life until the
thousand years were finished” to have an implicit “nor did they do so afterwards either”.
We’ve already discussed the drawbacks of this approach.
Meredith B. Kline2. Kline argues that just as the “first” and second deaths are not a
sequence of like events, the first and “second” resurrections are similarly two things of a
different nature. That is, one is spiritual and the other physical. What is a physical
death for the unbeliever is a spiritual resurrection for the believer, and what is a spiritual
death for the unbeliever is a physical life for the believer. This is based in large part on
a rather tortured exegesis of what “first” means in scripture. Kline’s general argument is
that “first” is not used to indicate the first of a series of identical things, but is used in
contrast to “new” or “last” in contexts where the “first” is the world that is passing while
the “new” or “second” is the eternal world to come. Yes, “first” is used in contexts that
refer to the current age that is passing, but it is too much to reach such a technical mean-
ing into the word itself.3
R. Fowler White4. White makes a number of exegetical contentions that he believes
demonstrate that the thousand years of Revelation 20:1-10 must recapitulate the three
and a half years of the previous chapters in general and Revelation 19:11-21 in particu-
lar, hence arguing for Amillennialism. I shall discuss some of the more compelling
here.
1. Norman Shepherd. 1974. “The Resurrections of Revelation 20”. Westminster Theological
Journal 37:1 Fall 1974.
2. Meredith B. Kline. 1975. “The First Resurrection”. Westminster Theological Journal 37:3.
Spring 1975.
3. See also J. Ramsey Michaels. 1976. “The First Resurrection: A Response” Westminster Theo-
logical Journal 39:1. Fall 1976 for a premillennial response. Also Meredith G. Kline. 1976.
“The First Resurrection: A Reaffirmation”. Westminster Theological Journal 39:1 Fall 1976;
and Philp Edgcumbe Hughes. 1977. “The First Resurrection: Another Interpretation”. West -
minster Theological Journal 39:2. Spring 1977.
4. R. Fowler White. 1989. “Reexamining the Evidence for Recapitulation in Rev 20:1-10”. West-
minster Theological Journal 51:2 Fall 1989.
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 271
His first is that the destruction of the nations in Revelation 19:11-21 leaves no nations to
be ruled in Revelation 20:1-10. This reads too much into the prophetic language of
destruction (which is often hyperbolic) in Revelation 19:11-21. In verse 15, we read
“From his mouth extends a sharp sword, so that with it he can strike the nations. He
will rule them with an iron rod, and he stomps the winepress of the furious wrath of
God, the All-Powerful”. If verses 11-21 are about the total extermination of the nations,
it seems pointless to refer to the symbol of the sword coming from his mouth (symbolic
of the Gospel) and to refer to him ruling. What are destroyed are the beast and false
prophet, which we have seen stand for anti-christian political and religious institutions.
If anyone is literal killed here, it is the instruments of these abstractions, and not the
nations as a whole.
White’s second point is that Ezekiel 38-39 are alluded to in both Revelation 19:17-21
and after the thousand years in Revelation 20:7-10. He argues that this indicates that
both conflicts must be the same conflict. If the events of Ezekiel 38-39 could be confi-
dently identified as being identical to the eschatological events in Revelation 19-20,
then this might carry some weight. However, even an ardent amillennialist such as Hen-
driksen understands Ezekiel 38-39 to predict a historical invasion of Israel that took
place nearly three centuries before John’s visions. These visions are picking up symbols
from that passage, the birds eating the flesh in chapter 19, and the names Gog and
Magog in chapter 20. This does not require equating them any more than the elusions to
the wilderness wanderings of Israel in Jesus’ wilderness temptations and the woman
fleeing into the wilderness in Revelation 12 imply that they must be the same event.
White takes the cosmological upheavals as indicating the “cosmic dimensions of escha-
tological divine warfare”. This he thinks indicates they are all signifying the absolute
end. Such hyperbolic cosmological language is used several times in the Old Testa-
ment, and even in the Gospels where it indicates not literal interstellar disturbances, but
the upheaval of several different historical events. There is no justification for taking all
such references in Revelation then to all signify one single eschatological literal
upheaval.
5.5 Postmillennialism
There are many variations of the millennium views. For example H. B. Swete takes a
late date preterist view of Revelation 4-18, seeing the destruction of pagan Rome in the
destruction of the beast, then identifies the millennium as starting with that time.1
If this or some similar interpretation be accepted, the question
remains at what epoch the great chapter in history represented by the
Thousand Years began. An obvious answer would be, ‘With the Con-
version of Constantine, or of the Empire.’ If, however, the visions are
to be regarded as following one another in something like chronologi-
cal order (but see v. 1, note), St John has in view the moment of the
overthrow of the Beast and the False Prophet, i.e. the final break up of
the Roman world-power and its ally, the pagan system of priestcraft
and superstition.
1. H. B. Swete. 1907. The Apocalypse of St. John. p. 263
Defeat of the Dragon (Revelation 20:1-10)
272 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
Reconstructionist post-millennialists generally take the optimistic amillennialist
approach. They thus interpret the beginning and extent of the millennium and the first
resurrection much like amillennialist, usually seeing the first resurrection as the meta-
phorical resurrection of salvation.1 2
Earlier post-millennialists to a different figurative approach to the first resurrection.
Daniel Whitby they took the first resurrection to mean the revival of the martyr spirit,
and thus represent the wold-wide revival that inaugurates the millennium3. This suffers
the same exegetical difficulty of taking the two resurrections to be different in nature
when the objects of the resurrections are two explicitly non-overlapping groups.
5.6 Premillennialism
There are two popular flavors of premillennialism: historic and dispensational. They
may also be described as post-tribulationist and pre-tribulationist respectively.4 The
premillennial viewpoint holds that Christ’s physical return comes before the millen-
nium. The millennium is preceded by a seven year tribulation. The historical premil-
lennial view places this second coming after the seven-year tribulation. This view
would identify the raising of the martyrs here with the resurrection of the saints and rap-
ture of the living church. The martyrs would then be a symbol for all the redeemed.
Dispensationalists believe in a pre-tribulation rapture and resurrection. This event is not
specifically mentioned in Revelation. It basically happens before hand. In fact, Dispen-
sationalists identify a number of eschatological resurrection events:5
•Resurrection and Rapture of the saints before the seven-year tribulation;
•Resurrection of the two witnesses (two literal prophets) in the middle of the tribula-
tion;
•Resurrection of those who are saved and martyred during the tribulation at the end of
the tribulation/beginning of the millennium
•Resurrection and rapture at the end of the millennium
Although the multiplication of resurrection events that aren’t clearly enumerated in
scripture should raise red flags, recall that there are a number of pre-eschatological res-
urrection/rapture events as well6:
1. Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr. 1997. He Shall Have Dominion. Institute for Christian Economics. p.
428, 430. “the binding of Satan continues throughout the Christian era .... it refers to the spiri-
tual resurrection of those who are born again through the grace of God.”.
2. Keith A. Mathison. 1999. Postmillennialism: An Eschatology of Hope. p. 156.
3. Steve Gregg. 1997. Revelation: Four Views. Thomas Nelson.
4. There is also a mid-tribulationist viewpoint, but space precludes interacting with it in detail
here.
5. Roy L. Aldrich. 1971. “Divisions of the First Resurrection”. Bibliotheca Sacra Volume 128
#510.
6. Roy L. Aldrich. 1971. “Divisions of the First Resurrection”. Bibliotheca Sacra Volume 128
#510.
Sorting Through the Confusion
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 273
•Enoch
•Elijah
•Jesus Christ
•Those raised with Christ
The real problem is we see no indication of the physical descent of Jesus to earth to
reign in Revelation. When we do see thrones, they are located in heaven, where Jesus
sits reigning now at the right hand of God. Rather, we should probably see the parousia
symbolized in chapter 21 in the descent of New Jerusalem to the earth.
6.0 Sorting Through the Confusion
We just covered several interpretive options of varying degrees of interdependance and
independance in the first ten verses. We may summarize some of these options thusly to
try to cut through some of the confusion.
The souls of those who had been beheaded:
•Literal martyrs; or,
•Relative clause “who had not worshiped the beast” describes not the martyrs but is
independant clause indicating all Christians; or,
•Symbolic for all Christians.
Came to life:
•Should be translated “lived” (i.e., not a resurrection event); or,
•A Resurrection event that happens before the millennium; or,
•A figurative resurrection of the soul at salvation (like Paul’s metaphorical use); or,
•A spiritual resurrection at death, when the soul goes to heaven to await the resurrec-
tion.
The rest of the dead:
•Physical resurrection after the millennium; or,
•Figurative/spiritual resurrection that never happens, neither during nor after the mil-
lennium.
First Resurrection...Second Death. •
•Both refer to real resurrections and death; or,
•First death is literal and second death figurative/spiritual, while first resurrection is
figurative/spiritual while second resurrection is literal.
White Throne Judgment (Revelation 20:11-15)
274 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
7.0 White Throne Judgment (Revelation 20:11-15)
The Great White Throne
Rev 20:11 Then I saw a large white throne and the one who was seated on it; the earth
and the heaven fled from his presence, and no place was found for them. 20:12 And I
saw the dead, the great and the small, standing before the throne. Then books were
opened, and another book was opened – the book of life. So the dead were judged by
what was written in the books, according to their deeds. 20:13 The sea gave up the dead
that were in it, and Death and Hades gave up the dead that were in them, and each one
was judged according to his deeds. 20:14 Then Death and Hades were thrown into the
lake of fire. This is the second death – the lake of fire. 20:15 If anyone’s name was not
found written in the book of life, that person was thrown into the lake of fire.
In the judgment scene, there is a set of books with everyone’s deeds, which numerous
passages in scripture make clear would send everyone to hell if we were judged solely
by them. The other book is the book of life. By these everyone is judged. If your name
is in the book of life, you’ll partake in the new heaven and earth of the following two
chapters, else your deeds will result in your being cast into the lake of fire.
A general resurrection is in view here. This resurrection is a physical resurrection.
Hades was the abode of the souls of the dead (Hades). The Sea and Death giving up the
dead refers to the bodies to life, even those who received no proper burial. The resur-
rected bodies then are cast into the lake of fire here they experience a second death.
8.0 Isaiah
Pre- and Postmillennialists see hints of the millennial expectation in the Old Testament.1
Amillennialists deal with these passages by spiritualizing the message to be something
other than a literal hope. The problem with this is the genre of the passages in question
is not apocalyptic, so the amillennial approach to these passages is hermeneutically
questionable. Here we shall briefly examine a couple of the passages in Isaiah.
8.1 Isaiah 2:1-5
The Future Glory of Jerusalem
Is 2:1 Here is the message about Judah and Jerusalem that was revealed to Isaiah son of
Amoz.
2:2 In the future
the mountain of the Lord’s temple will endure
as the most important of mountains,
and will be the most prominent of hills.5
All the nations will stream to it,
2:3 many peoples will come and say,
“Come, let us go up to the Lord’s mountain,
to the temple of the God of Jacob,
so he can teach us his requirements,
1. Mathison 1999 is a decent survey of these passages.
Isaiah
Revelation 19-20: The Millennium 275
and we can follow his standards.”
For Zion will be the center for moral instruction;
the Lord will issue edicts from Jerusalem.
2:4 He will judge disputes between nations;
he will settle cases for many peoples.
They will beat their swords into plowshares,
and their spears into pruning hooks.
Nations will not take up the sword against other nations,
and they will no longer train for war.
2:5 O descendants of Jacob,
come, let us walk in the Lord’s guiding light.
In its context, Isaiah holds up to Israel a picture of an idyllic future. It is not referring to
a post-consummation future in heaven as there are still nations. Premillennialists see
the reference to a temple here as a prediction of the reestablishment of the temple wor-
ship in the future. But it is New Testament teaching that Jesus fulfilled the sacrificial
requirements of the Old Testament law, and even goes further to teach that Jesus is the
temple (John 2:19-21).
Isaiah then contrasts that idyllic picture with the (then) present reality in verses 6-9, and
threatens God’s judgment in the remainder of the chapter. This parallels the develop-
ment of events in Revelation 11 and 20. The present age is evil, and battles the two wit-
nesses, even killing them. There are judgments against that evil and finally, after some
number are killed when the two witnesses are resurrected, men praise God rather than
blaspheming Him. After the beast and friends are thus defeated and Satan is bound,
with have a millennial kingdom that would seem to conform to the idyllic picture of
verses 1-6.
8.2 Isaiah 65:16-25
Is 65:16 Whoever pronounces a blessing in the earth
will do so in the name of the faithful God;
whoever makes an oath in the earth
will do so in the name of the faithful God.
For past problems will be forgotten;
I will no longer think about them.
65:17 For look, I am ready to create
new heavens and a new earth!
The former ones will not be remembered;
no one will think about them anymore.
65:18 But be happy and rejoice forevermore
over what I am about to create!
For look, I am ready to create Jerusalem to be a source of joy,
and her people to be a source of happiness.
65:19 Jerusalem will bring me joy,
and my people will bring me happiness.
The sound of weeping or cries of sorrow
will never be heard in her again.
65:20 Never again will one of her infants live just a few days
or an old man die before his time.
Indeed, no one will die before the age of a hundred,
anyone who fails to reach the age of a hundred will be considered cursed.
Isaiah
276 Revelation 19-20: The Millennium
65:21 They will build houses and live in them;
they will plant vineyards and eat their fruit.
65:22 No longer will they build a house only to have another live in it,
or plant a vineyard only to have another eat its fruit,
for my people will live as long as trees,
and my chosen ones will enjoy to the fullest what they have produced.
65:23 They will not work in vain,
or give birth to children that will experience disaster.
For the Lord will bless their children
and their descendants.
65:24 Before they even call out, I will respond;
while they are still speaking, I will hear.
65:25 A wolf and a lamb will graze together;
a lion, like an ox, will eat straw,
and a snake’s food will be dirt.
They will no longer injure or destroy
on my entire royal mountain,” says the Lord.
Here, God promises to create a “New heavens and a new earth”, but it is not the escha-
tological new heavens and earth of Revelation 21-22. That is, it is not the eternal state.
It is an idyllic state that would seem to correspond with the millennium as people do still
die eventually (verse 20). The amillennial view equates the two new heavens and new
earth and must dismiss verse 20 as a poetic description of the eternal state.1 Such sym-
bolism strikes me as unlikely, even if the passage in question were apocalyptic in form
(which it isn’t). If such language is less than literal at all, it would more naturally be
hyperbolic, exaggerating life spans, not short changing them.
1. Robert B. Strimple in Darrel L. Bock, ed. 1999. Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond.
Zondervan.
277
Revelation 21-22: The
New Heaven and New
Earth
Whatever one’s millennial view, the final
result is the same.
1.0 The New Heaven and New Earth (Revelation 21:1-8)
A New Heaven and a New Earth
Rev 21:1 Then I saw a new heaven and a new earth, for the first heaven and earth had
ceased to exist, and the sea existed no more. 21:2 And I saw the holy city – the new
Jerusalem – descending out of heaven from God, made ready like a bride adorned for
her husband. 21:3 And I heard a loud voice from the throne saying: “Look! The resi-
dence of God is among human beings. He will live among them, and they will be his
people, and God himself will be with them. 21:4 He will wipe away every tear from
their eyes, and death will not exist any more – or mourning, or crying, or pain, for the
former things have ceased to exist.”
21:5 And the one seated on the throne said: “Look! I am making all things new!” Then
he said to me, “Write it down, because these words are reliable and true.” 21:6 He also
said to me, “It is done! I am the Alpha and the Omega, the beginning and the end. To the
one who is thirsty I will give water free of charge from the spring of the water of life.
21:7 The one who conquers will inherit these things, and I will be his God and he will
be my son. 21:8 But to the cowards, unbelievers, detestable persons, murderers, the sex-
ually immoral, and those who practice magic spells, idol worshipers, and all those who
lie, their place will be in the lake that burns with fire and sulfur. That is the second
death.”
A new heaven and a new earth. With the apocalyptic literary form, our default
assumption regarding visual things is that they are symbolic. So we must ask what
might the words of verse 1 “really” mean. To answer this, I think we need to look at the
resurrection process.
Jesus’ resurrection body was a literal body. The New Testament goes to pains to
emphasis this. See Luke 24:36-43 where Jesus invites the apostles to touch his wounds
and eats with them to prove to them that he back in the flesh. Paul says that the transfor-
New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:9-22:5)
278 Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and New Earth
mation of our bodies will be like Jesus’ in Philippians 3:20, and, in Romans 8:19-23, he
links “the redemption of our bodies” (resurrection) with setting creation “free from the
bondage of decay”.
We should therefore probably conclude that John’s description of the annihilation of the
old heaven and earth and the appearance of a new one is not strictly literal, but a visual-
ization of a hyperbole, much like Isaiah’s hyperbole in Isaiah 65:17ff. It represents
instead a renewing of all creation, a resurrection-transformation corresponding to the
transformation of our bodies at resurrection into incorruptible “spiritual” bodies (1
Corinthians 15:42-44).
No more sea. Similarly, the description of an absence of a sea has symbolic signifi-
cance. The sea is where the beast came from (Revelation 13:1), and the whore of Baby-
lon sat on “many waters” (Revelation 17:1) which are explicitly identified as “peoples,
multitudes, nations, and languages” (Revelation 17:15). The absence of the sea here
may symbolize the unity of the post-consummation church as one people, one multi-
tude, one nation, and one language.
New Jerusalem. The new Jerusalem descends from heaven and is “like a bride”, a sym-
bol we’ve already seen as representing the church.
Literalism and Spiritualizing. We must avoid two extremes when interpreting this last
passage. One is an extreme literalism often encountered in Dispensationalism. John is
not getting a plain objective view of the after life (or more precisely, life after life after
death1). Symbolism is the rule, rather than the exception, in apocalyptic literature. If a
symbol is used as such elsewhere in scripture, then it usually is being used in a similar
way in Revelation. Even the most ardent literalists resort to identifying certain images
as symbols here.
On the other extreme, uncontrolled spiritualizing can bend the passage to say most any-
thing one wants. The most extreme example of this is full preterism, which denies any
reality to a future resurrection, looking forward to only a disembodied “resurrection” at
death. The best (and pretty much only) control on interpretation is scripture itself.
2.0 New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:9-22:5)
The New Jerusalem Descends
Rev 21:9 Then one of the seven angels who had the seven bowls full of the seven final
plagues came and spoke to me, saying, “Come, I will show you the bride, the wife of the
Lamb!” 21:10 So he took me away in the Spirit to a huge, majestic mountain and
showed me the holy city, Jerusalem, descending out of heaven from God. 21:11 The city
possesses the glory of God; its brilliance is like a precious jewel, like a stone of crystal-
clear jasper.27 21:12 It has a massive, high wall with twelve gates, with twelve angels at
the gates, and the names of the twelve tribes of the nation of Israel are written on the
gates. 21:13 There are three gates on the east side, three gates on the north side, three
gates on the south side and three gates on the west side. 21:14 The wall of the city has
1. A favorite turn of phrase of N. T. Wright.
New Jerusalem (Revelation 21:9-22:5)
Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and New Earth 279
twelve foundations, and on them are the twelve names of the twelve apostles of the
Lamb.
21:15 The angel who spoke to me had a golden measuring rod with which to measure
the city and its foundation stones and wall. 21:16 Now the city is laid out as a square, its
length and width the same. He measured the city with the measuring rod at fourteen
hundred miles (its length and width and height are equal). 21:17 He also measured its
wall, one hundred forty-four cubits according to human measurement, which is also the
angel’s. 21:18 The city’s wall is made of jasper and the city is pure gold, like transparent
glass. 21:19 The foundations of the city’s wall are decorated with every kind of precious
stone. The first foundation is jasper, the second sapphire, the third agate, the fourth
emerald, 21:20 the fifth onyx, the sixth carnelian, the seventh chrysolite, the eighth
beryl, the ninth topaz, the tenth chrysoprase, the eleventh jacinth, and the twelfth ame-
thyst. 21:21 And the twelve gates are twelve pearls – each one of the gates is made from
just one pearl! The main street of the city is pure gold, like transparent glass.
21:22 Now I saw no temple in the city, because the Lord God – the All-Powerful – and
the Lamb are its temple. 21:23 The city does not need the sun or the moon to shine on it,
because the glory of God lights it up, and its lamp is the Lamb. 21:24 The nations will
walk by its light and the kings of the earth will bring their grandeur into it. 21:25 Its
gates will never be closed during the day (and there will be no night there). 21:26 They
will bring the grandeur and the wealth of the nations into it, 21:27 but nothing ritually
unclean will ever enter into it, nor anyone who does what is detestable or practices
falsehood, but only those whose names are written in the Lamb’s book of life.
22:1 Then the angel showed me the river of the water of life – water as clear as crystal –
pouring out from the throne of God and of the Lamb, 22:2 flowing down the middle of
the city’s main street. On each side of the river is the tree of life producing twelve kinds
of fruit, yielding its fruit every month of the year. Its leaves are for the healing of the
nations. 22:3 And there will no longer be any curse, and the throne of God and the
Lamb will be in the city. His servants will worship him, 22:4 and they will see his face,
and his name will be on their foreheads. 22:5 Night will be no more, and they will not
need the light of a lamp or the light of the sun, because the Lord God will shine on
them, and they will reign forever and ever.
New Jerusalem. The city is identified as “the bride, the wife of the Lamb”, that is, the
church. A glorious picture is painted of it. The image of the church as a breath-taking
city is a symbolic manifestation of the purified and redeemed church, much like a
theophany is a symbolic manifestation of the glory of the invisible God. For the most
part, we need to be satisfied with the overall impact of its architecture without identify-
ing it as a literal place one the one hand or identifying deep significance to each individ-
ual little aspect of the images on the other, although sometimes we can identify, or at
least suspect, symbolic meanings to the incidental details.
The twelve gates, and the twelve foundations (presumably of the wall segments con-
necting the gates together) are named for the twelve tribes and the twelve apostles.
This again represents the two-fold witness: the Old and New Testaments, the two-edged
sword.
The dimensions of the city (12,000 stadia) combine the symbolically significant number
12 (usually associated with divinely ordained administration) with the number 1,000.
The number 12 also appears in the size of the walls (144 cubits, or the square of 12).
The cubic shape may suggests the shape of the holy of holies. If so, it represents the fact
Epilog (Revelation 22:6-20)
280 Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and New Earth
that the resurrected church is purified enough to be allowed to dwell where before only
the high priest was allowed to enter only one day a year.
The sheer size of the city strongly suggests it is not a literal objective description of an
actual future city as it could hardly fit on the earth (and certainly not within the earth’s
atmosphere!). The diagonal from one corner to the opposite would exceed the diameter
of the moon.
No Temple. No temple is in the city because the literal temple had served as a sort of
meeting ground between sinful man and a holy God where the former could obtain for-
giveness. Since not only did Jesus pay the price for our sins, but in our transformed
bodies we will no longer be sinful, such a “neutral territory” is superfluous.
No sun or moon to shine on it. The point the images regarding light is probably not
that God will be a replacement for the sun, moon, and light bulbs in any literal sense.
Rather, this is almost certainly imagery intended to invoke to common metaphorical
usage of the word “light” for the understanding, knowledge, and wisdom that comes
from God.
River of the water of life. Similarly, the river and trees of life are intended to invoke
the metaphorical uses of water in the Bible as well as Eden. The later is especially in
view in the reference to the curse being removed. Ezekiel 47 envisions a river coming
from the temple as well. There it is clearly symbolic as is grows in size at an impossible
rate and turns the sea to fresh water. In John 4:10-18, Jesus clarifies this metaphor by
identifying the fountain of water as the message of salvation that he brings “springing
up to eternal life”.
Nations. Some interpreters have, on the basis of the references to nations in verses
21:24 and 22:2, argued that 21:9-22:5, 14-15 are a recapitulation of the millennium.1
However, Revelation 22:5 makes it clear that eternity, and not just the millennium, are
in view (“... and they will reign forever and ever”). The use of the word nations here is
more likely an abbreviated reference to “persons from every nation, tribe, people, and
language” (Revelation 7:9). That is, it indicates the church as made up of people of all
nations: Jews and Gentiles. The reference to healing in Revelation 22:5 need not indi-
cate illness in the eternal state, but healing from the illnesses (figurative and literal) of
the current age that is achieved when we are transformed (1 Corinthians 15:42, 51) into
the eternal state.
3.0 Epilog (Revelation 22:6-20)
A Final Reminder
Rev 22:6 Then the angel said to me, “These words are reliable and true. The Lord, the
God of the spirits of the prophets, has sent his angel to show his servants what must
happen soon.”
1. Expositors on Rev 20:1-6.
Epilog (Revelation 22:6-20)
Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and New Earth 281
22:7 (Look! I am coming soon!
Blessed is the one who keeps the words of the prophecy expressed in this book.)
22:8 I, John, am the one who heard and saw these things, and when I heard and saw
them, I threw myself down to worship at the feet of the angel who was showing them to
me. 22:9 But he said to me, “Do not do this! I am a fellow servant with you and with
your brothers the prophets, and with those who obey the words of this book. Worship
God!” 22:10 Then he said to me, “Do not seal up the words of the prophecy contained
in this book, because the time is near. 22:11 The evildoer must continue to do evil, and
the one who is morally filthy must continue to be filthy. The one who is righteous must
continue to act righteously, and the one who is holy must continue to be holy.”
22:12 (Look! I am coming soon,
and my reward is with me to pay each one according to what he has done!
22:13 I am the Alpha and the Omega,
the first and the last,
the beginning and the end!)
22:14 Blessed are those who wash their robes so they can have access to the tree of life
and can enter into the city by the gates. 22:15 Outside are the dogs and the sorcerers and
the sexually immoral, and the murderers, and the idolaters and everyone who loves and
practices falsehood!
22:16 “I, Jesus, have sent my angel to testify to you about these things for the churches.
I am the root and the descendant of David, the bright morning star!” 22:17 And the
Spirit and the bride say, “Come!” And let the one who hears say: “Come!” And let the
one who is thirsty come; let the one who wants it take the water of life free of charge.
22:18 I testify to the one who hears the words of the prophecy contained in this book: If
anyone adds to them, God will add to him the plagues described in this book. 22:19 And
if anyone takes away from the words of this book of prophecy, God will take away his
share in the tree of life and in the holy city that are described in this book.
22:20 The one who testifies to these things says, “Yes, I am coming soon!” Amen!
Come, Lord Jesus! 22:21 The grace of the Lord Jesus be with all.
The speaker shifts rapidly in this section. It was confusing, even to John, who once
again threw himself down to worship at the feet of an angel. The speakers are the angel,
Jesus, and John.
The angel speaks in verse 6, but in verse 7 it is evidently Jesus who speaks. In verse 8,
John addresses the reader directly. The angel speaks in verses 9-11. Jesus is speaking
again in verses 12-13. It is not clear who is speaking in verses 14-15. etc.
Obey. In verse 7, we are told that those who keep the words of the prophecy are blessed,
and in verse 9, they angel refers to “those who obey the words of this book. Prophecy is
a different genre than law, but it demands a response of “how then should we live?”1
We do not live in a “eat, drink and be merry, for tomorrow we die” world. Actions have
eternal consequences.
Do not seal up the words. Verse 10 contrasts with Daniel 12:4, 9, where Daniel is told
“close up these words and seal the book until the time of the end ... for these matters are
1. I’m not sure where this quote comes from.
Epilog (Revelation 22:6-20)
282 Revelation 21-22: The New Heaven and New Earth
closed and sealed until the time of the end”. However, what this sealing might actually
mean is not certain.
The evil doer must continue to do evil. That the course of history is under God’s con-
trol is a major theme of Revelation. Verse 11 would seem to be an expression of this —
that history, with all it’s good and evil, is going to unfold as planned.
Alpha and Omega. Verse 14 reiterates the merisms found in Revelation 1:8 (spoken by
God) and Revelation 1:17 (spoken by Christ). Spoken by Christ here, they are a clear
claim to deity. Similarly, verse 16, in which Jesus claims to be the root and the descen-
dant of David makes claim to his dual nature as both God (the root, or source, of David)
and man (the descendant of David).
If anyone adds ... And if anyone takes away. It is tempting to ignore Revelation due
to its difficulties. But to do so would be to effective excise it from scripture. That
would be to effectively call upon oneself the curse of verses 18-19. This is scripture and
so we must study it.
Amen.
283
Revelation: Epilog
A brief review.
1.0 An Block Diagram of Revelation
Revelation is a bewildering array of visions of strange animals, beasts, and people. The
block diagram below attempts to bring some order to the more significant literary struc-
tures within the book without getting bogged down in too many details. In it, the major
divisions are broken out with bold lines:
•The Letters (Rev 1-3)
•The Seals and Trumpets (Rev 4-11)
•The Beasts (Rev 12-20)
•Eternity (Rev 21-22)
Within each of these, the patterns of seven with their interludes are shown as smaller
boxes within. The sizes of the individual boxes are not proportional to the amount of
scripture they represent. Some represent only a couple verses (to show the structure of
Interpretive Issues
284 Revelation: Epilog
sevens) and others a couple of chapters. The later could have been broke out in more
detail, but the result would have been confusion rather than clarification.
2.0 Interpretive Issues
We have seen that each of the four major sections presents its own unique interpretive
difficulties and that there are multiple schools around each major section. Yet regard-
less of which school is right, the message that God is in control is still seen.
2.1 The Letters
While some interpreters have seen the seven churches as being symbolic for the church
during seven sequential ages of church history, we saw that the letters were really writ-
ten to seven actual churches in what is now Turkey. But, the problems of these seven
churches are varied enough that any church of any age is likely to be able to see them-
selves somewhere in these. Thus, the reformers were not really that wrong in seeing the
Roman church or the reformation church amongst their number.
2.2 The Seals and Trumpets
We saw on the basis of Revelation 12, and on the basis of the non-specific generality of
the visions themselves, that the seals and trumpets represent the situation of the world
all throughout the church age. The tribulation began with Christ’s crucifixion, contin-
ues today, and will likely continue for some time to come.
TABLE 1. Block Diagram of Revelation
Introduction to Letters (Rev 1)
to Ephesus
(Rev 2:1-7)
Theophany (Rev 4-5)
Seal 1 (Rev 6:1-2)
White Horse
Trumpet 1 (Rev 8:2-7)
on Earth
The Dragon (Rev 12)
Eternity (Rev 21-22)
to Smyrna
(Rev 2:8-11)
Seal 2 (Rev 6:3-4)
Red Horse
Trumpet 2 (Rev 8:8-9)
on Sea
Seven Headed Beast
(Rev 13:1-10)
to Pergamum
(Rev 2:12-17)
Seal 3 (Rev 6:5-6)
Black Horse
Trumpet 3 (Rev 8:10-11)
on Rivers and Springs
Two Horned Beast
(Rev 13:11-18)
to Thyatira
(Rev 2:18-29)
Seal 4 (Rev 6:7-8)
Pale Horse
Trumpet 4 (Rev 8:12-13)
on Sky
Seven Short Visions
(Rev 14-15)
to Sardis
(Rev 3:1-6)
Seal 5 (Rev 6:9-11)
Martyrs under Altar
Trumpet 5 (Rev 9:1-12)
Locusts
Seven Bowls of Wrath
(Rev 16)
to Philadelphia
(Rev 3:7-13)
Seal 6 (Rev 6:12-17)
Cosmological Signs
Trumpet 6 (Rev 9:13-21)
Army Whore of Babylon (Rev 17)
144,000 Sealed
(Rev 7:1-8)
Small Scroll
(Rev 10)
Babylon Destroyed (Rev 18)
to Laodicea
(Rev 3:14-22)
Great Multitude
(Rev 7:9-17)
Temple and Two
Witnesses
(Rev 11:1-14)
Beast and False Prophet Cast
into Lake of Fire (Rev 19)
Seal 7 (Rev 8:1)
Silence for Half Hour
Trumpet 7 (Rev 11:15-19)
Kingdom of God
Dragon Bound 1,000 years &
Cast into Lake of Fire (Rev 20)
Interpretive Issues
Revelation: Epilog 285
This period was represented by 1,260 days/42 months/3 ½ years as that period of time
had recurred several times in Israel’s past as a period of particular suffering. We saw
that the Preterists, who take this section as referring to the Jewish War and the destruc-
tion of Jerusalem in 70 AD have made the mistake of mistaking the archetype for the
type. That is, the destruction of Jerusalem, an event that took place about 25 years
before Revelation was written, provided many of the images in this and the following
section that are used to symbolize or typify the tribulation of this age, but those source-
images are not themselves the things being predicted.
While the Historicist is right in seeing events of history and his own time in these pas-
sages, his mistake is in trying to find one-to-one correspondences between images in the
visions and historical events, when the truth is that the correspondences are many-to-
many. Each vision represents events that happen repeatedly and/or continuously in his-
tory. And they will continue to happen in the foreseeable future, and not just in some
future seven year period as futurists hold.
2.3 The Beasts
We saw a chiasmic structure in the visions about the beasts. The Dragon is Satan and
pursues Israel and her children, the church throughout the tribulation. It’s agents are the
seven headed beast, representing political power, the two horned beast, also called the
false prophet, representing false religious power, and the whore, representing economic
power (greed). Some of the symbolism comes from the manifestation of the beast of
John’s time, the Roman Empire, which some Preterists again mistake for the exclusive
target of the prophecies rather than as the archetype for all evil political powers. Preter-
ists are split regarding whether the whore is Jerusalem or Pagan Rome.
We saw that the tribulation will intensify until the showdown at Armaggedon, which
may not be a literal martial battle. The outcome is the destruction of Babylon (the
whore), and the casting of the beast and false prophet into the lake of fire.
The binding of Satan for a thousand years is difficult. I think it represents a great
revival that will be the outcome of the battle of Armageddon. Others think it happened
at Christ’s crucifixion (Amillennialists and some Postmillennialists), and others think it
will happen when Christ returns to rule for a thousand years on earth. The end of the
thousand years is marked by the final judgment, and, if Christ didn’t return already at
the beginning, the return of Christ to raise the dead (Amillennial and Postmillennial
views, respectively).
2.4 Eternity
Finally, eternity is represented by a huge cubical city coming down from heaven. While
some press the imagery as literally as possible, it is more likely images such as the huge
city, the absence of a sea, streets of gold, etc. are more symbolic in nature. The true
nature of our perfected bodies and restored creation is beyond what we can conceive of
today, so any language used to describe it must be inadequate and abstract.
Interpretive Issues
286 Revelation: Epilog
287
Revelation: Bibliography
Select Works cited or consulted.
1.0 Bible Translations
ASV.
New American Bible [NAB].
New English Translation [NET]. Unless otherwise noted, all scripture quotations are
from NET, second beta edition.
New Revised Standard Version [NRSV].
2.0 Books
Ralpha H. Alexander. 1986. “Ezekiel” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. Expositor’s Bible
Commentary. Zondervan.
D. E. Aune. 2002. Vol. 52C: Word Biblical Commentary : Revelation 17-22.
Darrel L. Bock, ed. 1999. Three Views on the Millennium and Beyond. Zondervan.
Loraine Boettner. 1957. The Millennium. Presbyterian and Reformed Publishing.
James H. Charlesworth. 1983. The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha: Apocalyptic Liter-
ature & Testaments. Doubleday.
David Chilton. 1987. The Great Tribulation. Dominion Press.
Journal Articles
288 Revelation: Bibliography
Kenneth L. Gentry, Jr. 1997. He Shall Have Dominion. Institute for Christian Econom-
ics.
Steve Gregg. 1997. Revelation: Four Views. Thomas Nelson Publishers.
William Hendriksen. 1967. More Than Conquerors. Baker Books.
Alan F. Johnson. 1981. “Revelation” in Frank E. Gaebelein, ed. Expositors Bible Com-
mentary. Vol 12. Zondervan.
Paul L. Maier. 1999. Eusebius: The Church History. Kregel Publications.
Keith A. Mathison. 1999. Postmillennialism: An Eschatology of Hope. Presbyterian
and Reformed Publishing.
Swansen. 1997. A Dictionary of Biblical Languages: Greek. Logos Research Systems.
H. B. Swete. 1907. The Apocalypse of St. John. The Macmillan Company.
Thomas Nelson Publishers. 1996. Nelson's complete book of Bible maps & charts : Old
and New Testaments.
3.0 Journal Articles
Roy L. Aldrich. 1971. “Divisions of the First Resurrection”. Bibliotheca Sacra Volume
128 #510.
James A. Hugues. 1973. “Revelation 20:4-6 and the Question of the Millennium”.
Westminster Theological Journal 35:3 Spring 1973.
Philp Edgcumbe Hughes. 1977. “The First Resurrection: Another Interpretation”. West-
minster Theological Journal 39:2. Spring 1977
Meredith B. Kline. 1975. “The First Resurrection”. Westminster Theological Journal
37:3. Spring 1975.
Meredith G. Kline. 1976. “The First Resurrection: A Reaffirmation”. Westminster
Theological Journal 39:1 Fall 1976
David J. MacLeod. “The Four Horsemen Of Apocalypse”. Emmaus Journal Volume 1.
Winter 1991
J. Ramsey Michaels. 1976. “The First Resurrection: A Response” Westminster Theolog-
ical Journal 39:1. Fall 1976
Norman Shepherd. 1974. “The Resurrections of Revelation 20”. Westminster Theologi-
cal Journal 37:1 Fall 1974.
Other
Revelation: Bibliography 289
R. Fowler White. 1989. “Reexamining the Evidence for Recapitulation in Rev 20:1-10”.
Westminster Theological Journal 51:2 Fall 1989.
4.0 Other
“Parthians” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
“Armageddon” in Anchor Bible Dictionary.
Analog: Science Fiction and Fact. Nov. 2005.
Other
290 Revelation: Bibliography
291
Subject Index
Numerics
1 Enoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
1 Enoch 37-71 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
1 Maccabees . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
1,260 days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218, 224
144,000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209, 234, 238
1QM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
1QS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
1QSa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
2 Baruch . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
4 Ezra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
4Q174 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
4Q246 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
4Q285 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
5 Sibyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
62 “weeks” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 54
666 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
7 “weeks” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
70 “weeks” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
70 AD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
70 weeks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
70 years captivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A
abomination . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 57, 60
abomination of desolation. . . . . . . . 151
Abyss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
abyss . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Adam. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 10
adultery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253, 254
Aeneid. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
Aeschylus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Ahaz . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Alexander the Great45, 47, 48, 58, 59, 77, 156
allegory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Alpha and Omega . . . . . . 184, 185, 282
altar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
amillennial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
amillennialism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82, 268
amillennialist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Ammon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Amos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 207
Ancient of Days . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 59
angel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 41, 66, 67
angels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
annihilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 240
Anointed One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
anointed one . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 54
anthologist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Antichrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
antichrist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 210
antichrists . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Antiochus II Theos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Antiochus III the Great . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Antiochus IV. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152, 268
Antiochus IV Ephiphanes. . . . . . . . . 49
Antiochus IV Epiphanes . 45, 47, 50, 59
Antiquities. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
anti-Semitism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
anti-supernatural bias . . . . . . . . . . . 113
antitype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
apocalypse. . . . . . . 41, 47, 66, 179, 277
apocalyptic . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 142, 155
Apocrypha. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
apocrypha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
apologetics . . 1, 41, 111, 169, 175, 209
apostles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 22, 23
Aramaic Apolcypse . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
292 Subject Index
archetype . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
archetypie . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Armageddon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Armeggedon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Asia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
asleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 11
authorship . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
B
Baal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78, 234
Babylon26, 42, 44, 57, 72, 154, 207, 231, 239, 253, 256
Babylonian Empire . . . . . . . . . . 57, 156
Babylonian exile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Balaam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
banquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89, 262
baptism for the dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
bar Kokhba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
Baruch. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
battles of kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
bear . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 231, 232
beast . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 57, 231
beasts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 45, 46
Berenice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
birth pains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
blacksmiths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Boanerges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
body of Christ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
bowls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Branch of David . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 89
brass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
breastplates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
bride . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262, 279
brothers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
C
calendar . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Caligula. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164, 172
Cambyses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Canaanites . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
cataclysm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Catullus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
CD. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
change . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
chiasmic structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
chimera . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Chosen One. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Christ’s resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 7
Christus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
church . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22, 248, 279
church militant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
City on Seven Hills . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
civil war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
clay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Clement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Clement of Alexandria . . . . . . . . . . 177
Cleopatra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
clouds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 184
come . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
coming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Commentaries on Isaiah . . . . . . . . . . 88
communion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 80
Community Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
completed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 25, 41, 65
contradictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
cornerstone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 23
cosmological signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
creed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
crowns. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Cults . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Cyrus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 58
D
Da 11
36-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Damascus Document . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Dan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Daniel22, 41, 152, 155, 172, 180, 184, 231
Darius I Hystaspas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
date . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
David. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 192
Davidic Messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 89
day. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
day of judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
day of the LORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
day of the Lord . . . . . . . . . . . . 170, 171
dead. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 266
Dead Sea Scrolls . . . 88, 91, 95, 98, 180
death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6, 10
decay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
deceive . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
deception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
demythologization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Dialog with Trypho. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
disciple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
disciples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
disembodied souls. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
distress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Domitian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
doomsday cult. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
doxologies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
doxology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183, 248
dragon . . . . . . . . . . . 224, 232, 253, 263
E
eagle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 231
earthly body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
earthquake. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Edom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 155
Egypt. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 57, 58, 213
Elect One . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
Elijah. . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 219, 234, 273
emperor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
empty tomb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
end. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Enoch . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 99, 180, 273
environmentalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
Ephesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Subject Index 293
Ephraim. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 78, 209
Eschatology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Essene . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
eternal destruction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
eternal gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
eternal kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
eternal state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 240
eternity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Ethiopic Apocalypse of Enoch . . . . . 91
Euphrates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
European Union . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
Eusebius . . 85, 113, 114, 136, 153, 257
evangelism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
everlasting kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
exile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Exodus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 213
expulsion from Rome . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Ezekiel105, 180, 196, 210, 216, 263, 267
Ezekiel's temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Ezra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95, 96
F
False messiahs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
false messiahs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
false prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
false prophet.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
famine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147
Feast of Tabernacles . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
final “week” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
First and Last . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
first resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . 265, 266
First Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
firstfruits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
flesh. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 11
flesh and blood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
flesh and bones . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Florilegium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
forgery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
forgiveness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
forty-two months. . . . . . . . . . . 218, 233
foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 23
four beasts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156, 180
four horsemen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
full preterism. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Full Preterist . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 12, 260
futurist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
G
Gaius Popilius Laenas. . . . . . . . . . . . 50
gathering the elect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
general resurrection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
General Scopos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Genesis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
genre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 178
Gentiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
geographic upheavals . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
ghost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 9, 10, 12
Gnosticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166, 171
goat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 56
God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
Gog and Magog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
gold . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
gospel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3, 178
great tribulation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Greece . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 56, 77, 231
Greek. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Greek Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Greek Empires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
guests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
H
hands and feet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
harvest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
head of the body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
heads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 232
heavenly body. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Hell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
heresy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
hermeneutics . . . . . 25, 41, 65, 103, 181
Herod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Herod the Great. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Hippolytus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
historical context. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
historical Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Historicist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
historicist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
history . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 66
Holy Ghost Greek . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
holy ones. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Holy Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
horn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56, 91
horns . 44, 55, 56, 58, 68, 231, 232, 233
horseman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Hosea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
hyperbole . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 29, 30
hyper-preterist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
I
idealist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
idiom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
idleness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165, 175
illiterate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
immanent . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
immortal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
immortality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
imperishable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
incarnation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
interlude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
interludes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
intermediate state . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
Interpreter of the Law . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Iraneaus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Irenaeus. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145, 177
iron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 57
iron rod . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Isaiah84, 88, 104, 153, 180, 191, 207, 274
Israel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
294 Subject Index
J
Jamnia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Jehoiachin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Jehovah Witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Jeremiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
Jerusalem20, 60, 67, 75, 77, 84, 90, 96, 153, 177, 178, 192, 219,
224, 233, 257
Jesus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 77, 80
Jewish Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
Jewish War . . . . . . . . . . . 136, 147, 178
Jews. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Jezebel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Job. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
Joel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105, 207
John, presbyter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
Joseph . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Josephus . . . . 92, 93, 94, 136, 147, 153
Joshua . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 73
Judah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77, 78
judgment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 221
Justin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 113
Justin Martyr . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
K
key of David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
king of the north . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 56
king of the south . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 56
kingdom . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221, 231
Kingdom of God . . . . 41, 42, 51, 59, 85
kingdom of God . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Kings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Kittim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
KJV . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
L
Lake of Fire. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Lamb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 238, 279
lamb . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Lamentations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
language . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
languages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Laodicea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
last day . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Lazarus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Lazarus and the Rich Man . . . . . . . 170
leopard . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 56, 231, 232
letter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Liberal Christianity . . . . . . . . . . . . 1, 12
Lion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
lion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 231, 232
literal fulfillment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
literary critical. . . . . . . . . . . . . 181, 232
literary criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
locust. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
locusts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Logos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Lucius Cornelius Scipio defeats . . . . 49
Luke-Acts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
M
Maccabean revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
Magog . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Malachi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
man of lawlessness . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
martyrs . . . . . . . . . . 207, 265, 272, 273
Medes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
Media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Medo-Persia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
Medo-Persian Empire45, 46, 47, 48, 58, 156
Megiddo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
mental illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
merchants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Merodach-baladan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Messiah. . . . . . . . . . . 17, 77, 96, 98, 99
messiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54, 57
Messiah of Aaron . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Messiah of Israel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Messianic banquet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Messianic Rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Meta . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
meta-narrative. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
metaphor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 78
metonymy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
Michael . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Midrash on the Last Days . . . . . . . . . 88
Midrash Tehillim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
millenium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
millennarian . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Millennial eschatologies . . . . . . . . . . 82
millennial kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
millennium . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 182, 259
mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
Moab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
moon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Morning Star. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
mortal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Moses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Most High . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
Mount Gerizim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Mount Gerizm. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Mount of Olives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Mount Zion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
mountain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
multitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
myth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26, 66
mythology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
N
name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
nation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
nations. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224, 278, 280
natural body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 9
natural man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Nebuchadnezzar . . . . . . . . . 42, 55, 180
Nebuchadnezzar'. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Nebuchadnezzer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Nero 136, 147, 148, 178, 219, 232, 235
Nero redivivus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
new heaven and a new earth . . . . . . 277
Subject Index 295
New Jerusalem . . 18, 22, 192, 278, 279
new song . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
new songs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Nicolaitans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 190
non-physical resurrection . . . . . . . . . . 1
O
Obadiah. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
objective truth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
offering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Olivet Discourse55, 60, 85, 174, 207, 242
Onias III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
open theism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Origen . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
outline . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
over-spiritualizing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
P
pagans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
papacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
Papias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113, 115
parables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
parousia. . . . . . . . . . 163, 164, 165, 242
Parthian Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Parthians . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
Patmos. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
pattern . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Paul . . . . . . . . . 108, 115, 163, 184, 189
peace . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Pentecost . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
people . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
peoples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
Pergamum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
perishable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 10
persecution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Persia. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 55, 77
personification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Peter . . . . . . . . . . . . 109, 113, 114, 115
Philadelphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Philip V of Macedon. . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Philo . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
physical bodies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
physical body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
physical resurrection . 1, 8, 11, 171, 273
plagues . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213, 247
Pliny the Younger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Pompey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Pope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
postmillennial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
post-millennialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
postmillennialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
postmillennialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
predestination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
pregnant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
premillennial . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
premillennialism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
premillennialist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
presbyter John . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
preterist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
Priest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
prince . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53, 54, 57
Prince of the Congregation . . . . . . . . 88
prophecy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
prophesy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
prophet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
prophetic perfect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
prophets. . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 22, 23, 272
Protevangelion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Providence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Psalms of Solomon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Pseudepigrapha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90, 95
Pseudo-Smerdis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Ptolemy I Soter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Ptolemy II Philadelphus . . . . . . . . . . 48
Ptolemy III Euergetes . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Ptolemy IV Philopator . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Ptolemy V Epiphanes . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Ptolemy VI Philometer. . . . . . . . . . . 50
Ptolomaic Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Puritans . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Q
Qumran . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 91, 98
R
Rabbi Akiba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
ram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46, 55, 91
ram and goat . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Raphia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
realized eschatology . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
rebellion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
Reconstructionist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
red dragon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
religio illicita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
religio licita. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
ressurection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
rest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Resurrection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220, 273
resurrection1, 2, 52, 158, 163, 164, 170, 224, 277
resuscitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
return. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Revelation 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Rezin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
ribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
right hand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
river. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
river of the water of life . . . . . . . . . 280
Roman armies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Roman Empire . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 156
Roman occupation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Romans 1
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Rome51, 88, 95, 115, 148, 164, 178, 219, 231, 235, 254
rule . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 224
Rule of War. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
S
sacrifice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 54, 57, 77
sacrifices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 24
296 Subject Index
Samaria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Samaritan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Samaritans. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Sardis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Sargon II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Satan . . . . . . 25, 70, 224, 225, 232, 253
scepter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
sceptre . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
scorpion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
scripture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
scroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200, 216, 238
sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44, 258, 278
seal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204, 281
second death . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 266
Second Jewish Revolt . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Second Temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
seed . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Seleuces II Callinicus . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Seleuces III Ceraunus . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Seleucid Dynasty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Seleucid Kingdom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Seleucus I Nicator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Seleucus IV Philopator . . . . . . . . . . . 49
sellers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
senate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Sennacherib. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
seven churches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Seven Hills . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
seven kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
seven spirits. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Seventy “weeks” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
seventy “weeks” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Seventy weeks. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
Shalmaneser V . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
Shiloh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Sibyl . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Sibyline oracles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
Sibylline Oracles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
signs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
silver . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
simile. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28, 29, 30
Simon bar Kosiba . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
skeptical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
sleep . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
small horn . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47, 56
Smyrna . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Solomon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Solomon's temple . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
son. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
son of David . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
son of destruction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
son of God. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Son of Man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98, 99
Son of man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185, 204
son of man. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
son of the Most High . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
sons of Zebedee . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
souls . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248, 265, 273
sovereignty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
sow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
Spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
spirit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10, 11
spiritual . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
spiritual body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2, 9
spiritual man . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
spiritual resurrection . . . . . . 1, 166, 273
star. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88, 93
stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
statue . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42, 55, 59
stone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57, 258
suffering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
suffering servant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
sun. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
sword. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
symbol. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67, 78
symbolic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21, 26
symbols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66, 84
synagogue of Satan. . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Synoptic Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
Syria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48, 58
systematic theology . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
T
tabernacle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 20
temple15, 17, 19, 21, 23, 54, 67, 68, 73, 85, 96, 135, 172, 178,
192, 218, 248, 280
ten days . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
ten horns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
ten kings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Testament of Benjamin . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Testament of Gad . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
Testaments of the Twelve Patriarchs 92
Theocritus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
theophany . . . . . . . . . . 57, 59, 199, 248
Theophilus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114, 115
Thessalonia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
thief . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
this generation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
three and a half years . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Thyatira. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Tiglath-pileser III . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
time of the end, the . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
time, times, and half a time. . . . . . . . 57
tradition. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
Trajan . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
transformation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
tribe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
tribulation 172, 185, 189, 209, 240, 272
triumvirate. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
trumpets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212, 249
truthfulness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
two witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 272
type . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
U
universalism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Subject Index 297
V
Vespasian . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94, 136, 147
Vespatian. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
virgins . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
vision. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41, 42, 44, 46
visions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 19, 21, 66
W
Waldenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
war . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
War Scroll . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Wars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
wedding. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
white . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191, 193, 204
white throne judgment . . . . . . . . . . 274
whore . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Whore of Babylon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
winepress . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
winepress of the wrath of God . . . . 243
wings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 56, 214
witnesses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217, 272
woe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
woes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
woman. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
word of the LORD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
wounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
wrath . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
X
Xerxes I. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Y
Yahweh . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
year of four emperors . . . . . . . 147, 232
Year of the Four Emperors . . . . . . . 136
YHWH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Z
Zechariah . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65, 180, 184
Zedekiah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Zephaniah . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Zerubbabel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Zion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74, 77, 84
298 Subject Index
299
Scripture Index
Numerics
1 Corinthians 1
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1 Corinthians 12
12-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1 Corinthians 15. . . . . .1, 108, 171
1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
12-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
20, 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
20-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
35-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
42, 51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
42-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9, 278
44-50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
45-49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
50-58 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1 Corinthians 2
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
14-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1 Corinthians 3
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
16-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1 Corinthians 5
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1 Corinthians 6
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
19-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1 Corinthians 9
13-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1 John 2
18-22 . . . . . . . . . . . 172, 173
1 Kings 1
52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1 Kings 13
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1 Kings 16
31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
1 Kings 17
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
1 Kings 18
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1 Kings 19
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210, 220
1 Kings 21
5-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
1 Maccabees 1
20, 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1 Maccabees 12
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1 Maccabees 14
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1 Maccabees 3
300 Scripture Index
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
1 Maccabees 4
52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1 Peter 1
23-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
1 Peter 2
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1 Peter 5
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
1 Samuel 1
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1 Samuel 14
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
1 Samuel 3
34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1 Th 3
3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1 Thessalonians 1
1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1 Thessalonians 2
1-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
1 Thessalonians 3
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
13 above. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
1 Thessalonians 4
1-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
13-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
13-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . 11, 165
1 Thessalonians 5
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
12-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2, 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
1 Timothy 5
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
2 Chronicles 16
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
2 Chronicles 36
22-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
2 Corinthians 1
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
2 Corinthians 11
23-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
2 Corinthians 4
8-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Corinthians 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2 Corinthians 6
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2 Kings 1
9-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2 Kings 16
5-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Kings 18
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Kings 20
1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
12-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
2 Kings 23
29-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2 Kings 24
8-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2 Kings 25
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
2 Macc. 5
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 Macc. 6
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2 Peter 3
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
2 Samuel 14
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
2 Samuel 7
11-13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
2 Thessalonians 1
5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
8-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2 Thessalonians 2 . . . . . . . . . . 204
1-3a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3c. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
3c-17. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . .31, 38, 172
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
6-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
9-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2 Thessalonians 3
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Scripture Index 301
6-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2 Timothy 2
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
16-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
4
6-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
A
Acts 1
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Acts 10
39-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
44-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
9-16, 28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Acts 11
29-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Acts 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Acts 13
34-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Acts 15
1-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Acts 18
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
Acts 19
23-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
Acts 2
16-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
31-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
37-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Acts 21
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Acts 24
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Acts 27
34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Acts 28
30-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Acts 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
19-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Acts 5
17ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
36-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Acts 6
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
8-7
60148
Acts 8
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
12, 38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
4-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Acts 9. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Amos 5
18-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Amos 9
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
Assyria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
B
Bel and the Dragon 1-22. . . . . . 234
C
Col ossians 1
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Colossians 2
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Colossians 3
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
D
Da 12
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Dan 7
1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
Daniel 10
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Daniel 11
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
11-12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
13-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
15-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
18-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
22-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
25-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
30-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
302 Scripture Index
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Daniel 11-12. . . . . . . .47, 55, 180
Daniel 12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
4, 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Daniel 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 180
31-45 . . . . . . . . . . .16, 21, 42
35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
44-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
Daniel 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Daniel 716, 21, 46, 47, 55, 157, 180, 231
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
13 . . . . . . 155, 184, 185, 242
13-14 . . . . . . . . .59, 156, 158
2-14, 17-18, 23-27 . . . . . . . . . 43
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58, 231
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
9-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
Daniel 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 180
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
1-14, 19-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Daniel 9 . . . . . . . . . . .47, 55, 60
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
20-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 22
24-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 152
Deuteronomy 14
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Deuteronomy 18
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Deuteronomy 32
11-12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
E
Ecclesiastes 7
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Ephesians 1
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
22-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Ephesians 2
19-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19, 24
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23, 218
21-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Ephesians 4
11-13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
Exodus 10
1-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
21-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Exodus 11
1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Exodus 19
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
Exodus 25
40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
9, 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Exodus 26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Exodus 27
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Exodus 28
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Exodus 29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
Exodus 3
14-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
Exodus 7
14-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
25-8:15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Exodus 7-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Exodus 8
16-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
20-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Exodus 9
13-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
8-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Ezekiel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Ezekiel 1
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
22-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Scripture Index 303
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Ezekiel 13
1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Ezekiel 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 200
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
9-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Ezekiel 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
Ezekiel 30
1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Ezekiel 35
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Ezekiel 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
11-12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
Ezekiel 38-39 . . . . .263, 267, 271
Ezekiel 4
5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
Ezekiel 40
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2, 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Ezekiel 40-48 . . . . . . . . . . 15, 20
Ezekiel 41 . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 20
Ezekiel 43
13-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 20
Ezekiel 47 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
1-12 . . . . . . . . . 18, 21, 82, 84
Ezekiel 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Ezekiel 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
Ezra 1
2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Ezra 2
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
Ezra 4
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
6-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
7, 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
7-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Ezra 5
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Ezra 6
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . .16, 20, 53
15f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Ezra 7
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Ezra 8
1-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Ezra 9-10. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
G
Galatians 1
7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Genesis 1. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
Genesis 19
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Genesis 3
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Genesis 37
5-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Genesis 40
5-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
9-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 21
Genesis 41
1-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
17-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16, 21
Genesis 48
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Genesis 7
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
H
Haggai 1
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
12f . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
Haggai 2
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
10, 20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Hebrews 1
10-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
3-4, 13-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Hebrews 10
1-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
Hebrews 8
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 19
Hosea 1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
304 Scripture Index
I
Isaiah 1
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Isaiah 10
34-11:1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Isaiah 11
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Isaiah 12
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Isaiah 13
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32, 104
1, 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
10, 13 . . . . . . . . . .30, 31, 207
10,13. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1-14:23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
17-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
2-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
6-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
Isaiah 13-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
Isaiah 14
13-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1-4a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
22-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
4b-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
Isaiah 2
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Isaiah 22
20-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Isaiah 23
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Isaiah 28
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 78
Isaiah 33
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Isaiah 34
1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154, 207
Isaiah 36-39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Isaiah 39
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
Isaiah 40
3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Isaiah 40-66 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
Isaiah 42
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Isaiah 44
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Isaiah 45
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Isaiah 50
2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Isaiah 53
5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Isaiah 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
Isaiah 65
16-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
17ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Isaiah 8
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
J
James 1
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
James 2
25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
James 3
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
James 5
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Jeremiah 25
12-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
9-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Jeremiah 31
12-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Jeremiah 39
2-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Jeremiah 40
13-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Scripture Index 305
Jeremiah 41
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Jeremiah 49
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Jeremiah 50
39-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
Jeremiah 51
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
11, 26, 62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
62 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
Jeremiah 7
12-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Job 1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Job 21
7 ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
Job 38
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Joel 1
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Joel 2
10, 30-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
28-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Joel 3
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
John 10
14-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
John 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
John 12
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
John 14
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
John 19
33-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
John 2
12-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
19-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
John 20
1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
24-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
John 4
10-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 21
10-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
13-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 21
35-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
John 6
39-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
John 8
56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Jonah 1
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Jonah 3
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 39
1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Jonah 4
10-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38, 39
Joshua 18
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
Judges 5
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Judges 6
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
L
Lamentations 2
21-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Leviticus 19
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Lk 21
10-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
Lue 17
23-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Luke 1
1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4, 114
Luke 10
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
1-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225, 228
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Luke 11
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
Luke 12
11-12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
36-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
39-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
42-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Luke 14
28-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
306 Scripture Index
Luke 16
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
19-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Luke 17
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
20-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
20-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
22-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
26-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
28-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125, 131
37b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
Luke 19
12-27 . . . . . . . . . . . 160, 161
41-44 . . . . . . . . . . . 118, 124
43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
Luke 20
9-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Luke 21. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
14-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
17-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
20-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 55
20-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
26-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
28-33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
34-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
7-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
Luke 24
1-12, 22-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
30-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
36-43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7, 277
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
Luke 4
25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Luke 7
18-35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 87
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Luke 9
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
M
Malachi 4
5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Mark 1
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Mark 12
1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Mark 13 . . . . . . . . . . . 111, 205
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
11-12. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
14 . . . . . . . . . 17, 55, 85, 257
14-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
14-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . 55, 151
15-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
18-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
21-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
24-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
24-26 . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 125
24-27 . . . . . . . . . . . 153, 207
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157, 242
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
27-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
28-31 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
32-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
34-37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
3-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
5-6, 21-22 . . . . . . . . . 122, 174
5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
5ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
8-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
9-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
Mark 14
Scripture Index 307
27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Mark 3
24-26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Mark 4
26-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Mark 6
7-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
Mark 8
35 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Mark 9
1 . . . . . . . . . . .126, 157, 159
42-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Mark13
2, 4, 30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Matthew . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
Matthew 1
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
24b-25a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
Matthew 10
1-11
1116
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
17-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
19-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 121
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
Matthew 11
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
22-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Matthew 12
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Matthew 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
18-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
36-43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
40-43 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
47-50 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Matthew 16
25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59, 126
Matthew 21
33-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
33-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
Matthew 22
2-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
Matthew 23
29-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
Matthew 24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
15-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
15-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
17-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
20-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
26 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
26-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120, 125
31-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
37-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
37-42 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
39 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
40-41 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
42-44 . . . . . . . . . . . 106, 191
43-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
45-51 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
6-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
9-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Matthew 25
1-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
14-30 . . . . . . . . . . . 160, 161
41-46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Matthew 26
64 . . . 59, 107, 157, 184, 242
Matthew 27
50-53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
52-53 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
Matthew 28
1-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
19-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
Matthew 4
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 157
Matthew 5
308 Scripture Index
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Matthew 9
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
36-38 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
Micah 4. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Mt 11
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
Mt 24
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
6-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
N
Nehemiah 6
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Numbers 23
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Numbers 24
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
17-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
Numbers 8
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17, 19
O
Obadiah 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
P
Philippians 1
6, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Philippians 3
18-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
priority of Mark . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Psalm 118
152 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
89 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
Psalm 16
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
8-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
Psalm 9
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
Psalms 144. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Psalms 149. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Psalms 33 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Psalms 40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Psalms 95 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Psalms 98 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
R
Rev . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Rev 12-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Rev 1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Rev 13
11-18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Rev 21-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Rev 4-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
Rev 6
12-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
Revelation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Revelation 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178, 183
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
4-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178, 209
9-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
Revelation 10 . . . . .216, 230, 284
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
1-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Revelation 11 . 227, 234, 264, 275
1-14 . . 18, 217, 230, 250, 284
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
15-19 196, 220, 230, 250, 284
17,18. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
6b . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
7ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Revelation 11-14 . . . . . . . . . . 268
Revelation 1-17 . . . . . . . . . . . 260
Revelation 12209, 218, 223, 230, 233, 237, 243, 260,
271, 284
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
13-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Scripture Index 309
14ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
14ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178, 227
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223, 227
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
7-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . 224, 227
7-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
8-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
Revelation 1-3. . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Revelation 13227, 230, 231, 237, 243, 255
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 284
11-18. . . . . . . . . . . . 260, 264
1-2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
13-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
16-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
9-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Revelation 14 . 230, 237, 243, 263
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240, 245
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
14-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 242
14ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 243
6-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Revelation 14-15 . . . . . . . . . . 284
Revelation 14-16 . . . . . . . . . . 260
Revelation 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . 247
Revelation 15-16 . . .230, 243, 247
Revelation 16 . . . . . . . . 248, 284
10-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
12-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
17-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
4-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Revelation 17 . . . . . . . . 260, 284
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
12-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
15-18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
9a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
9b-11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
Revelation 17-18 . . . . . . 230, 253
Revelation 18 . . . . . . . . 261, 284
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
21-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
4-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
9-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Revelation 19 . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
11-14. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
11-19. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
11-21. . . . . . . . .262, 270, 271
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
17-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
6-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
Revelation 19-20 . . . . . . 230, 259
Revelation 2
12-17 . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 284
1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188, 284
17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
18-29 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
22-23a . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
8-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . 189, 284
9, 10, and 22 . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Revelation 20173, 261, 268, 269, 275, 284
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
10-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1-10 . . . . . . . . .263, 270, 271
11-15. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
310 Scripture Index
11ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264, 268
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52, 270
4-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265, 268
7-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 267, 271
7ff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
Revelation 21
10ff. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18, 22
24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
9-22:5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
9-22:5, 14-15 . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Revelation 21-22230, 276, 277, 284
Revelation 22
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
Revelation 2-3. . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Revelation 3
14-22 . . . . . . . . . . . 192, 284
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
4-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
7-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
Revelation 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 205
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197, 199
Revelation 4-11 . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Revelation 4-18 . . . . . . . . . . . 271
Revelation 4-22 . . . . . . . . . . . 178
Revelation 4-5. . . . .195, 229, 284
Revelation 5 . . . . . . . . . 195, 205
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 197
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70, 205
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226, 238
9-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 199, 209
9a. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
9b-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
Revelation 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
1-2 . . . . . . . . . .195, 204, 284
12-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
12-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
12-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
1-8 . . . . . . . . . .204, 206, 229
3-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 284
3-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 284
7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195, 284
9-11 . . . . . 195, 207, 229, 284
Revelation 6-11 . . . . . . . . . . . 243
Revelation 6-7. . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Revelation 6-8:1 . . . . . . . . . . 195
Revelation 7 . . . . . . . . . 208, 234
1-8 . . . . . . 196, 209, 229, 284
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226, 280
9-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
9-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 284
Revelation 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
1 . . . . . . . 196, 210, 229, 284
10-11. . . . . 196, 213, 249, 284
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196, 213
12-13 . . . . . . . . . . . 249, 284
13 . . . . . . . . . .196, 200, 213
2-11:19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
2-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
2-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
2-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
7 . . . . . . . . . . .196, 213, 249
Scripture Index 311
8-9 . . . . . . 196, 213, 249, 284
Revelation 8-11 . . . . . . . . . . . 211
Revelation 9
1-12 . 196, 214, 230, 249, 284
13-21 196, 215, 230, 250, 284
19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
20-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Revelationi 16
8-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Revelationi 3
7-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Romans 11
13-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
17-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Romans 2
5, 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 109
Romans 3
8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
Romans 8
19-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8, 278
23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 244
5-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
T
Thessalonians 2
2, 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Z
Zechariah 1
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
18-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71, 83
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
7-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
7-6:8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Zechariah 10
1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
6-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
Zechariah 11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
1-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79, 80
Zechariah 12
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81, 184
10-13:6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 80, 81
10-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
11. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
1-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
Zechariah 13
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
7-14:21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
7-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
Zechariah 14
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1-21 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
Zechariah 2
1-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Zechariah 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
1-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Zechariah 4
10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
1-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Zechariah 5
1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
5-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
Zechariah 6
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
9-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Zechariah 7
1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
1-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73, 75
5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
8-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
Zechariah 8
1-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
18-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Zechariah 9
15-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76, 80
9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 77
9-10:12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
9-17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Zechariah 9-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Zephaniah 1
2-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
Zephaniah 2
