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Table of Contents
Cold War Military Networked Operations Enabled Pre- and
Post Internet Wealth Inequality
Noel Packard, University of Auckland, New Zealand 1
Bryan, Canada, and World War I
Harvey Strum 14
Looking for Love in All the Right Places:
An analysis of Religious and Inspirational Romance Novels 20
A CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT IN THE SHADOWS:
THE GRISWOLD V. CONNECTICUT LEGACY
Danny M. Adkison, Oklahoma State University 32
Preparing Students for College, Careers and Civic Life
Greg Levitt and Steven Grubaugh, University of Nevada Las Vegas 46
Ten AI Strategies for Enhancing Elementary Social Studies Education
Greg Levitt and Steven Grubaugh, University of Nevada Las Vegas 61
Benefits and Detriments to Individuals and Society for Students Learning or
Not Learning the Social Studies
Greg Levitt and Steven Grubaugh, University of Nevada Las Vegas 77
Cold War Military Networked Operations Enabled Pre- and
Post Internet Wealth Inequality
Noel Packard
University of Auckland, New Zealand
1
I am Noel Packard and I am presenting "Cold War Military Networked
Operations Enabled Pre- and Post Internet Wealth Inequality"for the New
International Virtual Association June 2024 conference. My presentation and
these proceedings are a work in progress and are also a revised version of a
presentation I made for the National Social Science Association for their Fall
2023 Virtual Conference (Packard 2023a). I did not use AI for this research.
Since October 2023 Israel's genocide in Palestine has attracted the
attention of the world. People are admitting that Israel's genocide (with support
from the US) did not begin in October 2023 but in the 1940s and earlier, with
support from the US and shrouded in immunity politics. People are challenging
this least all civil society fall victim to similar acts that ignore international law.
People realize that fictions cover up inconvenient and now unavoidable facts.
Large chucks of history are kept out of the public's consciousness. And this was
a problem for me when I wrote my PhD thesis entitled, "Exploiting and
neutralizing the Communist Threat for the Privatized Internet" (Packard
2023c).Much like the history of the East Indies Company's slave trading
discussion about Israel's occupation of Palestine has been ignored, side-lined,
marginalized, understated, hushed up and denied. So too has the history of the
Internet and its roots in counterinsurgency and economic warfare. Here I am
discussing how history is interpreted in a false consciousness way that shields
scrutiny of how wealth inequality and neutralization of civilians was enabled or
constructed by “invisible” electronic and networked means (Packard 2023a p. 42;
2023b). I argue that what inequality reports show is that wealth inequality
increases with the increase of networked society and in the post-Internet years,
inequality has increased across the world. Here I propose a version of Internet
pre-history rooted in counterinsurgency and economic warfare as an historical
antecedent to Israel's targeted killing of Palestinians through electronic
applications like "Lavender". "Where's Daddy?" (Goodman 2024) and Shoshanna
Zuboff's theories about today's Internet posited in her book The Age of
Surveillance Capitalism.
When I talk about the Internet of today, I see it differently from Zuboff. I
imagine a tree growing out of a flooded river with its top branches reflected in the
water (see video of my NIVA June 2024 presentation to view slides). Imagine
what we see above the water is the Internet that we use today. We can not see
the trunk and the roots under the water that represents the pre-Internet, military
networks of the Cold War era that the Internet is rooted in.
Now imagine a full view of the tree showing the military networks that grew
into today's Internet - under the water (see slide with the image of a full tree
under water). I will re-visit this Cold War history to discuss how military networks
that grew into the Internet were tested in operations to produce wealth inequality.
Often political polarization was generated by the operations. Christopher Pyle
warned about such developments in his 1970 whistleblower Washington Monthly
article entitled, "Conus Intelligence: The Army Watches Civilian Politics" which
prompted a three year study by the military about the abuses of US military
intelligence and mass surveillance (U.S. Congress, Senate 1973). The study
however was conducted after the 1960s operations that I discuss.Some names
2
of military operations that tested the military networks and became part of the
Internet include COINTELPRO and CHAOS (in the US), thatSNI/System or
Operation Bandeirantes (OBAN) in Brazil, the Jakarta Method in Indonesia, the
Phoenix Program in South Vietnam,and CONDOR in South America. Other
operations not shown in my slides include ORDEN and Operation Wellbeing
(modelled on CORDS in South Vietnam) in Guatemala and El Salavdor as
Michael McClintock (1985a.b) reports inThe American Connection. Networked
operations like these helped implement, install or clear the way for neoliberal
and austerity economic programs that authors such as Vincent Bevins (2020);
Bradley Simpson (2008/2010); Naomi Klein (2007); the Archdiocese of São
Paulo (1968/1998); Douglas Valentine (1990/2000); Michael McClintock
(1985a,b); Karin Fischer (2009/2015); Orlando Letelier (1976); J. Daniel
Hammond (2011); John Galbraith (1967/2007); Jeff Halper (2015) and Antony
Loewenstein (2023) wrote about.
I argue that reports about global inequality overlook the role of Cold War
military operations, which can inform us of some historical roots for today's
growing wealth inequality. Some representative infographics that show today's
growing inequality are taken from a Center on Budget and Policy Priorities Policy
Futuresreport (Stone, Sherman & Beltrán 2020, Jan 13) . Figure Oneis entitled,
"Income Gains Widely Shared in Early Postwar Decades - but not since then".
Figure 2 is entitled, "Income Gains at the Top Dwarf Those of Low and Middle-
Income Households". This is what is happening since the introduction of the
public Internet and the increase of networked society - which followed after the
networking of small countries with operations like ORDEN or CONDOR or
COINTELPRO, however the report doesn't discuss this inconvenient history.
What do I mean when I say pre-Internet and anti-Communist military
networks? They were prototypes for the Internet, built by militaries with help from
US advisors in developing countries under the auspices of anti-Communist
counterinsurgency and operation research or OR. In The Economics of Defense
in the Nuclear Age (nick named the "Pentagon's Bible") written by Secretary of
State Robert McNamara's Comptroller, Rand economist and future President of
the University of California, Charles Hitch and his co-author Roland McKean, the
authors described operation research. They wrote: 'Systematic effort to
determine preferred courses of action is called "operation research" when
applied to military or industrial operations' (Hitch & McKean 1960/1965, p.41). I
am arguing that OR combined with networked "technical collection" systems that
ex-CIA agents Victor Marchetti and John D. Marks (1974/1980, p. 82) described,
provided a tool or a weapon to subvert national governments to enact policies
that stole national resources away from taxpayers to enrich corporate elites like
those Peter Phillips (2018, 2024) writes about in his books Titans and Giants.
These military networks were interactive computers that talked to each other,
meshed with invisible surveillance and technical collection systems like those
described by Marchetti and John Marks (1980, pp. 121-22). Vietnam war
veterans called them "stay behind nets" (Valentine, 2000, p. 405; Stein & Klare,
1973, p. 159). They were networks in the hands of military, corporate and
political elites or what political economist Max Weber described as occupational
3
status groups, in his essay ‘Class, Status, Party’ published in From Max Weber:
essays in sociology (1958, pp. 180- 196) and re-published, in the two volume,
Economy and society: an outline of interpretive sociology (Weber 1978, 1: 305-
307, 2: 932-939). Marchetti and Marks described these occupational status
groups as wanting to reduce personnel and "virtually immune to congressional
oversight" (1980 p.68-9). These groups saw networked counterinsurgency
warfare as a low-cost way to implement hidden and secret OR missions without
having to enlist military draftees or intelligence agents who might later become
whistleblowers about these nets, as Christopher Pyle and Jeffrey Stein did (Pyle
1970; Stein & Klare 1973). Occupational status groups pushed for legislation to
end the military draft, which helped shield the most expensive invention in
history, the ARPANET and its networks, from possible whistleblowers, disclosure
and bad press (Rumsfeld 2011,p.101). Technical collection systems
collected information about civilians. They were used to search for what were
called "subversives or communists" for anti-Communist counterinsurgency
warfare. Secret surveillance systems collected information about countries and
civilians. In Badges without borders: How global counterinsurgency transformed
American policing Stuart Schrader analyses counterinsurgency as a method that
united civilian and military agencies so that they would counteract or neutralize
each other to prevent social change. It was as if every civilian organization,
business, church, university and other institution had to have a quota of
undercover military police in it to counter act the civilians. Counterinsurgency law
enforcement applications in the U.S. mirrored their applications abroad - while in
the U.S. cloning interactive computers went on. In discussing U.S. military
policing as a federalism, Schrader (2019) wrote, “ This ahistorical view demands
a reassessment of how a national police bureaucracy could rise within the U.S.
while preserving the veneer that no such thing had been constructed” (p.121).
This description applies to the construction of the pre-Internet networks as well.
They seemed invisible there but they were there; a false consciousness was
being socially constructed along side of the invisible ARPANET and its networks.
.
These seemingly invisible human and machine networks were tested in
the Cold War years in different operations some of which are noted in a
horizontal timeline of pre-Internet history in the slide entitled, "Overview of some
pre-Internet Military Networked Operations". This horizontal timeline is the same
timeline shown in the vertical tree image. Imagine the tree is lying on the
ground.As a horizontal timeline it shows the testing, distribution and
commercialization phases of the ARPANET backbone. At the end of this
horizontal timeline is the commercialized Internet that was introduced to the
public in the 1990s - which is at the top of the tree, above the "waterline". The
rectangles over the horizontal U.S.ARPANET timeline represent military
networked operations that were built in other countries like Phoenix or Condor.
The most advanced network was the U.S. based Defense Advanced Research
Projects Agency's network or ARPANET which was in testing mode from 1960 to
1975. During this testing phase smaller versions of this network were built in
many countries where tests that could not be done in the U.S. were done –
4
abroad (see slide entitled, "Pre-Internet ARPANET Testing"). In the slide
entitled, "Pre-Internet ARPANET Testing" the 1965 Jakarta operation is shown at
the top. In his book The Jakarta Method Vincent Bevins (2020) wrote about this
operation which murdered over one million alleged and real members of the
Indonesian Communist Party after party leadership was subverted with help from
US advisors. The economy was restructured into a militarized free-market
system with authoritarian leadership. Bradley Simpson (2010) wrote about this in
Economists with Guns: Authoritarian Development and U.S. -Indonesian
Relations. Film maker Joshua Oppenheimer (2012) explored this history in his
film The Act of Killing. The Jakarta method of targeted
extermination of leftists, Communists, and moderate activists migrated to other
places like Vietnam, Brazil, and Chile - although the operations had different
names. In South Vietnam it was Phoenix, in South America it was Condor. In the
U.S. there was COINTELPRO and CHAOS. These are examples of many, many
operations. More studies about these operations are needed. After passing
military tests in operations in the U.S. and other countries ARPANET backbone
was put into mission service with the Defense Communication Agency (DCA) in
1975/6. No longer an experiment, the world's most expensive invention,
ARPANET backbone,was in full service to military operations (see slide entitled
Pre Internet-Military Networked Operations - Distribution). After ARPANET
backbone was copied into stay behind networks and distributed across the world
in the largest US military base building campaign in history - creating (I argue) a
foundation for the World Wide Web (Packard, 2023a,b,c). David Vine (2015)
wrote about this base building campaign in his book Base Nation. The US
government worked with other countries to set up these invisible stay-behind-
nets and technical collection systems that could not be seen by civilians or by
Congress.
The word "invisible"is important because the military did not want the
civilians to be aware of these networks (see slide entitled "Invisible technical
collection and networked societies enabled two-part operation...").The military
police and corporations used radios, radar, sonar, buried cables, fiber optic
cables, satellite communication systems - all of which left "no evidence" of their
electronic transmissions(US. Congress. Senate. 1975, p. 20). This protected the
government and the intelligence agencies from liability for war crimes or crimes
against civilians, since civilians had no evidence of wire tapping that could be
used in court to contest the spying or protect them from the military (Packard,
2023b,c).
Once these human and machine networks were set up, the military ran
special operations tests that utilized the networks to implement austerity policies
- breaking up government assets and trade unions to allow multi-national
corporations to buy up what had been paid for by tax payers - just as Alister
Barry (1996) reported in his film, "Someone Else's Country" which examines
what happened to New Zealand's economy after Chili's was forced into a
neoliberal economic austerity program. The lack of evidence of spying
enabled this two-part operation of imposing austerity economics on small
countries, like Indonesia or Chile, to boost profits for corporations while targeting
5
and neutralizing civilians and political activists (often alleged and real
communists, subversives, unionistsand/or the internal threat) as Vincent Bevins
(2010) and FrancescaLessa (2022) among others, reported. It was an anti-
Communist surveillance system that suppressed dissent in the name of anti-
Communism, while boosting profits by imposing austerity economic policy in the
name of neoliberalism and freedom. As noted earlier the oppression included
"spying, renditions, imprisonment, torture, growing inequality, disappearances
and neutralization" to boost economic productivity while crushing dissent The
oppression included: spying; renditions; imprisonment; torture; growing
inequality; disappearances and neutralization (rendering political activists inactive
or killing them). Specific examples of this two part process are listed here and in
the presentaion video (see slide entitled, "What were pre-Internet anti-
Communist military networks and how did they operate?").
For example, Brazil's 'Economic Miracle' (1969-1974) created wealth
inequality while Brazils corporations profited, the standard of living for most
civilians fell dramatically,and torture and repression ofcivilians by the military was
rampant. This was documented by the Archdiocese of São Paulo (1985/1998)in
a book entitled Torture in BrazilA shocking report on the pervasive use of torture
by Brazilian military governments, 1964-1979.
During Brazil's Economic South Vietnam's Phoenix program,which grew
out the CORDS program killed more than 50,000 Vietcong (1969-1972).The
Vietnamese economy was subverted to a U.S. aid backed black market and
blackmail scheme. Vietcong who were tortured and detained bartered
intelligence for payments and for their lives, from US advisors. The intelligence
was used to target, electronically staulk and kill other alleged and real
Communists - or sometimes the enemies of the people who divulged information.
Douglas Valentine (1990/2000) wrote The Phoenix Program which examined the
history of the Phoenix Program particularly in regards to the people involved.
Raplh W. Johnson an ex-CIA advisor in Vietnam wrote a PhD thesis entitled
Phoenix/Phung Hoang: A Study of Wartime Intelligence Managementwhicn
examines the CORDS program of pacification which evolved into the Phoenix
program of targeted neutralization. Johnson provided analysis of about how the
military developed the CORDS in part to manage the aid coming into Vietnam
and also as a coordinated pacification program that mirrored the Vietnamese
government under the title Phung Hoang, Johnson's anaylsis focuses on how
these programs were coordinated, structured and functioned, presenting a
picture of a system of warfare that is not conventional or nuclear but rather
information driven not for victory but for pacification and economic management,
surveillance and management - perhaps a prototype for Isreal's "mangement" of
Palestine.
The Condor program neutralised 60,000 - 80,000 civilians from the six
South American countries that participated in this anti-Communist and economic
austerity program from 1969 to 1978 that tracked dissidents across borders. This
improved upon the Phoenix program that stalked targeted people within a
country because Condor staulked targeted civilian political activists across many
borders.This included stalking and killing Chilian economist and former
6
ambassador to the U.S., Orlander Letelier and his U.S. assistant Ronnie Moffit in
a car bombing in Washington, D.C. in 1976. This was examined by John Dinges
(2004) in his book The Condor years: How Pinochet and his allies brought
terrorism to three continents.
Meanwhile in the U.S. the worst recession since World War Two reduced
full employment during the 1980s. As companies failed, they moved abroad in
search of cheaper labour. Companies like Ford and IBM could send production
plans via revolutionary new email to the cheaper labor forces abroad before the
U.S. public had access to the commercial Internet. Government spying on US
citizens was massive and unregulated as whistleblowers and numerous
government studies of intelligence agancies reported (Packard 2023 c). Leaders
told the public that the new Internet would stimulate the economy with jobs. In
fact, it stimulated computer sales and Internet use, particularly after rate
controlled telephone service ended with the court ordered break up of the Bell
Telephone System. These are only a few examples of how networked operations
worked in a dual way to increase wealth inequality while decreasing dissent or
neutralizing or pacifiying civilians.
Wehave re-visited the testing phase into the distribution phase of the pre-
Internet military networks which led to the privatization phase (see slide entitled
"Pre Internet-Military Operations - Privatization"), which leaves us at the water
line, so-to-speak, shown in the tree image slide. That is a brief pre-history of the
military networks before they became the public Internet. This pre-Internet history
shows a relationship between networked societies and growing wealth inequality
- at work in networked countries like the US, Latin America, Indonesia and
Vietnam. These countries experienced a kind of crisis driven economic warfare
and neutralization of civilians who dissented, with the help of invisible technical
collection in the exclusive hands of occupational status groups. In contrast
inequality reports like the "World Inequality Report 2022" do not relate the pre-
Internet military networks or the Internet to global inequality. nor consider them
as a potential driving factor for inequality. Instead, they describe symptoms or
conditions of inequality such as, concentration of wealth, gender inequality,
growth of millionaires, and impoverishment of governments (see slide entitled
"Pre-Internet history shows a relationship between networked societies and
wealth inequality"). The Inequality Report 2022 overlooks the
historical pre-Internet networked operations like Condor or Phoenix. It also
overlooks crisis capitalism (like the 2009 subprime Mortgage Crisis or the
Pandemic) and electronic theft, such as that depicted in film director's Gorden,
Donovan and Evans film Billion Dollar Heist about how hackers stole a billion
dollars from the Bangladesh Central Bank. Both crisis capitalism and electronic
theft depend on a networked operation. Nor is climate or war catastrophe
factored in. I argue that until networked operations, crisis capitalism and
electronic theft , war and climate catastrophe are factored into inequality reports,
information needed to address the growing problem of inequality remains hidden
or invisible. So,what does the Inequality Report 2022 tell
us? (see slide showing the cover of executive summary of theInequality Report
2022). It tells us that it is authored by some very accomplished economists like
7
Thomas Piketty (2015) who wrote The Economics of Inequality. The authors
wrotein the opening section of the report that "we have a data abundant world but
we lack basic information about inequality" (see slide with section entitled,
"Reliable inequality data as a global public good"). In other words, basic
information about inequality is missing from the report or – was it intentionally
overlooked?
In the opening of the documentary “Someone else’s country” about how
neoliberal economic policy changed New Zealand in the 1970s and 1980s,
Victoria University economist Geoff Bertram described how powerful neoliberal
economists intentionally overlooked New Zealand’s history.Bertram said of the
neoliberal economists:
They saw markets as being enormously creative, enormously powerful a
locative devices but also better at making social judgments, also shaping
society... there was a real unwillingness to go back and revisit the origins
of the welfare state in New Zealand - to think about why New Zealander's
had come to do things the way that we did. And because of the lack of
historical understanding ....their work really did come very directly from a
single theoretical, preconceived position (Barry 1996).
Without looking at Internet informational infrastructure network history the
authors of the Inequality Report 2022 show us what wealth inequality looks like
today in the wake of 1970s, 80s, 90s, and 2000’s neoliberal and austerity
economics,all of which promoted networks. They tell us that wealth inequality
is large and world-wide and show us in these infographics in the Inequality report
(see slides of Figures in the report).They write that "Average national incomes tell
us little about inequality". They write "Contemporary global inequalities are close
to early 20th century levels, at the peak of western imperialism". They tell us that
"Inequality is a political choice not an inevitability". They seem to say that political
leadership is responsible for setting global wealth inequality in motion, however, I
argue that political leadership had help from pre-Internet military networks that
the public did not even know about. Figure 5 in the report, entitled
"Global Income Inequality ratio, T10/850 1820-2020" and Figure 6 entitled,
"Global Income Inequality: Between vs. within country Inequality (Theil Index)
1820-2020"displays wealth inequality within and between countries. Thefigures
show inequality rising from as early as 1820 (which was about the time of the
Industrial revolution) to a peak in the 1980s, following an upward surge during
the 1960s. In the 1960s the Vietnam War (or the American War) increased profits
for corporate military contractors and for their networks. Later, stay-behind
networks were built up in the 1970s, and 80s with new interactive computers for
"low-intensity" warfare in the distribution and commercialization/privatization
phase of the pre-Internet military networks (Klare & Kornbluh, 1988). The
networked operations shown earlier in the tree slide(Phoenix, COINTELPRO,
Condor and so on) were being tested in the 1960s and 70s and helped to
produce inequality in small countries and likely the largest recession in the US
since World War Two. In the 1980s political leaders like Ronald Reagan and
8
Margaret Thatcher pushed neoliberal economic policies, the privatization of
national industries and antiunion legislation. They increased government
spending on policing, surveillance and military budgets. Inequality peaked during
this time of increased austerity and police surveillance. Leadership played a
decisive role in increasing inequality as this report indicates. President Reagan
authorized the government's National Science Foundation networks and the
ARPANET backbone to be privatized or commercialized. After the advent of the
public Internet the gap between rich and poor widened greatly as these graphics
show (see various slides of figures shown in the report).
However, what is not visible in this report and others like it, is that leaders
like Reagan and Thatcher and their backers, had help with implementing these
inequality schemes because of thehistorical networked operations and technical
collection systems that were built in the Cold War years (see slide entitled,
"Overview of some Pre-Internet Military Networked Operations" and the slide
showing the tree image).These operations were built and tested before Reagan
and Thatcher were in office and they helped enable neoliberal economic policies
in small countries decades earlier by helping crush dissent and build up
electronic banking. With hindsight, political leaders could see and know this,
although the U.S. public could not.Publics of smaller countries experienced these
operations but had difficulty exposing and stopping them, as disclosed, for
example, in the secretly prepared report by the Archdiocese of São Paulo
(1985/1998) entitled Torture in Brazil. Reagan and Thatcher had help
with implementing inequality programs from, and because of, these invisible
networks. The networks and interactive computers were barely known to most of
the taxpayers who had paid for them – however the computers stored vast
amounts of information about the taxpayers. I argue that the taxpayer funded
networks were turned against taxpayers in the US and England and other
countries, even before the Internet was available to the taxpayers. Occupational
status groups and political leaders could see that these neoliberal and networked
programs would take society in the same direction that the pre-Internet Cold War
operations had taken smaller countries, but this discussion is overlooked in the
inequality reports and other discourse. This inconvenient history likely has
something to do with the largest recession in U.S. history since World War Two
(see slide entitled, "Overview of some Pre-Internet Military Networked
Operations"). The recession occurred while Reagan was in office and the military
networks were legally becoming commercialized into the Internet. Political
leaders told the U.S. public that the new commercial Internet would stimulate the
economy and endso-called stagflation. What really happened is that it spurred
the public to buy computers and get on line with the Internet – particularly when
affordable telephone rates vanished after the Bell Telephone System was broken
up, and ARPANET and the National Science Foundation networks were
commercialized . I argue that the figures in the Inequality Report indicate that
wealth inequality increases with the increase of networked society. Globally
networked society is demonstrating record breaking levels of wealth inequality. In
the post-Internet years inequality increased across the world. The Report does
not discuss whether or how the Internet plays a role in growing wealth inequality,
9
nor does it address crisis capitalism events like the Pandemic or the sub prime
mortgage crisis or electronic theft, which could not have happened without the
Internet. Figure 8 (see slide with Figure 8 entitled,"The rise of private versus
the decline of public wealth in rich countries, 1970-2020)"shows that once the
Internet wasin the public domain and we began giving up other forms of
communication and transaction - public sector wealth begandeclining and
private sector wealth increased. Into this gap we can almost predict will come
climate catastrophe and war atrocitiesthat destroy infrastructure like what we see
happening in Gaza.When infrastructure needs to be rebuilt because of climate
catastrophe or war, people look to the government for revenue. The government
is losing revenue and the private sector has the bulk of the wealth.
War and climate catastrophe generates refugees – and a situation where
it is easy to exploit the labor of refugees. The Nazi's exploited refugees in World
War Two when Germany had a networked society that was more primitive than
ours. They had networks of spies, railroads and hidden tabulating machines that
worked together to control and inventory forced labor as Edwin Black and others
have documented (Black, 1984, 2001. 2009). Now we live in an advanced
globally networked world with growing numbers of refugees and we are setting
ourselves up for forced labor situations. Although people may be asked to give
their consent to be slaves this growing inequality increases the power of
corporations, reduces the power of governments and leaves us all more
vulnerable. While the economists advise a redistribution of wealth (see slide
showing section of the report of entitled, "Redistributing wealth to invest in the
future") I think networked society itself enables wealth inequality and
redistribution can not change that. To address these problems, I think we first
need to recognize an historical divide between pre- and post Internet years.
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Packard, N. (2023a, Oct 23). Inequality in the Pre-and Post-Internet world:
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Phillips, P. (2018). The Global power elite. 7 Stories Press.
Phillips, P. (2024). Titans of Capital: How Concentraited wealth threatens
humanity. Penguin.
Piketty, T. (2015). The economics of Inequality. The Belknap Press.
Pyle, C. H. (1970, January). CONUS Intelligence: The army watches civilian
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13
Bryan, Canada, and World War I Harvey Strum
When World War I broke out William Lyon Mackenzie King, then Chief of the Liberal
Information Office, and Chairman of the Canadian Association of International
Conciliation wrote to William Jenings Bryan, Secretary of State in the Woodrow Wilson
administration, appealing to him to encourage Wilson to maintain the “higher ground” of
strict neutrality and limit loans to belligerent powers. King urged Bryan and the United
States to adhere to the “’higher sense of obligation in international affairs.’” The
Canadian advised Bryan that the United States must maintain strict neutrality, and not
appear to favor either side in the war. For King this served as the best way “by which
the United States could save the cause of progress in world affairs.” While King, an
admirer of Bryan’s liked the “higher ground” occupied by Secretary Bryan, his crusade
to keep the United States out of the war added fuel to the long burning fires of anti-
Bryanism in the Canadian press. 1 Just as in 1900 when Bryan supported the Boers in
South Africa, his advocacy of American neutrality and his indictment of British rule in
India appeared to many Canadian newspaper editors as anti-British and pro-German.
Once again, to many Canadian newspaper editors and publishers Bryan became a
threat to Canada and the entire British Empire.
When Bryan resigned from the Cabinet on 8 June 1915 because he could not sign the
second Lusitania note, the Canadian press, like much of the American press, had no
regrets. Bryan feared Wilson’s policies in response to the sinking of the Lusitania and
the deaths of 128 Americans on the British liner would lead us into a confrontation with
Germany and violated the principles of American neutrality in the European war.
However, for the most ardent supporters of the Canadian war effort such as the
Kingston Standard, Bryan’s pacifism seemed incomprehensible: “how a man of his
marked ability could go so hopelessly wrong and be willing for the sake of peace at any
price to crawl to Germany…is inconceivable.” 2 It was an almost unanimous Canadian
press opinion that Bryan was completely unfit for the office he held. As argued in the
Saturday Night, “Mr. Bryan in mental equipment, temperament, and training was quite
incompetent” to handle the responsibilities of Secretary of State. 3 Doubting Bryan’s
sincerity, some of the press believed that Bryan’s resignation was politically inspired to
further his Presidential ambitions. “Possibly Mr. Bryan has an eye to the possibility of
another presidential campaign,” declared the Kingston Whig. Further it queried , “is Mr.
Bryan looking for votes for his desertion of President Wilson?” 4 One newspaper,
Montreal Gazette implied Bryan supported Germany’s sinking of the Lusitania. As a
sample some of the other newspapers that severely criticized Bryan and his resignation
published editorials between 9 and 17June 1915 included Sentinel (Toronto), Farmer’s
Sun (Toronto), Toronto Mail and Empire, Toronto Telegram, Montreal Gazette,
Edmonton Bulletin (Alberta); and Le Canada (Montreal, French language). Two
newspapers who were slightly less critical in their editorials in attacking Bryan’s motives
while agreeing he was unfit for his position were the Edmonton Bulletin (Alberta) and
Montreal’s French language La Presse. Newspapers criticizing Bryan included the
Liberal and Conservative Party press and the French language press in Montreal.
14
Part of the Canadian press, while not regretting Bryan’s resignation, admitted that he
was sincere and honest, a man of integrity even if he made a foolish decision. These
papers included the Montreal Star, Toronto Star, Toronto Globe, Hamilton Herald, and
Queen’s University’s Queen’s Quarterly (Kingston, Ontario). “Undoubtedly Mr. Bryan is
sincere,” [admitted the Hamilton Herald], “but his belief seems to show how impractical
a statesman he is.” 5 While glad about Bryan’s resignation the Globe and Star resented
the extreme attacks by other Canadian newspapers on Bryan. As the Star argued,
”there is no justification for the abuse that is being heaped upon Bryan…His retirement
means he is loyal to both his colleagues and to his convictions.” 6
For the voice of western Canadian agrarians, Winnipeg’s Grain Growers’ Guide, Bryan’s
position and resignation proved something of a dilemma. In 1908-1909 Bryan appeared
an agrarian hero to the staff of the Guide because Canadian agrarians shared the same
economic and political concerns as Bryan and the Guide was the most pro-Bryan
newspaper in Canada. The Guide welcomed his visits to Winnipeg and western Canada
in 1909. However, the Guide endorsed the war effort in Canada in 1914 so Bryan’s
neutrality and moderation on the Lusitania posed a problem for the Guide. Canadian
Socialists who had favored Eugene V. Debs in 1908 and viewed Bryan and Taft as two
sides of the same corporation controlled American political parties expressed fewer
qualms about Bryan in 1915. Bryan’s appeal for peace appealed to the Socialist
Winnipeg Voice and other Socialist voices. Henri Bourassa, the spokesman for Quebec
French Canadian nationalism emerged as the most openly pro-Bryan Canadian political
leader in 1915. Writing in the French language Montréal paper, Le Devoir,founded by
Bourassa in 1910, :
Quantà M. Bryan, quoi que l’on pause de l’sa carrière politique. La dignité de sa
démarche lui mérite le respect des gans qui pensent et les insultes des gens qu’hurlant
et qui spéculent avec honteuse avidité sur les flots desang humain (as for Mr. Bryan,
whatever may be said of the man and his political career, the dignity of his conduct
earns him the respect of the thinking and the insults of the people who howl and
speculate with shameful greed on the streams of human blood.)7
Bourassa then attacked the Montreal Gazette for implying that Bryan endorsed
Germany’s sinking of the Lusitania. During 1914-15 Bryan appealed to Canadians,
Liberals, Socialists, and French nationalists who had misgivings about World War I and
sympathized with Bryan’s calls for strict neutrality and an end of the war. However, the
majority of the Canadian press, Liberal and Conservative, strongly supported Canadian
participation in World War I and hoped for American participation on the side of the
Allies, not neutrality making Bryan an anathema to the Canadian press and many
Canadians. j
When the United States entered the war in 1917 Bryan reversed his position and
supported Wilson’s progressive crusade for democracy in Europe. However, the
Canadian press remained hostile, and part of the Canadian public, especially returning
veterans. They condemned him wrongly as a pacifist and pro-German, neither of which
was true about Bryan during 1917-18. In 1918, the National Legislative Conference, a
coalition of American prohibitionist groups, sent Bryan and Dr. Baker of the Anti-Saloon
League of America as their representatives to the convention of the Ontario branch of
15
the Dominion Prohibition Alliance in February 1918. One of the Toronto newspapers,
News, started a campaign against his visit denouncing the Great Commoner as a
pacifist and pro-German. In addition, two unknown delegates to the prohibition
conference attempted unsuccessfully to get the Toronto police to bar Bryan from
entering the city. The News urged Canadians to telegraph Bryran to cancel his visit to
Toronto because “it was indeed an outrage against the susceptibly of the community to
invite him here at this time.” According to the News Bryan was a long-term enemy of the
British Empire and worked as Secretary of State to deprive Great Britian of much
needed munitions. For the News, it was wrong to invite Bryan because his pacifism
leached into “the thickets of pro-Germanism.”8 Another Toronto paper, Mail and Empire,
reported on divisions within the local prohibitionist group on whether to cancel Bryan’s
visit. Some members of the executive board wanted to cancel Bryan’s talks in Toronto
because they shared the view that Bryan was a pacifist and remained opposed to the
war. A majority of the executive board agreed to welcome the American but was warned
veterans would try to stop Bryan’s speeches because of his alleged pacifism. B.H.
Spence, Secretary of the Dominion Alliance, argued, “Mr. Bryan is not only a fellow
fighter in the war, but a comrade in a great reform.” In addition, Spence believed that
Torontonians were not going to be “so churlish as to do other than welcome this visitor.’9
Criticism of Bryan came from another newspaper, World, who described Bryan as “not
an original thinker,” and asked the question, “who cares what he thinks, anyway?” 10 A
significant part of the local press wanted Bryan not to come to Toronto and encouraged
citizens to boycott Bryan’s speeches.
When Bryan arrived in Toronto on 28 February 1918, Mayor Thomas Church refused to
welcome him but encouraged respect for the American visitor. Mayor Church, the police,
and even the News opposed any attempts to interrupt Bryan’s two speeches in the city.
A story in the News repeated the call for a boycott of Bryan, but urged restraint,’ there
should be no organized or unorganized interruption by either soldiers or civilians. “ 11At
Massey Hall, however, Bryan received a most friendly reception, including a standing
ovation when he spoke for thirty minutes at the afternoon session of the Alliance
convention. Members of the temperance movement showed enthusiasm for the Great
Commoner because Bryan emerged as the leading American political leader in support
of prohibition. That evening Bryan received a most cordial reception when he spoke at
the Metropolitan Chruch. Torontonians ignored the News call for a boycott as citizens
packed the church and hundreds had to turned away. During his speech, Bryan
denounced the liquor interests as war profiteers. He argued that prohibition was vital to
the war effort. Bryan appealed for Canadian American solidarity in their joint struggle
against German militarism.
Over 4,000 people packed Massey Hall to hear Bryan deliver a third appeal for
prohibition. According to the Toronto Telegram, several thousand people could not get in
because of the overflow turnout to hear the famed American. 12 When Bryan entered
pandemonium ‘broke loose. Most of the audience stood up, waved handkerchiefs, and
cheered him,” but one hundred veterans began to hiss and boo him. 13 Some stood up
and shook their fists at him. Refusing to let him speak, the veterans yelled: “What about
the Lusitania?’ “Get out you dirty German,” “Sauerkraut,” and “Take Bryan out or we will
come down and throw him out.” A Toronto Star managed to intervene to prevent the
16
veterans from turning a fire hose on Bryan, 14 In order to drown out Bryan’s voice
veterans sang patriotic songs. Supporters of Bryan countered by shouting to put the
soldiers out and “where is your fair play?” R.J. Fleming, former mayor of Toronto who
presided, threatened to have the police eject the veterans, but Bryan refused fearing
violence. Bryan gave a statement to the press defending his patriotism and support of
the Allied war effort. Then Bryan tried to speak a second time, but the veterans
continued to shout, hiss, and sing. Part of the audience walked out, but most tried to
listen to him finish his address. At the end, the audience enthusiastically applauded him,
and hundreds of people came forward to shake his hand. While the press, political
leaders, and a small group of veterans did not want the Great Commoner in Toronto his
speeches attracted thousands of Canadians who still admired Bryan as a champion of
prohibition and a moral reformer. No one had to attend his lectures, but thousands of
Torontonians ignored the efforts to boycott his speeches.
In a public statement Bryan blamed some of the Toronto newspapers associated with
the liquor interests for inciting the veterans. “There were editorials in some of the
newspapers declaring that persons responsible for bringing me to Toronto should be
summarily dealt with.” Moreover, some journalists greatly exaggerated what had
happened in order to make it “appear that Canada rejected me.” 15The New York World
blamed the hostility shown to Bryan on Ontario’s public officials and some editors, who
created a climate of antagonism towards Bryan. Inciting the outbreak of the veterans
attack on him. As the World concluded;
A performance so outrageous would have been impossible in Toronto
newspapers and politicians had not for some days before the arrival discussed various
ways which public displeasure with him could be expressed.
According to the World agents of the Ontario government were in sympathy with the
rioters as evidence that none of the provincial officials or members of the legislature
attended any of Bryan’s speeches. 16 From the public reaction of Ontario Premier
William Hearst and Mayor Church they do not appear to have regretted what happened.
By contrast, Canadian Prime Minister Robert Borden publicly expressed his disapproval
of the verbal assault on Bryan.
Many Canadian newspapers in responding to the howling down of Bryan stressed that
Bryan should never have come to Canada. To the editors of the Toronto Mail and
Empire, Kingston Standard, Toronto Sentinel, Kingston Whig, Montreal Gazette, and the
Montreal Witness, Bryan was an unwelcome guest. According to the Toronto Mail and
Empire, Bryan was “a discredited public man.” 17 Some newspapers, like Toronto World,
Toronto News, Toronto Saturday Night defended the veterans and denounced Bryan’s
visit as “an outrage to the living and an insult to the dead.”18 Less critical, Calgary
(Alberta) Herald and Toronto Starsimply described his visit as a mistake. Many
American newspaper editors felt this way as well.19
Some French-Canadian newspapers, such as Le Canada, sharply criticized the English
language press and the treatment of Bryan, using the incident to berate English
speaking Canadians. As the Toronto Canadian Congregationalist emphasized, “Quebec
papers have not been slow in their criticisms.”20 Sympathetic to Bryan, Toronto Globe
praised the Nebraskan for the way he handled the situation. Some newspapers, like
17
Hamilton Spectator. Montreal Star, La Presse (Montreal), Canadian Congregationalist,
Pioneer (Toronto), Belleville Daily Ontario, and Toronto’s Farmer’s Sun, regretted the
insult to Bryan. Sun, the most pro-Bryan paper, criticized Mayor Church for not having
welcomed Bryan to the city. And stressed, as did Bryan, that the disturbance had been
caused by “a small percentage…and these were deliberately incited to turbulence.” 21
Probably Bryan’s prestige in Canada had its low point between 1915-18, but in 1918
based on the thousands of people who came out to hear him speak about prohibition in
Toronto there were still many Canadians who admired him. Bryan had been the most
popular and well known American in Canada in 1908-1909. To some Canadian veterans
who disrupted one of his three speeches in Toronto Bryan had become an ogre, a
symbol of pacifism and pro-German sentiment, none of which was actually true in 1918.
An unknown Canadian writing to the American magazine, Outlook, expressed the
bitterness of part of the Canadian public felt towards Bryan:
Four years ago no more popular visitor of the United States to Canada could be
found than Mr. W.J. Bryan. But it is not so now. His actions againstsince the war began
have filled Canadians with the keenest of bitterness, and that feeling is not to be easily
allayed.: 22
However, considering the friendly response Bryan received from the great majority of
three audiences Bryan was still warmly regarded by many Canadians, especially many
prohibitionists. James Acton, President of the Trade Journal, informed Bryan that the
best citizens of Toronto regretted what had happened. Action told Bryan not to be
discouraged and pointed out some veterans had shouted down the Premier of Ontario.
Canadian prohibitionists wrote to Bryan and thanked him for coming to Toronto. His
Canadian friends in the prohibitionist movement expressed their appreciation to Bryan
for having spoken at the Annual Convention of the Ontario branch of the Dominion
Alliance. They wrote, “the courtesy and pluck which he manifested under exceedingly
trying circumstances…won our admiration and esteem. We honour him as a Christian
gentleman and love him as a comrade in a great cause.’23
1Henry Ferns and B. Ostry, Age of Mackenzie King, (Toronto: British Book
Service,1955). 17-180; King to Bryan, 3 and 4 September 1914 and Bryan to King, 15
September 1914,
Mackenzie King Papers, National Library and Archives of Canada, Ottawa, Canada.
Also,
R. MacGregor Dawson, William Lyon Mackenzie King, (Toronto: University of Toronto
Press. 1958), I, 257.
18
2Kingston Standard, 9 June 1915. 4.
3Saturday Night, 12 June 1915, 1.
4Kingston Whig, 9 June 1915, 4.
5Hamilton Herald, 10 June 1915. 4.
6Toronto Star, 10 June 1915, 7.
7MontréalLe Devoir, 10 June 1915.
8Toronto News, 25 February 1918, in Bryan Scrapbook #7, Canadian Campaign,
William Jennings Bryan Papers (WJP hereafter), Nebraska State Historical Society,
Lincoln, Nebraska.
9Toronto Mail and Empire, 27 February 1918, WJP. For Spence quote, see Toronto
World,
26 February 1918, WJP.
10Toronto World, 27 February 1918, WJP.
11Toronto News, 27 February 1918, WJP.
12Toronto Telegram, 1 March 1918, 18.
13Halifax Herald, 1 March 1918. 1.
14Toronto Star, 1 March 1918, 12.
15New York Times, 2 March 1918, 10.
16New York World, reprinted in the Toronto Star, 4 March 1918. 1. Also, in Bryan’s own
newspaper, Commoner, April 1918, 4.
17Toronto Mail and Empire, 5 March 1918, WJP
18Toronto Telegram, 1 March 1918, 18.
19Paolo Coletta, William Jennings Bryan Political Puritan, 1915-1925, (Lincoln: University
of Nebraska, 1969), III, 75; Commoner, March 1918, 8, Toronto News, 18 March 1918,
18.
20Canadian Congregationalist, March 1918, 1.
21Farmer’s Sun, 6 March 1918, 4.
22Outlook, 13 March 1918, 398.
23For Acton, Commoner, March 1918, 8; For prohibitionists, Bryan Scrapbook, #7:
Canadian Campaign, WJP.
19
Looking for Love in All the Right Places:
An analysis of Religious and Inspirational Romance Novels
Dancing dukes and two-stepping cowboys in romance novels offer escape from
the complexities of modern living. Understanding this genre provides significant insight
into popular culture. Romance novels capture the hearts of readers worldwide, offering
a wide array of stories that encompass love, passion, and enduring relationships.
Romance provides a platform for exploring complex emotions, relationships and
personal growth. These novels allow readers to immerse themselves in compelling
narratives ranging from historical romances to contemporary love stories. This genre
offers a unique blend of entertainment, emotional resonance, and literary exploration.
Readership of romance novels has increased during the COVID-19 pandemic
and every year since. Ann Kjellberg, a reporter for the Observer, noted in her story
“Derided for Centuries, Romance Novels are Big Business,” that the annual sales of this
genre amounted to more than $1.4 billion dollars in 2022. A 2018 study reported that
25% of all books sold were romances. Seventeen percent of romance readers prefer
religious, Christian, or inspirational romances. It is important to look at this sub-genre
and the categories within it. They offer a diversity of characters, subjects, and settings
with the opportunity to get away from the troubles of modern life. Be ready for some
pleasant surprises with familiar tropes and archetypes you love in new and reassuring
settings.
French social scientist Emile Durkheim in The Elementary Forms of Religious
Life (1915) said a religion is defined by beliefs, rituals, and a moral community centered
around the worship of a deity or deities, or a divine power, or ultimate reality. It often
includes a system of ethics, a code of behavior, a community of believers, and a
worldview that explains the meaning and purpose of existence. Durkheim’s theory
asserted religions sort out the sacred from the profane. Religions offer explanations for
the meaning of the universe and humanity’s place within it, as well as rituals and
practices to connect with the divine or spiritual realm. They can be organized around
specific foundational texts, traditions, and sacred or symbolic objects. Different faiths
have diverse beliefs about the nature of the divine, the afterlife, salvation, and the
meaning of life. Theologians debate the truth of various religious teachings. Sociologists,
on the other hand, look at how these social-cultural systems affect people’s lives.
According to James Henslin in Sociology: A Down to Earth Approach (2003),
religion serves various functions across cultures and societies. It questions the meaning
of life. It provides emotional comfort, hope, and solace in times of distress, grief, or
uncertainty and offers moral guidelines for everyday life by helping individuals
distinguish between right and wrong. Religion helps people adapt to or resist change. It
plays a key role in identity formation sometimes supporting specific governments. At
other times, it fosters social change. Religion can act as a unifying force, bringing
people together by creating a sense of community.
Religion has a dysfunctional aspect. Zealots start wars, precipitate terror, and
persecute others. Theologians argue endlessly over the source of authority and who
possesses the ultimate truth. Religious extremism often fosters a “them” vs. “us” attitude
with only those who believe as “we” do capable of worthiness and salvation. What this
means, as far as romance novels, is a lack of understanding and acceptance of the
20
customs and practices of other religions, sexual persuasions, and often rights of women.
Many thinkers doubt whether the term “religion” is definable. Others argue the term is a
post-Christian Western concept with little applicability to Eastern cultures. In summary,
inspirational and spiritual romance novels offer surprising diversity and opportunity but,
by their nature, can present the reading public with problems.
The researchers analyzed novels using 15 factors of analysis including: title and
publication information, genre, front cover, back cover, primary characters, secondary
characters, sex signals, narrative, good/bad writing, tropes, archetypes, and mid-plot
twist. They found the author’s religious orientation affected the content and audience of
their writing. Religious romance novels are notable for what they leave out, such as
explicit sex scenes, and by what they include, the faith journey of the two main
characters. This paper offers hypotheses that allow romance writers to better
understand their craft and readers to enjoy it. It starts with the major world religions,
each of which features their own unique brand of romance novel.
World Religions
Religious romance novels offer readers a chance to enter a world of love
relationships in a familiar and reassuring setting. From a functional perspective, religion
is universal because it meets basic human needs, like comfort in time of crisis, group
solidarity, and social control. Novels in this sub-genre proved particularly popular during
the pandemic and thereafter. They feature the beliefs of the world’s major religions.
They depict Christian guidelines for everyday life. They portray Jewish rituals at
Hanukkah. Muslim romances describe the challenge of living in a secular society with
various national groups having divergent views on Islam. Hindu romances relate the
conflict of emotions over arranged and love marriages. A Buddhist romance chronicles
how a religious conversion affected the members of a family in different ways.
This section features the beliefs, practices, and moral communities of the world’s
major religions as portrayed in romances. Jewish, Muslim, Hindu, and Buddhist religions
all contribute their unique world-view to the love relationships and happy endings of
romance novels. However, at times, it may challenge the beliefs of the reader.
Romances can inform us on how other cultures and sub-cultures treat human love
relationships. The narratives of the next two Christian romances elicited sharp reactions
from many readers, responses that may affect what people choose to read.
Christian Romances - These novels, also called kissing books, feature love
stories that have overt or subtle Christian beliefs throughout. Sarah Hamaker, a
contributing writer for Crosswalk, a Christian website, reminded her readers in her
article “Love Reigns on the Bookshelves’” that Christian romances provide escape from
an increasingly coarse and venal society. Readers know the story will end happily for
the main characters. The Christian element allows readers to see their faith played out
in the characters’ lives, helping them better understand their own faith journey.
Christians take great joy in reading stories that reflect their values. For many, the love
expressed by the characters in a Romance is a natural extension of Christian doctrine.
They believe God is love. He created humans in His own image. They understand the
romantic love they feel is one of God’s gifts.
Some readers can’t conceive of a romance novel without a steamy sex scene.
Many would disagree. Religious romance novels are extremely popular. The market for
21
Christian Romances varies from year to year, earning publishers over 757.7 million
dollars in 2012. The market centers on self-publishers, small, local Christian publishers,
and a few large publishers like Bethany House and Harvest House Publishers.
Harlequin has moved into this area. These publishers focus on the multiple offerings of
a few well-known authors and concentrate on their own set of recognition awards,
especially after awards in the Romance Writers of America (RWA) religious and
inspirational category resulted in a storm of controversy.
There is a huge variety within this sub-genre from those featuring sigh-worthy
kisses to rebel Christian novels that detail much more. There are a number of lists that
help readers find the type of books they desire. These novels are clean and wholesome:
code for not depicting explicit sex scenes. This analysis found the absence of such
scenes in no way deterred from their enjoyment as love stories featuring relationships,
with the all-important happy ending. The researchers examined five Christian Romance
Novel sub-categories: seven Fundamental romances, six in the very popular Amish sub-
group, four Roman Catholic, three Latter-Day Saint, and two inspirational.
The following two novels illustrate the contrast between functional and
dysfunctional aspects of storytelling in Christian romances. The first novel stoked
controversy because of two awards given by the Romance Writers of America. The
RWA once featured an award that is the equivalent of the Oscar in film. They called it
the Rita after their first President Rita Clay Estrada. In 2015, the RWA nominated For
Such a Time (2015) by Kate Breslin, published by Bethany House, for best first book
and best inspirational romance. Critics charged that a Stockholm syndrome might exist
between a Nazi Officer and a prisoner in a concentration camp, but no true romance
could ever exist in a situation of such unequal power. They insisted the cover of the
book was mendacious and callous. It depicted a stylized yellow star; similar to the
symbol used by the Nazis to stigmatize the Jewish people. The cover also contained a
picture of Jews at Auschwitz. The synopsis on the back cover referred to the heroine as
a Jewess, a term that has fallen out of use because some perceive it as having
pejorative sexual connotations.
The book features epigrams from the book of Esther, an Old Testament story
that essentially forms the Jewish celebration of Purim. This Biblical story tells how a
young woman became the queen of Persia and stopped plans of genocide against her
people by appealing to her husband. Breslin set her story in a concentration camp
during World War II. In her version, Colonel Aric von Schmidt, the camp commandant,
saved a blonde-haired and blue-eyed woman from a firing squad at Dachau because
her papers stated she was Aryan. He gave Hadassah Benjamin, a cover name for Stella
Muller, a job as his secretary. In that position, she interceded with him to save the
camp’s prisoners. Eventually she converts to Christianity.
Reviewers noted the disparities of power displayed between the main characters.
Aric physically touched and manhandled her as a sign of his authority and ardor. Many
critics labeled the novel anti-Semitic, charging RWA of creating an atmosphere where
writers of other faiths, not just Jewish, felt unwelcome. In response, Breslin asserted
she did not understand the criticism of her book, and stated she had nothing but
compassion for the plight of the Jewish people during the Holocaust.
The RWA discontinued the Rita awards and promised to improve sensitivity to
different religions. Controversy erupted again in 2021 over a RWA award with the same
22
publisher in the same inspirational category. Karen Witemyer’s At Love’s Command
(2020) solicited a storm of criticism for its treatment of indigenous peoples after winning
the Vivian, a new award named after Vivian Stephens, a Black woman who co-founded
RWA. The novel centers on Matt Hanger, a veteran from the Wounded Knee massacre
in 1890. His Christian faith and the love of a good woman help him reconcile his
conscience with his past moral failings. The problem is not primarily with Witemeyer’s
message, but with her retelling of the tragedy at Wounded Knee in the prologue. She
ignored primary source materials like photographs and firsthand accounts. Instead, she
used a false narrative designed to suppress the truth about a mass killing of indigenous
people.
Witemeyer correctly identifies it as a massacre. She accurately described the use
of Hotchkiss 42mm. light artillery pieces to slaughter innocent women and children.
However, she used the traditional cover-up story to mitigate and excuse Hanger’s
involvement in the genocide of nearly 300 men, women, and children of the Lakota
Tribe. She repeated the claim the chanting by Lakota medicine men “spooked” and the
ghost dancing “made the soldiers nervous” (p. 10). She recounted the assertion the
refusal of a Native American man to give up his rifle triggered the incident. In her story,
Hanger killed a Native American woman and child, but Witemeyer pointed out that since
they were armed, they were considered combatants. The implication is clear. The
Lakota people were somewhat responsible for the horrific violence that transpired.
Author Witemeyer’s characters are sharply drawn. Matt Hanger is a retired
Cavalry Officer and Dr. Josephine Burkett is a spirited female physician. The familiar
romantic trope of a good woman saving a troubled man runs true and ends in a happy
marriage. After the prologue, the novel is a tale of kidnap and ransom that reads like a
Western dime novel. Witemeyer used an improbable account to extol the heroism of her
main character and his men and find redemption for their crimes against humanity. For
example, the former soldiers operated as mercenaries protecting ranchers from rustlers.
They returned fire only in self-defense, and then only to wound, because of guilt for their
part in the Indian wars.
Witemeyer in “My statement on why I am returning my Vivian Award,” showed
she really did not understand the problem with her novel. She rejected RWA’s
description of the hero of her work “as seeking redemption from crimes against
humanity.” She expressed disappointment the rubric for the award did not weed out
overly racist or problematic books. Furthermore, she resigned from RWA and declined
to accept the award. In reply to Witemeyer’s statement, the RWA board of directors
asserted they could not support the decision of the judges who originally approved the
award celebrating a book depicting the inhumane treatment of indigenous people and
romanticized real world tragedies still affecting people. How the 13 judges who picked
this novel for an award in the first place failed to anticipate the predictable furor over
their choice is unexplainable.
Part of the problem stemmed from the fact the RWA charged publishers a fairly
high fee for consideration of an award. Publishers expected some consideration for their
payment. Whether the industry is doing a better job at racial diversity and inclusiveness
of LGBTQ identities is a subject ripe for further research. One thing for certain,
Romance writers and publishers will continue to monitor the demands of their readers,
avoid controversy, and pay attention to their profit margin.
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Jewish - The Matzah Ball (2021) by Jean Meltzer is especially helpful for those
who wish to learn more about everyday life in the Ashkenazi Yiddish speaking Jewish
community. About 80 percent of Jewish people today are Ashkenazim. Matzah Ball is a
romance novel about a Jewish woman who writes Christmas romance novels. The
author attended rabbinical school before contracting a chronic illness. She used the
most common trope in romance novels. Two people, who at first don’t like each other,
overcome their differences by solving a problem. In so doing, they discover they are
soul mates, fall in love, and marry. The author adds a Jewish twist to this familiar plot
line, that of bashert. This concept literally means destiny, but in practice means much
more. Your other half exists to make you better. They have character traits you lack.
They challenge you, as a couple, to become better people.
This witty well-crafted book is filled with insights into Jewish tradition. A recurrent
theme is “God only works through broken vessels” (p. 133) from the Midrash, a book of
Biblical commentary. An old Jewish saying, “Love is nice but tastes better with bread”
brings a chuckle to the reader (p. 133). Jean Meltzer infuses her life experiences into
every page of this novel. The two irresistible main characters in the book, Rachel and
Jacob, struggle to attain wisdom as they overcome their fears of abandonment, pride,
and self-doubt. Jacob, the archetypical male epitome of strength and caring expressed
it in a saying he learned in a Catholic school, “Everything in life is designed to lead us to
a higher purpose” (p. 306). The researchers recommend this book as a highly
entertaining read and as an example of how to write a romance novel. This novel is
authentic, steeped in Jewish values and history. People familiar with Jewish culture will
find lots of familiar terms. Those who lack such background may need to look up some
Hebrew and Yiddish terms, but in so doing will receive a rich reward.
Muslim - “What do you see when you think of me,” asks Ayesha, a young Islamic
woman at a poetry slam in Uzma Jalaluddin’s Ayesha At Last (2018). She wears a
purple hair hijab, blue button-down blouse, blazer, and black pants. Watching her
intently is Khalid, a young man with a long beard, flowing white robe, and skullcap. He is
so conservative he will not shake a woman’s hand. After losing his job because of
discrimination, Khalid asked his Imam for advice. The head of the Muslim community
questioned Khalid, “What is your intent in wearing traditional clothing?”
While mulling over his answer, Khalid became involved with Ayesha’s female
cousin, Hafsa. She has over 100 marriage proposals. For some reason, Hafsa’s mother
paired Khalid up with Hafsa in an arranged marriage. Surprising everybody, she
accepted. But then she ran away with a man who took pornographic pictures of her.
This scuttled the proposed marriage with Khalid. Subsequently, Hafsa married an
entirely different man. Free of his previous obligations, Khalid returns to Ayesha. They
agreed to marry in a year. This crazy and complex plot is really very simple: girl gets
boy, girl loses boy, girl gets boy. It does, however, accurately portray tensions between
various sects and cultural groups within a Muslim community.
Hindu – Chetan Bhgat’s 2 States (2009) gives readers a new twist on a familiar
romance plot line. Only this time, it is boy meets girl, they fall in love, but their parents
do not get along and will not approve their marriage. His mother is from Punjabi in the
North of India. Her mother and father are Tamil from the South of India. Vast differences
in language and culture separate the two sets of parents. Hard work on the part of the
24
couple in love finally brings about reconciliation and something vary important in Hindu
religion, approval of the parents for their impending marriage.
Buddhism is not a theistic religion, but rather a spiritual path. Buddha Da (2019)
by Anne Donovan told the story of Jimmy, a painter of houses and murals in Glasgow,
Scotland. He seemed happy in his marriage and doted on his musical teenage
daughter. But he yearned for something beyond the quotidian. He found it in meditation
at the local Buddhist center where he spent much of his time in the view of his wife and
daughter. His daughter was totally absorbed in a music contest. His wife fell into an
affair out of loneliness. Her desire for another child led to a pregnancy. Jimmy realized
that this situation was not about him, but life itself. He accepted the child growing inside
his wife, even though it is not his. For Jimmy, a happy ending lay in finding truth through
the acceptance of suffering.
Sub-category - Christian Romances
Within the major religion of Christianity there are different denominations such as
fundamental protestant, Amish, Roman Catholic, and Latter-Day Saint. The fifth sub-
category is not a denomination at all, but rather the lack of one. Inspirational romances
are generally light-hearted novels espousing beliefs in faith and prayer common to all
Christian denominations. There are romance novels that explore the beliefs, practices,
and world-view of all five of these sub-categories.
Fundamental – These type of romances, also called Evangelical, emphasize
“Coming to Jesus,” a transformation in one’s way of life resulting from penitence or
spiritual conversion. A well-known Biblical example of this conversion experience is
“Rabbi Saul” falling to the ground and hearing the voice of God. Fundamentalist writers
believe what God demands of people is metanoia, transformation, a complete change of
heart such as occurred to the “Apostle Paul” on the road to Damascus.
Francine Rivers’ (1997) Redeeming Love, a historical romance novel set in the
days of the California Gold Rush of 1850, received the Evangelical Publishers Gold
award, sold a million copies, and appeared as a film. Rivers based this novel on a
Biblical message found in the Book of Hosea. Several years later after becoming a born
again Christian, she rewrote the novel, giving it a more explicit Christian message. God
will forgive his people even if they turn from Him. Those of the same Fundamentalist
religious persuasion as Rivers might like this book. She is a good writer and tells her
story with clarity and vividness.
The Biblical trope in River’s story presents problems for many religious Romance
writers. The life of the heroine, Sarah, is a descent into hell bereft of God’s grace.
Rivers’ story demonstrates God’s mercy is infinite and there is a happy ending. Sarah
enjoys a happy married life with Michael Hosea and, though she is supposedly barren,
had three children. But to reach the happy ending in the Epilogue of the book, the
reader must plow through 462 pages of degradation and despair. This novel is a
Romance that presents a powerful Christian message. Even so, the reader must be
prepared for an overwhelming negative experience, not found in most Romance novels.
The difference between an excellent Christian novel and a mediocre one often
comes down to the author’s development over a few years. Tamera Alexander’s
Beyond This Moment (2009), published by Bethany House, tells the story of Dr. Molly
Whitcomb who lost her position as Professor of Romance languages after becoming
25
pregnant without benefit of marriage. She lied on her resume to find employment. She
bought a wedding ring and claimed she was married when she arrived at the new job
teaching grade school in Timber Ridge, Colorado. Sheriff James McPherson befriended
her. Once her pregnancy is discovered she loses her subsequent teaching position.
James continued to support her throughout the birth of a baby girl. Only then did she
admit the truth to him. After much soul searching, he proposed marriage. This trope of
the good man of faith who saves a “fallen” woman does not make for a good Romance
novel. One can’t base a relationship on a lie. The heroine’s confession seemed
contrived when she confesses all to James on the last page of the novel. There is no
conversion, only mutual acceptance that they both withheld the truth from each another.
This Evangelical romance novel did not deliver an ending readers expect.
On the other hand, Alexander’s A Note Yet Unsung (2017) is a classy novel with
an exquisite cover that tells the story at a glance. It shows a young woman in profile,
wearing a sparkling silver anti-bellum sleeveless dress. She holds a violin at her side.
She appears ready to take a bow for her performance, a startling act because women
were not allowed to perform in symphonies until the 1920s. The red and gold multiple
balconies of an ornate opera house gleam in the background. Alexander demonstrates
an ability to write with clear prose and telling metaphors, sharp dialogue, and keeping
the reader off-balance with the unexpected. Alexander stays focused on her musical
plot. The author has a unique ability to convey human emotions that touch the reader
deeply from the first page to the last. She writes knowingly about locations in the city in
which she lives, Nashville, Tennessee. Those with little musical background will learn a
great deal and those who share a strong musical interest will rejoice.
The spirituality in the novel is true to the characters and never obtrusive. The
author uses appropriate biblical quotes to enhance the experiences of her characters.
Readers who profess religiosity will be amazed and encouraged. The author has
obviously done extended research on orchestral music, and deafness. There is a
richness here for both the musically inclined and neophytes. Alexander handles racial
difference with care and expresses gratitude for the influence of the various sources of
the music. Her ending is particularly joyous with the arch-villain soundly defeated and a
country wedding with a long-lost friend to give the bride away. This well crafted best
seller is a must read for Romance readers of all tastes.
Joy Ohagwu’s “Red” (2014) is a contemporary Christian suspense Romance
novel by a Black author. It is intensely religious with a strong fundamental Christian
component reflecting the author’s beliefs. It has some of the flaws of a first novel in a
series. The Biblical scriptural quotations before each chapter sometimes, but not always,
set the tone. The plot is jerky with various characters entering and leaving high security
areas with ease. However, the author does a superb job of character development in a
friends-to-lovers romance. Her writing is taut and maintains suspense by often referring
to time. Her hero, a policeman, is the archetype of a strong protective man. Her heroine,
a delivery person, witnessed a murder in the opening scene of the book. Sex scenes
are limited to hugs, tender kisses, and longing looks. An evil corporation with a
doomsday machine constitutes the villain.
Tracie Peterson and Kimberly Woodhouse’s The Heart’s Choice (2023) is a
Christian historical suspense romance novel. If prayer, studying the Bible, and attending
Christian religious services is a part of your life, you will enjoy this book. If you like
26
libraries and reading you will love it. The authors write in a clear direct style that
maintains the suspense to the very end. They use humor effectively to relieve the
tension as the suspense builds. Peterson lives in Montana and has extensively
researched the setting of this novel, Kalispell, Montana in 1908. The attractive cover of
the books is graced by the image of a young woman clad in a purple dress with a straw
hat topped by flowers. Snow capped mountains are in the background and inserts
depict the main street and library of Kalispell, Montana.
The novel tells the story of Rebecca; a courageous young woman who accepts
position as law reporter and leaves her home in Chicago for Kalispell, Montana. She
finds good friends, a love interest, and religion. Then, a murder case brings back
childhood memories of a killing she witnessed. No one would listen to her and a jury
convicted an innocent man to death. Rebecca enlisted her friend, Mark, a librarian, to
save the man from the gallows. Together they pieced together enough evidence to clear
the man and capture the real culprit. Justice is done and the epilogue chronicles the
couple’s happy wedding.
Fundamental romance novels do not have explicit sex scenes, but they are lots
of fun and have a huge audience. Covers are free to explore new inviting themes.
Historical settings are interesting and compelling. Religious words, phrases, when true
to the character and plot, enhance the story and link like-minded readers to
communities of faith. There are pitfalls. Religious rhetoric can overwhelm some readers.
Evangelical writers may assume their personal relationship with God is singular and
common to all thus overlooking or misunderstanding the beliefs of others. The trope of
the “ wanton woman” saved by a good man and the grace of God, although Biblical,
does not always make a smooth transition to the romance genre. Readers have a
difficult time empathizing with a heroine immersed in sin and travail. Actually, one can
find much good, perhaps even redemption, in this hidden and overlooked sub-genre.
Amish -Those interested in Amish novels, a sub-category of Christian Romance
novels, should start with Beverly Lewis’ The Shunning (1997). Her groundbreaking
novel established Amish as a legitimate category. It is a difficult book to read
undoubtedly more so for a “believer” but even for a “non-believer.” It is obviously an
accurate portrayal of the Amish community. There is joy and pain, hope and despair.
For many, there is confusion. It is hard not to be appalled at certain religious traditions,
especially for women. Yet, one cannot condemn those who choose to practice it. The
problem is with those who have no choice. The book is not really a romance novel, but
part of a romance series. Readers do not discover the happy ending until the end of the
third novel in this author’s trilogy.
Lewis inspired a long list of Amish novels. One of the most endearing is Tracey
Lyons’ The Amish Teacher’s Wish (2021). An Amish bachelor repairs a young 17-year-
old schoolteacher’s school and in the process wins her heart. Amish authors like to
sprinkle German phrases in their dialogue so a little “Deutsch” helps. Many Amish
novels feature the tired trope of the heroine seeking shelter in the Amish community
from violent ex-husbands, drug dealers, and rogue policemen. Eventually, they meet a
kind gentle widower with whom they find love and safety. Those in this Amish suspense
category include Mary Alford’s (2022), Shielding the Amish Witness, Marta Perry’s
Unexpected Amish Match, Laura Scott’s Deadly Amish Abduction, and Allison Stone’s,
Seeking Amish Shelter (2022).
27
Authors of Amish romances tell two tales – one functional and the other
dysfunctional. Four of the five Amish novels analyzed by the researchers romanticized
this ethno-religious group as a caring place of refuge peopled by simple humble folk
who resist modernization. This escape into a simpler way of life is comforting to many
readers. The basic plot involves a young woman who finds refuge from the dangers of
the modern world in an Amish community. She meets and falls in love with a man who
is a single parent. His effort to protect her from the villain who pursues her involves a
buggy chase. In the end, the couple marries and lives happily ever after.
In summary, Lewis’ dysfunctional tale, The Shunning (1997) focused on the
control mechanisms used by the Amish to achieve solidarity. Patriarchs ruled the family
and the congregation. A father often arranged his daughter’s marriage to a man she did
not love. Members of the congregation signed a document spelling out detailed rules for
dress and behavior. Violations of these proscriptions resulted in the shunning and
ousting of the heroine from the community. While many readers appreciate the clean
and wholesome nature of Amish society, below the surface, there is another story.
There are many well-researched Sociological works and first-hand accounts for those
interested in discovering more about the Amish way of life.
Roman Catholic – Perhaps because of the unsavory reputation of Romance
novels, very few include Roman Catholic themes and characters. Most that do are
heavy on doctrine upholding the traditional Church’s teachings on sexuality, marriage,
and family. One author from the 1990’s does stand out, Father Andrew M. Greeley, a
Roman Catholic priest from Chicago. Greeley served as an assistant pastor, college
professor, and writer until he died in 2018 after a tragic accident. His novels explore the
world of Catholicism after the reforms of the Vatican II Council in 2012. His opinions on
birth control, sexuality, and corruption in the church hierarchy are relevant to this day.
The researchers for this book examined four of Greeley’s works that exhibited great
breadth and depth. He offered insights to Irish and Chicago history. In a locked room
murder mystery, Happy are the Meek (1985), he traced the intricacies of life in a large
Irish family, the O’Malley’s. This small Christmas novel has a tremendous impact.
Greeley explores sexual attraction in Star Bright! (1997). The heroine Odessa
tells her companions on a double date that the Song of Solomon in the Bible explains
“God is a very patient lover with a wonderful sense of humor” (p. 71). Odessa, through
her Russian stories, art, and cooking uncovers the true meaning of Christmas and starts
the members of the family on a journey of forgiveness and personal growth. Father
Greeley detailed the venality and corruption of the Roman hierarchy in White Smoke
(1996), a book about electing the Pope. The book has a lovely backstory as Bishop
Blackie, Greeley’s chief protagonist, helps a couple whose marriage ended in bitter
anger renew their love. Despite his criticisms, all of his novels reaffirm his respect for
the Church and love for the holiness between humans.
Greeley’s Nuala Anne McGrail series has all the components for wondrous
Romance novels. It deals with the personal and professional life of an Irish Catholic
woman from courtship, to marriage, and family. The series starts with Irish Gold (1994),
a contemporary, suspense novel featuring Nuala Anne and her suitor Dermot who
overcomes thugs and Nuala’s trauma as a rape victim. In addition, Greeley provides the
exciting backstory of Dermot’s grandparents who left Ireland during the Troubles and no
one knows why. If you can’t find a romance on the shelf with a Catholic background,
28
you cannot go wrong looking at the novels of Father Andrew Greeley. If you want more
intimacy than is found in Christian Romances, try some different sub-genres.
Latter-Day Saint - Goodreads Listopia list of 420 romances features LDS writers
and publishers. The most important criteria for inclusion on this list is the book
expresses the strong Christian values held by the Mormon Church. Three exceptional
novels proved excellent reading with emphasis on Christian values applicable to people
of faith. The first chronicles contemporary challenges for young people in a small town
in Oregon. The second two are English historical romances set in the Regency period.
Josephine Blake’s, Let It Snow, Cowboy (2002) features all the standard tropes
of contemporary cowboy romance novels. The good girl saves the bad boy cowboy. He,
in turn, offers support, protection, and romance. However, this novel rises to a new level
of understanding of young people growing up in a small town who do not go to college
like many in their high school class. They are trapped in minimum wage jobs with
unrealized hopes and dreams. Both main characters exhibit low self-esteem and issues
with the expectations of their parents. Blake deals with them in a tender and insightful
way with emphasis on openness and forgiveness. This novel takes a familiar plot line to
a new level of understanding and is well-worth reading.
Sarah Eden’s Drops of Gold (2023), another wonderful novel, is set in England
during the Regency period. The author tells the story of Philip, a gentleman tormented
with guilt, who finds healing after the suicide of his wife with the help of Marion, his
child’s governess. Marion has her own secrets. She is of noble birth, but penniless and
abandoned after the burial of her father and brother on the same day. Under English
law, she had no rights, except through a distant male cousin. In desperation, she
contracted her services as a governess i.e. servant. Both principle characters must work
through their lies and self-deceits to find love.
This novel documents insights from Paterson’s Commentaries on the
punishments for suicide like forfeiture of all property and an unmarked burial beside the
road with a stake through the heart. The main character thought these draconian
punishments might apply to the death of his wife, even though the law clearly exempts
those who are not competent by reason of insanity (p. 397). The author’s detailed
historical research and the clean and bright appearance of the cover, layout, and
typesetting of the book enhance the readers’ experience. However, the process, of self-
realization of the two main characters is what enchants and uplifts the spirits of the
reader.
Julianne Donaldson’s Edenbrooke (2012) takes place in the Regency period of
English history. The grandmother of the hero, Marianne, sends her to the country estate
of a friend to learn how to become an accomplished and refined lady. Marianne is
anything but, preferring riding horses, falling into rivers, and an occasional “twirling” in
joy at the beauty of nature. Lord Philip struggled with a conflict between protecting her
as he promised or wooing her as a suitor. Maryanne must learn how and when to assert
herself, instead of always putting others first, especially her twin sister. Along the way to
self-realization, there are exciting highway robberies, shootings, kidnaping, and a duel.
There is never a dull moment in this riveting tale of self-discovery.
Inspirational – These novels entertain with faith, adventure, and a light touch.
Cami Checketts, best-selling author of 243 works, offers fun to read suspense romance
novels with lives committed to their faith, including The Royal Major (2023) and The
29
Grieving King (2023). You know it is a Christian novel with references to God and
prayer. However, the characters are vivid and their relationships are compelling. It takes
place in Switzerland and the neighboring fictional country of Augustine. Readers relate
to Chad, a rake archetype in The Royal Major (2023), as he successfully woos the
heroine, Hope. Can Hope overcome her fears and build a lasting relationship with Chad,
a man attracted by and to beautiful women? In the Grieving King (2023), can Nolan, a
middle-aged king with adult children, find solace for his grief and new love with
Madeline? Readers may groan in empathy with the relationship mistakes made by the
heroines in both stories.
Conclusion
Religious romance novels have replaced images of handsome cowboys and
women in ball gowns with more tasteful covers. This signals readers these novels do
not contain explicit sex scenes, relate the story of a compelling relationship, and have a
happy ending. Readers enjoy familiar tropes they love in familiar settings. Increasing
sales of religious romance novels indicate a broadening appeal of romances in general.
These novels have attracted an increasingly younger readership, including teenagers.
Romance will always be part of life, and each new generation wants to read about it.
Their story lines appeal to television and film crossovers, lucrative areas for authors.
They can also gain insight into other cultures. There are problems with this sub-genre.
The beliefs that bind communities often blind them to the convictions of those who do
not share the same world-view. Overall, though, this type of romance novel contained
more positives than negatives.
What do you think of when you see a romance novel? If you remember the
1990’s you may recall “bodice rippers” and Fabio, the Italian model, whose well-
muscled torso graced the covers of over 400 romances. The covers have changed as
the publishers of romance novels quickly respond to the demands of readers for a more
nuanced product. Today’s romances are more diverse, but still in need of improvement.
This growth in diversity helps a once ridiculed genre gain respect as it merges with
contemporary women’s fiction. One thing for sure, as long as readers seek respite from
their hectic life, there will always be a market for romances.
References (N = 27).
Alexander, T. (2009). Beyond this moment. Minneapolis (MN): Bethany House.
----. (2017). A note yet unsung. Minneapolis (MN): Bethany House.
Alford, M. (2022). Amish country hideout. Toronto: Harlequin.
Bhgat, C. (2009). 2 states. New Delhi (India): Rupa Publishing.
Blake, J. (2022). Let it snow, cowboy. Suttons Bay MI: Oliver-Heber Books.
Breslin, K. (2014). For such a time. Minneapolis (MN): Bethany House.
Checketts, T. (2023). The Royal major. (2023). Dahphne, AL: Birch River Publishing.
---- . The Grieving king. (2023). Daphne, AL: Birch River Publishing.
Donaldson, J. (2012). Edenbrooke. Salt Lake City UT: Shadow Mountain Publishing.
Donovan, A. (2019). Buddha da. Edinburgh UK: Canon Publishers.
Eden, S. (2013). Drops of gold. American Forks UT: Covenant Publishing.
Greeley, A. (1997). Star bright! New York: MacMillan Publishers.
----. (1995). Happy are the meek. New York: Warner Books.
----. (1994). Irish gold. New York: Forge Press, Tom Doherty Associates.
30
----. (1996). White smoke. New York: Forge Press, Tom Doherty Associates.
Jalaluddin, U. (2018). Ayesha at last. New York: Berkley.
Lewis, B. (1997). The Shunning. Bloomington MN.: Bethany House.
Lyons, T. (2022). The Amish teacher’s wish. Toronto: Love Inspired.
Meltzer, J. (2021). The Matza ball. Toronto CA: Mira publishing.
Ohagwu, J. (2014). Red: the new rulebook. Troutdale, OR: Self-Published.
Perry, M. (2022). A secret Amish rush. Toronto: Love Inspired Publishers.
Peterson, T. and Woodhouse, K. (2023). The heart’s choice. Minneapolis (MN):
Bethany House.
Rivers, F. (1997). Redeeming love. New York: Random House.
Scott, L. (2023). Deadly Amish abduction. Toronto: Love Inspired publishers.
Stone, A. (2022). Seeking Amish shelter. Toronto: Harlequin.
Witemeyer, K. (2020). At love’s command. Minneapolis (MN): Bethany House.
Resources
Durkheim, E. (1915). The Elementary forms of religious life. London U.K.: George
Allen& Unwin Ltd.
Hamaker, S, (20 April 2023). “Love Reigns on the Bookshelves”Crosswalk.com.
Retrieved from <https://www.crosswalk.com/culture/books/love-reigns-on-the-
shelves.html#google_vignette>
Henslin, J. (2003). Sociology: a down to earth approach. Boston: Pearson Publishing. `
Jamie and Sunita. (11 August 2015). “A Joint Discussion: For Such a Time” by Kate
Breslin – Dear Author. Retrieved at <https://dearauthor.com/features/letters-of-
opinion/joint-discussion-time-kate-breslin/>
Kjellberg, A. (2 September 2022). “Derided for centuries, romance novels are big
business.” The Observer. Retrieved from <https://observer.com/2022/09/derided-
for-centuries-romance-novels-are-a-huge-business/>
List of LDS Romance Novels. (2024). Goodreads, Listopia. Retrieved at
<https://www.goodreads.com/list/show/71703.LDS_Romance>
Paterson, J. (1877). Commentaries on the liberty of the subject and the laws of England.
London: MacMillan and Co.
Witemeyer, S. (2 August 2021). “My Statement on why I am returning my Vivian award.”
Retrieved from: <https://sarawhitney.com/mystatement/>
31
A CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHT IN THE SHADOWS:
THE GRISWOLD V. CONNECTICUT LEGACY
Danny M. Adkison
Oklahoma State University
32
INTRODUCTION
Is it possible that how the U.S. Supreme Court references a “right” has an impact
on how the Public perceives that right, or perhaps how the Court treats that right in cases
brought before it? This is the question addressed and discussed in this paper. Before
getting to the heart of that question, it would be helpful to examine how constitutional
rights have been treated since the writing of the U.S. Constitution. America’s first
Constitution, the Articles of Confederation, did address constitutional issues facing how
individual states treated each other (and other nations). It did not, however, enumerate
individual rights of citizens within each state. Yet, prior to that there was America’s
founding document, The Declaration of Independence. That document should be
examined first as it did reference the rights of individuals.
The Declaration of Independence stipulated, early in the document, that all men
were created equal.1 One could assume that this was the same as asserting that all men
and women were created equal. The Declaration continues by asserting that “all were
endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights” and that among these were
“Life, Liberty, and the pursuit of Happiness.” Several state constitutions did include a
listing of rights, but the next important national governing document would be the U.S.
Constitution.
That document did not include a Bill of Rights, although there was an attempt to
introduce one at the Constitutional Convention. Surprisingly, at least to the modern mind,
that notion of including a Bill of Rights did not surface until September 12, just five days
before the Convention would adjourn! George Mason of Virginia brought to the delegates’
attention his desire that a Bill of Rights be included.2 Mason was the author of the then
most famous North American bill of rights: the Virginia Declaration of Rights. This
probably explains why Mason, raised the issue, knowing that he could quickly produce
one. Indeed, when raising the issue he even mentions that “a bill might be prepared in a
few hours.”3 The delegates, however, did not accept his offer and so the proposed
Constitution was sent out for ratification without a bill of rights.
The lack of a bill of rights became one of the major arguments in the Anti-
Federalists’ arsenal of criticisms of the proposed Constitution. Madison, who is near
universally dubbed the “Father of the Constitution,” made adding a bill of rights his priority
during his tenure in the First Congress.4 In essence, he became what today would be
called the “floor manager” for the bill of rights. While others urged work on creating the
necessary Departments deemed necessary for the new national government (such as
War, State, and Treasury), Madison kept the Representatives focused on what ultimately
became the first ten amendments to the Constitution.
WHY NO BILL OF RIGHTS?
It was Hamilton, however, who used Federalist Paper No. 84 to explain why the
Framers had not included a Bill of Rights. He began by giving an accounting of some
individual rights that were included in the proposed Constitution.5 Having made this point,
Hamilton asserted that a bill of rights was “unnecessary”. Continuing, he added a rational
for opposing a bill of rights that might seem rather strange to modern readers. He wrote,
“I go further and affirm that bills of rights, in the sense and to the extent for which they are
contended for, are not only unnecessary in the proposed Constitution but would even be
dangerous.”6 Hamilton, writing as Publius, explained this somewhat strange position. He
argued that stipulating in the Constitution what the government could not do would be
33
grounds for arguing for powers it could exercise even though not stipulated in the
document. As Publius put it, “why declare what shall not be done for which there is no
power to do?”7 Indeed, even at this early period in American history there was a legal
concept that explained Hamilton’s point. It was called a “negative pregnant.” Hamilton
defined it as “the negation of one thing and an affirmance of another thing.”8
It was the “negative pregnant” that prevented Madison supporting a bill of rights.
Again, this is because a “negative pregnant” would possibly provide a rationale for
claiming the new government had powers which were not granted by the Constitution, but
which were reasonably assumed by statements presumably limiting the power of the
government. Put simply, in specifying what powers the government did not have (the
negative), could be plausibly be interpreted to affirm (give birth to) powers that were never
intended (because they were not included in the list prohibited). Similarly, Hamilton
argues that including a statement in the Constitution concerning “liberty of the press” is in
the same category as having a statement in the Constitution about “taxes not being
excessive.” Rather than keeping taxes low, all such a provision really does is shift the
debate to “what is excessive?” or “what constitutes liberty of the press?”
But, Jefferson continued his pressure on Madison to add a bill of rights to the
document.9 Given Madison’s strong opposition to a bill of rights, one has to wonder what
changed his mind in the First Congress. President Washington seemingly supported the
notion of adding a bill of rights—“seemingly”, because it was Madison who wrote the
speech in which the President announced his support.10 More importantly, Madison’s
concern over a bill of rights creating a negative pregnant must have been assuaged by
the fact that he thought he had found a solution to the problem created by the concept of
a negative pregnant.
Madison’s solution came in the form of the Ninth Amendment.11 That Amendment
specified, “The enumeration in the Constitution of certain rights, shall not be construed to
deny or disparage others retained by the people.” In essence, this was the First Congress
informing readers of the proposed Bill of Rights not to commit the “negative pregnant”
when interpreting those rights. Furthermore, he Ninth Amendment is the only provision
in the Constitution instructing its readers how to interpret the document. Interestingly, the
first book ever written on this Amendment had the title Forgotten Ninth Amendment.12
The title is apropos in part because the Ninth Amendment was never used by the
Supreme Court to decide a case until the 1965 Griswold v. Connecticut decision, dealing
with reproductive rights.13
If Hamilton’s argument seems farfetched, consider our Founding document, the
Declaration of Independence. After stipulating the concept of equality, it continues by
noting that are we are all endowed with certain “inalienable rights” and that “among these
are Life, Liberty, and pursuit of Happiness.” Notice, Jefferson specifically mentions three
inalienable rights. But are these all of mankind’s rights? No, because he lists those three
as “among” others (which are unspecified).
Jefferson was indicating that his brief list was not exhaustive, but that people had
other “unspecified” rights. One might think of the right to vote, or the right to earn a living,
or the right of privacy, or any number of other rights. This is exactly what Madison was
concerned with when drafting the Bill of Rights. He did not want the reader or jurist to
interpret the listing of the rights in Amendments 1 through 8 to be interpreted as ALL of
the rights Americans had. That is why he included the Ninth Amendment. Thus, the
34
philosophical consistency between the Declaration of Independence and the proposed
Bill of Rights.14
INDIVIDUAL’S CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS IN THE MODERN ERA
There are some individual “rights” given in the text of the Constitution of 1787.
Hamilton lists these in his Federalist Paper No. 84. They include such rights a “habeas
corpus,” “ex post facto” laws, and right to a jury trial.
Better known than these “rights” included in the original text of the Constitution are those
included in the Bill of Rights, ratified in 1791.15
The rights specified in the Bill of Rights include the following: religion rights; free
press and speech; right to peaceably assemble; the right to keep and bear arms; freedom
from unreasonable searches and seizures; multiple criminal justice rights; and freedom
from cruel and unusual punishments.
“SOMETHING TO GAIN—NOTHING TO LOSE”16
These are not all of the individual rights currently recognized by the federal courts.
This is due to the fact that the U.S. Supreme Court has recognized rights which are not
specified in the document.
In his speech initially introducing a bill of rights, Madison noted the following:
It has been objected also against a bill of rights,
that, by enumerating particular exceptions to the
grant of power, it would disparage those rights
which were not placed in that enumeration; and
it might follow by implication, that those rights
which were not singled out, were by implication
to be assigned into the hands of the General
Government, and were consequently insecure.
This is one of the most plausible arguments I
have ever heard urged against the admission
of a bill of rights into this system; but I conceive
that it may be guarded against.17
Madison ended the opening of that speech with these words: “We have in this way
something to gain, and, if we proceed with caution, nothing to lose.”18 Unfortunately,
throughout the nineteenth century there were not a lot of individual “rights” cases decided
by the U.S. Supreme Court. Thus, there was little to no need for the Court to invoke the
Ninth Amendment in any landmark type decisions.19 Thus, it wasn’t until basically the
second half of the twentieth century that the Supreme Court began with some regularity
referencing unenumerated rights. What are these rights?
Freedom of Association20
The Supreme Court case typically cited with this freedom or right is National
Association for he Advancement of Colored People v. Alabama.21 Alabama sought a
number of records pertaining to the NAACP along with list of the names and addresses
of all members of the NAACP. The NAACP cooperated in part but refused to provide the
personal information concerning its membership. In the majority opinion the Court wrote:
“It is hardly a novel perception that compelled disclosure of affiliation with groups engaged
in advocacy may constitute as effective a restraint on freedom of association . . . .”22
Right to Travel
35
In an important case in the early-1940s (Edwards v. California) the U.S. Supreme
Court struck down a California law that made it illegal to bring an indigent into the state
(ostensibly for taking advantage of state supplied benefits).23 The U.S. Supreme Court
struck the law down “for impeding the right of interstate travel.”24 Justice Douglas noted
that the right to travel from state to state was “fundamental.”25 He also noted that the fact
that the right was not specified but was implied in the Constitution did not make it any less
guaranteed.26
Right of Privacy
In a test case concerning “reproductive freedom” (Griswold v. Connecticut, 1965),
the Supreme Court first specifically referenced the right to privacy in overturning a
Connecticut law making it illegal to distribute anti-contraceptive drugs or articles to
married couples.27 The Court extended the holding in Griswold to unmarried couples in
a 1972 case.28
Right to Die
A 1990 case from Missouri resulted in the Supreme Court denying parents from
being allowed to end what was considered their daughter’s life (in a vegetative state).29
However, based on the Court’s reasoning in the case, it was evident that “the majority
was willing to assume that a competent patient has a constitutionally based liberty or right
to reject life-preserving medical treatment.”30
Freedom of Expression
This description of rights is basically just a different label for what is typically
referred to as “freedom of speech” and “freedom of the press.31 Still, it also includes
examples of communication which are not typically categorized merely as a “speech” or
published content such as in a newspaper.
Two cases of this sort would be Watts v. United States32and the Progressive
Magazine33 case. In the first, a man participating in a small protest on the Washington,
D.C. mall, when given access to a microphone announced that if he were inducted into
Army (which he vowed would never occur) and made to carry a rifle "the first man I want
to get in my sights is [the President of the United States]." The second case dealt with a
research project for The Progressive magazine in which a man was asked if he would
research how one could construct a hydrogen bomb. He replied that he would and he
did (see United States v. The Progressive).34
The breadth of such cases are seemingly endless, involving such titles or facts as
“Bong Hits for Jesus, boys wearing long hair in public schools resembling the Founding
Fathers, drug testing students solely because they enrolled in choir, and wearing black
armbands to school to protest a war.35
Most people would probably be challenged if asked what Constitutional provisions
were involved in these cases. One would think that the Ninth Amendment would be
involved in the Supreme Court’s ruling in some of them (given the unorthodox facts
involved). Yet, the Ninth Amendment was not used to decide any of these unorthodox
cases.
THE NINTH AMENDMENT CASE — AND A RIGHT?
The Ninth Amendment does not get seriously noticed until the 1965 case of
Griswold v. Connecticut.36 This case dealt with reproductive rights, which, not
surprisingly, are not mentioned in the U.S. Constitution. However, the right which the
36
Supreme Court did use to decide the case—privacy—is also not mentioned in the
Constitution.
With a partner, Estelle Griswold opened a birth control clinic in New Haven,
Connecticut in the early 1960s in clear violation of state law. Three days later the police
arrived.37 Estelle gave them the grand tour of the facility (pointing out all of the illegal
dispensing in which the Clinic was involved). Just a few days following this, the police
arrived and issued an arrest warrant. Griswold and her partner at the Clinic were allowed
to voluntarily appear at the police station to be booked and charged.38
Griswold’s cooperation during the arrest was clear evidence that she wanted this
case to go to trial. Any doubt about this point is removed by the fact that Griswold waived
her right to a jury trial. The reasoning behind this was that she feared a jury might be
sympathetic to her situation and she desperately sought a conviction as a means to test
the constitutionality of the law. This strategy worked as Griswold and her co-defendant
were found guilty and fined $100 each.
As the lawyers prepared for their appearance before the Supreme Court, one came
across a law review article dealing with, among other things, the Ninth Amendment and
the right of privacy.39 There was a reluctance to include the article in the brief, but in the
end it was included. As it turned out that became an important legal argument and one
of the rare instances of the Supreme Court citing the Ninth Amendment.
So rare, that the Court could not bring itself to rely solely on the Ninth Amendment
and the history behind it. Instead, it would be “penumbras” that subsequent constitutional
scholars would reference when announcing how the Supreme Court reached its
conclusion that Connecticut’s law concerning marital rights violated the right to privacy.
The lay person may wonder, why did the Court rely on the concept of a penumbra when
deciding the case? What was the source of that alternative? An additional, and more
important question, is what difference what word was used in the important Griswold
decision? Before addressing the question concerning “importance,” an explanation of the
source of the Court’s decision as to which word to use is in order.
PENUMBRA
The Oxford English Dictionary defined a penumbra as “a partial shade or shadow,
especially as bordering upon a fuller or darker one.”40 Webster’s New International
Dictionary has a Mr. M.R. Cohen describing penumbra this way (with an edit that applies
it to the topic of this paper): “References (as in a Bill of Rights) carrying with them vital
[penumbras] of meaning.”41 This definition reminds us, again, of Jefferson’s list of
inalienable rights which he introduced the reader to in the Declaration of Independence
as “among others.” While he may not have known it, Jefferson was, in essence,
referencing a penumbra of rights.
Which raises an interesting question: Why did the Supreme Court (specifically
Justice Douglas) suddenly see the need to introduce us to a penumbra? What was the
source of the Court’s referencing of the right of privacy as a penumbra? The answer is
from the U.S. Supreme Court itself.
That’s because prior to the Griswold decision, the Supreme Court had used the
word “penumbra” in almost 79 different cases.42 The first instance in which the word was
used in explaining a decision was in 1916 (in a case involving a trademark dispute).43
Examining the rate of the Supreme Court’s use of the word “penumbra” the
standout decade is the 1970’s. Nearly 30 percent of the references occur in that decade.
37
Prior to that the highest rate of usage came during the 1960’s (the year Griswold was
decided) at 14 percent.44 A reasonable explanation would have to be that Roe v. Wade
(1973) and its progeny made the word popular with lawyers and hence with Justices of
the Supreme Court.
PENUMBRA AND FRAMING
Anyone familiar with “framing” knows that how one words a question can make an
impact on the answers one gets. Intentionally wording a question to invoke a particular
response is called a ”loaded question”.45 Here is an example of how the National Rifle
Association might use a loaded question before being asked to testify before a
Congressional committee. The NRA would instruct those it hires to conduct a survey to
ask this question: “Would you support laws being changed to make it easier to purchase
a gun so that crime will be reduced?” Some people might not notice that built into the
question is the notion that if more people had easier access to guns then they would live
in a society with less crime. Of course, there may be no evidence that this is true (and
the opposite, in fact, may be the actual case). While this is an obvious example of how
survey questions can be “loaded” so as to induce an individual to respond in a particular
way, those conducting such studies can be quite expert in asking “loaded” question that
are not so obvious.
Even in everyday interaction, how questions are worded can have an impact on
the particular response given. Years ago an example of this was pointed out by a
motivational speaker. He was trying to make the point that how you phrase things in a
conversation can impact where the conversation goes. His example dealt with a person
asking his priest a question. Here is how it went:
Individual: Father, may I smoke while praying?
Priest: Now, my son we have talked about
your desire to stop smoking, so I think
it best if you resist this temptation
when communicating with your
heavenly Father.
Compare this with the discussion of smoking and prayer put differently.
Individual: Father, may I pray while smoking?
Priest: Of course, my son. No matter the
circumstances no matter the situation,
you may always reach out to your
heavenly Father in prayer.
Notice, the priest does not even raise the issue of breaking the smoking habit in the
second situation. What does this have to do with reproductive rights, specifically abortion,
and the U.S. Supreme Court?
Consider an actual example of the possible impact of framing and/or context in the
Supreme Court explaining a ruling to the public (which is one purpose of the Court’s
written opinion). Years ago Joseph Goldstein wrote a book in which he criticized the
manner in which the Supreme Court explained its decisions to the public.46 He
demonstrated how sometimes the Court, among other criticisms, provided ambiguity
instead of clarity when issuing an opinion.
Here is one classic example from Goldstein’s book. In the years following the
Court’s Brown v. Board of Education decision in 1954, there was, as some scholars have
38
described it, “massive resistance” to states racially integrating public schools. This
occurred throughout the nation but was particularly prominent in the South. Several
strategies were deployed and the issue in Cooper (a case from Arkansas) was basically
that government officials in Arkansas had decided that they were going to take their good
time in racially integrating the public schools. Apparently, these Arkansas officials thought
that given the previous ruling pertaining to this issue—Plessy v. Ferguson (1896)—was
just fine and was still the “law of the land.”47 Why, the Arkansas officials apparently
thought, should they follow a new interpretation of the “equal protection clause” of the
Fourteenth Amendment just because different Justices were sitting on the Supreme
Court? Furthermore, the state officials argued that to begin racially integrating the
schools would result in violence due to public reaction to the decision. In Cooper the
Court unanimously ruled that Brown had to be followed (regardless of the potential threat
of violence), and in a demonstration of support every Justice signed the opinion (a feat
that hereto fore had never been done).48
Chief Justice Brennan wrote the opinion, but he got some unusual outside help.49
During a radio interview, Brennan indicated that when drafting the opinion he had
repeatedly used the word “integration”. But when a neighbor came by and Brennan
showed him the draft the neighbor, himself a reporter for NBC, pointed out that he thought
Southerners would not react positively to the word “integration.” According to the reporter,
Southerners would “resent” the word “integration.”50 Brennan reacted by replacing every
use of the word “integration” in the opinion with the word “desegregation.”51 Did it matter?
Apparently, Justice Brennan thought it did. So, too did subsequent decisions (which also
used the word) and many Southerners.52
One could assume that how the courts reference reproductive rights (particularly
abortion) will not only reveal the position the jurists take on the issue but will, in the end,
be reflected subsequently in public opinion.53 This, in turn, can have a circular effect in
influencing the position taken by the various judges and Justices. The key question,
however, is if, indeed, there is a particular pattern in how the different sides of the abortion
issue reference the right.
Griswold and Roe
First, how the Court initially ruled should be examined. The most famous
reproductive rights case prior to Roe was Griswold v. Connecticut. The Supreme Court
in Griswold could have reached the same decision it did by explaining how the 9th
Amendment was intentionally written to acknowledge that Americans had unenumerated
rights and our Framers (specifically, the Father of the Constitution, James Madison)
feared that otherwise the courts would treat the Bill of Rights as definitive (that is, they
would commit the error of a “negative pregnant”). The Justices could have also pointed
out that the First Congress in proposing the Ninth Amendment thought this too. This
direct historically sound explanation (rather than referencing penumbras) might have
made Roe (which came eight years after Griswold) more palatable for the general public.
Instead, journalists and the public were introduced in Roe to the following: (1) the
penumbra right of privacy, and (2) the right to an abortion. Although Justice Blackmun
did reference the right to privacy in Roe, he also included this statement: “The
Constitution does not explicitly mention any right of privacy.” Given the level of political
information held by the general public, it would not be surprising to find that the public
would not be that familiar with Supreme Court decisions or the Court explaining its
39
position by referencing the concept of a penumbra.(mentioned three times in the
decision.) One would expect that they would, however, know and understand a reference
to a “right to an abortion” or, as is sometimes referenced, a “right to abort.” However, a
reference to a “right to abort” has what one might call a more “severe” message to the
hearer than a reference to a “right to privacy”. For one thing, a “right to abort” involves a
verb. As such one is invited to picture the “action” involved in that verb (which in this
case, can hardly have a positive result). And on the other side, privacy is something
individuals have been taught throughout their lives. Who hasn’t heard the reference to
“respect their privacy” or admonished someone “give me some privacy” in various
situations. These references fall or lean towards the positive end of the “reaction to
words/phrases” spectrum.
DOES IT MATTER?
As pointed out, framing and context can have a big impact when communicating
or making a point. With these points in mind, it might be instructive to examine some
important and newsworthy Supreme Court opinions and how the Court referenced the
constitutional right it recognized in the case (along with the number of such references).
Why all this attention on how the Supreme Court has used the word “penumbra”
and why the Court’s failure to use the phrase “negative pregnant”? The attention is being
highlighted because how the Court explains its decisions can have an impact on the
decision it reached and how well its decisions are received by the public. Take the case
of Cooper v. Aaron discussed above.54 Here is the breakdown of the “right” referenced
in the leading abortion cases:
NAME OF CASE RIGHT REFERENCED
Roe v. Wade (1973) privacy(10) and abortion(1)
Akron v. Akron Cntr (1983) privacy(4) and abortion(2)
Webster v. Rep. Health Ser.(1989) privacy(7) and abortion(4)
Pl’nd Parenthood v. Casey (1992) privacy(9) and abortion(10)
Based on this list, clearly, the right to privacy was the preferred choice in the 1973 Roe
case. The Arkon case demonstrated how opponents of Roe reacted by turning to
numerous restrictions placed on the abortion procedure.55 While there are a couple of
references to the right to abort, there are still twice as many references to the right of
privacy. The first major challenge to Roe (the Webster case) shows the Court still mainly
relying on the right to privacy (7 to 4), but with twice as many references to the right to an
abortion used in the Akron case. Nearly 20 years after deciding Roe, however, the Court
in Casey made nearly the same number of references to both the right to privacy and the
right to abortion.
There is one final decision to add to the above list. That is the Dobbs decision of
2022 which overruled Roe. Here is the breakdown for that decision:
Dobbs v. Jackson (2022) privacy(3) and abortion(18).
Clearly, in Dobbs, the emphasis flips, with the Court making nine times as many
references to the “right to abort” as the “right to privacy”! Indeed, there are more
references to the “right to abort” in the Dobbs decision than in all of the other major
reproductive rights cases listed above. Clearly, new members on the Supreme Court
are making a difference, but how could this be demonstrated?
Another resource (other than the actual opinion of the Court) for revealing how the
Court is framing the abortion issue is during oral argument. What light might it shed?
40
“WHAT ARE WE TALKING ABOUT?”
The vote in Dobbs was 6-3 to overturn the Mississippi law (but Chief Justice
Roberts refused to agree that Roe and Casey should be overruled). But, it has been
nearly 50 years since Roe was decided. And since that time there have been fifteen
Justices that have joined the Supreme Court. Only now, however, have five Justices
decided to overturn Roe. Why? Without considering every possible explanation, and
rejecting the simplistic notion that it is just a matter of personnel change, what other
explanation could explain the Dobbs decision?
What about employing the Supreme Court’s reasoning in its capacity as the
nation’s highest court. One of the Court’s most important unwritten principles is stare
decisis. The phrase is generally translated as “let it stand.” What the Court is “letting
stand” is the precedent in a previous case or cases. But, just exactly what constitutional
right did the Court establish in Roe?
It was the Justice presently serving on the Court the longest who highlighted the
answer to this question—Justice Thomas. Ironically, it was Justice Thomas, the Justice
who went for years without saying a word on the Court during open session.56 Justice
Thomas has, since the Pandemic, continued to speak regularly during oral argument. In
the Dobbs case no one spoke more than Justice Thomas during oral argument.57 In every
instance in which Justice Thomas joined in the oral argument he continually asked this
question: “What right are we talking about?”
REFERENCING A RIGHT: HOW IT MIGHT MATTER
Could it be that how those debating the abortion issue REFER to a constitutional
right has an impact on how that right is perceived? Could it be that opponents of abortion
are not innocent in their referencing the “right to an abortion” or the “right to abort”? It is
a fact (as shown in the instances above) that supporters of recognizing a constitutional
right to end a pregnancy prior to viability (the Roe decision) tend to refer to the right
supporting that legal protection as a “right to privacy” or “right of privacy”. On the other
hand, those not supporting abortion are inclined to use the phrase “right to an abortion”
or merely “right to abort” when discussing the issue. Is this mere happenstance? It is a
distinction that may be more important that previously thought. After all, the data shown
above on use of one right or the other clearly shows a greater tendency now, for those
on the right to refer to the “right to abort.” Is there additional evidence for this pattern of
usage? What about the oral argument in these major cases?
There are two groups of speakers during oral argument. There are the Justices
and the lawyers representing each party. In addition, there may be other speakers invited
to participate. All of the oral arguments in the major cases listed above were examined
for evidence as to how they referenced the right involved in the case (“pos” indicates the
individual was speaking on behalf of supporting Roe and its progeny while “neg”
indicates the speaker was opposed to Roe and is progeny). In the case of Roe v. Wade
there were two sets of oral argument while the others had only one oral argument. The
data for each debate in Roe was combined into the one listing. Below is a summary
breakdown of the data.
SUMMARY OF “RIGHT” REFERENCED DURNG ORAL ARGUMENT58
Roe (1973) pos:3 “right to privacy” references / neg: 1 “right to abortion” reference
Akron (1983) pos: 3 “right to privacy” references / neg: 1 “right to abortion” reference
Webster (1989) pos: 1 right to privacy reference / neg: 1 “right to abortion” reference
41
Casey (1992) pos: 3 right to privacy reference / neg: 1 “right to abortion” reference
Dobbs (2020) pos: 3 right to privacy reference & 1 “right to abort” / neg: 3 “right to abort”
There appears to be (as there was with the references made by the Justices in
their opinions) a pattern here with those supportive of abortion mostly referencing
“privacy” while those opposed to abortion referencing the “right to abort.” In only one
instance (the latest Dobbs decision) did supporters of Roe reference the “right to abort”.
While in every case of opposing Roe, the speakers consistently referenced the “right to
abortion”.
THE MORAL OF THE STORY
There is a story about a small community that lived in a mountainous area. And
high in the mountain there was an old wise man that some of the young people liked to
harass but could never seem to get the best of him. No matter what question they put to
him he seemed to always have the answer. One day a young man said come with me to
see the old, I know how to trick him into not knowing an answer. He explained to the
others that he would catch a small bird and take it to the old man. Except, the leader
explained, I’ll hold the bird in my hands using my palms to cover it. I’ll ask the old man if
the bird was alive or dead. If he says “alive” I’ll squeeze it till it dies. If he says dead, I’ll
show that the bird is alive.
So the youth headed to the mountain top and sure enough the old man was sitting
under a tree staring out into space, seemingly contemplating the universe. The young
man leading the group stepped forward holding out his hands cupped around something.
He said, “Old man, what is it I hold in my hands?” The old man thought for a few seconds,
and then without even looking at the young man he exclaimed, “It would appear you have
a bird in your hands.” The young man then asked, “Old man, is the bird dead or alive.”
The old man, closed his eyes and after a rather long pause (while the young people began
smiling with the anticipation that they would finally fool the man) he spoke: “It is (and then
he paused for several seconds)… it is (another pause), it is whatever you want it to be.”
The Alito Court (footnote: Roberts did not join in overruling Roe) wanted to
overrule the 1973 Roe decision. They merely needed to be given the chance to do so.
They finally got that chance. Why did they want to overrule Roe? Because they believe
that a fertilized egg is a person. In this they differed from the Justices who voted in Roe.
The Roe Justices knew that those who opposed all abortions did so primarily on
the grounds that a fertilized egg was a “person”. What did the Roe Justices think
concerning this issue? Justice Blackmun addressed this question: “When does life
begin?” Blackmun gave this answer: Physicians don’t know; Philosophers don’t know,
Theologians don’t, know, and thus, the Supreme Court of the United States doesn’t know.
Here is the direct quote from Roe:
We need not resolve the difficult decision of when life
begins. When those trained in the respective disciplines
of medicine, philosophy, and theology are unable to arrive
at any consensus, the judiciary at this point in the development
of man’s knowledge is not in a position to speculate as to
the answer.
It was a thoughtful, sincere, and honest comment.
42
Being unsure, they did allow for states to make elective abortions illegal (during the last
trimester of a pregnancy or at the time the fetus was “viable”). It was a humble, thoughtful,
and honest decision.
Of course, some might argue that all the Alito Court did in the Dobbs v. Jackson
was the same thing the Warren Court did in Brown v. Board of Education (which overruled
the longstanding precedent set in the Plessy decision). There is, however, a significant
difference. In Brown the Court, by overruling Plessy, expanded the rights of those who
had been denied equal treatment under the law for about 60 years. In Dobbs the Court
took away a right that had been recognized for nearly 50 years. There is a big difference
between the two situations. It is those on the right end of the ideological spectrum
that tend to use the phrase “right to abort” while those on the left are inclined to refer to
“right to privacy” when discussing/debating abortion. The “right to abort” or “right to
abortion” reference is reminding the listener that there is something being “aborted”.
Webster’s Dictionary defines this as “to terminate prematurely”.59
Political conservatives in the United States tend to oppose abortion on the grounds
that a zygote (a fertilized egg) is a person. Indeed, a recent news report noted that the
Alabama Supreme Court ruled that frozen embryos were the equivalent of children.60
Is this latest reversal mere happenstance? It is mere “chance” that explains why
the Court, in explaining its rationale for overruling a near fifty year precedent in Roe, relied
on the “right to abortion” rather than to the “right to privacy”? Whatever explanation is the
accurate one, it seems clear that one side of the debate constantly referring to the “right
to abort” has played a role in how Americans view a woman’s privacy right to terminate a
pregnancy.
43
1 See, opening of the second paragraph. It does not seem improper to treat the reference to “men” as “mensch”
(that is, based on the old German word for “human being” ) and thus as including women.
2 Notes of Debates In The Federal Convention Of 1787, Reported By James Madison, (W.W. Norton, 1987), p. 630.
3 Ibid.
4 See, Danny Adkison, “Madison’s Sphere (of Influence): The Madison We Thought We Knew,” Creative
Breakthroughs in Leadership, edited by William D. Pederson and Frank J. Williams (Pencraft International, 2007).
5 These included the following: right to a jury trial, no suspension of habeas corpus, no bills of attainder, no ex
post facto laws, and no titles of nobility.
6 Ibid.
7 Ibid.
8 See, Federalist Paper No. 32.
9 The First Congress, p. 87.
10 Ibid.
11 Since originally there were twelve proposed amendments, the ninth amendment started as the eleventh
amendment but became the ninth when the first two amendments were not ratified (resulting in the third
becoming the first, etc.).
12 Bennett B. Patterson, Forgotten Ninth Amendment (Lexis Publishing, 1955).
13 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
14 Diamond, p.
15 Originally, there were twelve amendments proposed in the First Congress as the Bill of Rights. The first and
second amendments were not ratified (until the second was ratified in 1992, making it the Twenty-seventh
Amendment). The first of the twelve has not been ratified.
16 From Madison’s speech to the House of Representatives when presenting he proposed Bill of Rights, June 8,
1789. See, D. Farber, W. Eskridge, Jr., and P. Frickey, Constitutional Law: Themes for the Constitution’s Third
Century (West Publishing, 1993, Appendix 3, p. 30.
17 Ibid.
18 Ibid.
19 Additionally, there was the unfortunate comment during congressional debate that the Amendment would be
one of the least important of the Bill of Rights. This speaker was actually referencing what is today the Seventh
Amendment (which guarantees a jury in civil suits involving amounts of more than twenty dollars). The mix up was
caused due to the renumbering of the Amendments when, initially, the first and second proposed amendments
were not ratified and thus the third amendment became the first and the seventh became the ninth.
20 This author was invited to give the Constitution Day Address at a Southern university in 2022. In that address I
referenced the constitutional right (freedom of association). In the comments following the speech, one professor
was clearly angered by the reference. The next day the angered Professor (after, apparently checking on the
reference to freedom of association) apologized saying, “I guessed I missed that one.”
21 357 U.S. 449 (1958).
22 Richard Randall, American Constitutional Development: The Rights of Persons, Volume II (Longman, 2003), p.
173.
23 314 U.S. 160, 1941.
24 Randall, p. 546.
25 Arkes, p. 88.
26 Ibid.
27 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
28 Eisenstadt v. Baird, 405 U.S. 438 (1972).
29 Cruzan v. Director, Missouri Department of Health, 497 U.S. 261.
30 The Oxford Guide to the Supreme Court, Edited by Kermit L. Hall (2005), p. 240.
44
31 See, American Constitutional Law, Vol. II, Otis H. Stephens, Jr. and John M. Scher II (Thomson, 2008), p. 127.
32 394 U.S. 705 (1969).
33 610 U.S. F.2d 819 (1979) The case was dismissed on appeal from the Wisconsin District Court (see, Endnotes, In
Our Defense, by E. alderman and C. Kennedy, The United States v. The Progressive, pp. 361-365.)
34 467 F. Supp. 990 (1979).
35 Morse v. Frederick, 551 U.S. 393 (2007); Kelley v. Johnson, 425 U.S. 238 (1976); Tinker v. Des Moines Independent
Community School District, 393 U.S. 503 (1969); and Board of Education of Independent School District
Pottawatomie City v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822 (2002).
36 381 U.S. 479 (1965).
37 One account of this states that Estelle knew they were coming (describing it as a kind of “Dr. Livingston, I
presume” moment.) See, Fred Friendly and Marth Elliott, The Constitution: That Delicate Balance (Random House,
1984), p. 196.
38 This section is primarily based on “Umpiring “Harmless, Empty Shadows,” in The Constitution: That Delicate
Balance by Fred W. Friendly and Martha J.H. Elliott (Random House, 1984), Chapter 12.
39 Norman Redlich, “Are There ‘Certain Rights Retained by the People,? New York University Law Review, 787
(1962).
40 Oxford English Dictionary, (Clarendon Press, 1933) Vol. VII (N-POY), p. 660.
41 Webster’s 3rd New International Dictionary (Merriam-Webster, Inc., 1986) p. 673.
42 This is based on a search of all Supreme Court decisions using Westlaw’s website. Of the 79 instances, one was
merely a reference to a Sheriff named Penumbra.
43 See, Hanover Starr Milling Co. v. Metcalf, 240 U.S. 403 (1916).
44 This was during the decade in which the Court issued its Griswold decision (1965)
45 See, Bernard C. Hennessy’s Public Opinion, Wadsworth 1970, p. 109.
46 Joseph Goldstein, The Intelligible Constitution (Oxford University Press, 1992).
47 163 U.S. 537 (1896).
48 Joseph Goldstein, The Intelligible Constitution (Oxford University Press), 1992, p. 45.
49 It was a Per Curium opinion. Goldstein notes that Justice Brennan drafted the opinion. Others have indicated
that it might have been Chief Justice Warren who was primarily responsible for drafting the opinion (see the entry
for Cooper v. Aaron in The Oxford Guide to the Supreme Court),
50 Ibid., p. 49.
51 Ibid., pp. 48-49.
52 According to Goldstein, Judge Parker, who was responsible for enforcing the Brown decision viewed the two
words as meaning different things, and thus was born the so-called Parker Doctrine which was used in the South to
resist the enforcement of the Brown decision.
53 Since there is no data directly demonstrating this, the hypothesis will be tested indirectly. That is, by how the
different references are used in the cases and by liberal v. conservative justices.
54 358 U.S. 1 (1958).
55The restrictions included the following: a ban an second trimester abortions performed in clinics; that physicians
give detailed information to women prior to the abortion before allowing them to sign consent forms, and a
twenty-four hour waiting period before performing an abortion.
56 “Justice Clarence Thomas, Long Silent, Has Turned Talkative,” Adam Liptak for the New York Times, May 3, 2021.
57 This is based on the number of times a Justice held the floor to ask one or more questions. Two other Justices
(Chief Justice Roberts and Ms. Barrett spoke as often, but not more than Justice Thomas).
58 The few arguments representing amici briefs were not included.
59 This is from Webster’s Seventh New Collegiate Dictionary (G & C Merriam Co., 1965).
60 www.medpagetoday.com/opinion/second-opinions/109192
45
Preparing
Students for
College, Careers
and Civic Life
46
NEW INTERNATIONAL VIRTUAL CONFERENCE
ASSOCIATION Spring Conference, April 16-17, 2024
Greg Levitt and Steven Grubaugh
University of Nevada Las Vegas
47
Abstract
•This article explores
strategies for preparing
students for a future
dominated by AI, focusing
on developing essential
skills for college, career,
and civic life
48
Introduction
As artificial intelligence (AI) continues to advance, its influence permeates every aspect of
society, including the education sector. The integration of AI technologies presents a
transformative potential for teaching and learning processes, equipping students with the
necessary skills for future success in college, their careers, and civic life (Wing, 2006; Luckin et
al., 2016). This article explores the intersection of AI and education, highlighting innovative
pedagogical strategies that can prepare students for a future dominated by AI. By examining
both foundational theories and contemporary research, we aim to provide educators and
policymakers with insights into fostering an AI-literate generation, adept at navigating the
challenges and opportunities of the digital age.
49
HOW AI IS ALREADY IMPACTING WORKPLACES
AND CAREERS
•Automation of Tasks: AI automates routine tasks across many industries, from manufacturing to services,
affecting job roles and responsibilities.
•Enhanced Decision-Making: AI assists in analyzing large datasets to improve decision-making processes in
businesses.
•Remote Working Technologies: AI-powered tools enhance remote working capabilities, providing more
flexible work environments through smarter communication tools, virtual assistants, and personalized
learning platforms for employee development.
•Change in Skill Requirements: As AI takes over more routine tasks, there is a higher demand for advanced
technical skills as well as soft skills like creativity, problem-solving, and interpersonal communication.
50
HOW AI IS ALREADY IMPACTING K-12
and College Education
•Personalized Learning: AI enables more personalized education by adapting content and pacing to individual
students' learning styles and needs, potentially improving engagement and outcomes.
•Automation of Administrative Tasks: AI helps automate administrative tasks like grading and attendance,
allowing educators to focus more on teaching and less on paperwork.
•Enhanced Educational Accessibility: AI tools can provide learning aids for students with disabilities, such as real-
time captioning for hearing-impaired students or visual aids for visually impaired students.
•AI Literacy: As AI becomes more prevalent, there's a growing need to incorporate AI literacy into curricula to
prepare students for a world where AI is ubiquitous.
•Virtual Learning Environments: AI-driven virtual tutors and learning environments can simulate one-on-one
interaction with teachers and provide students with additional help outside of the traditional classroom setting.
51
HOW AI IS ALREADY IMPACTING Civic Life and Political
Campaigns and Elections
Public Engagement: AI can analyze large volumes of public feedback on policy issues more quickly than ever before,
helping to inform policy decisions and make governmental processes more responsive.
Targeting in Campaigns: Political campaigns use AI to analyze voter data and target specific demographics with
personalized messages, potentially increasing voter engagement but also raising concerns about privacy and
manipulation.
Misinformation and Deepfakes: AI-generated false content, like deepfakes, can influence public opinion and
electoral outcomes, posing challenges to the integrity of information in democratic processes.
Enhanced Voter Services: AI can streamline voter registration and provide personalized information about voting
times, locations, and candidates, making the voting process more accessible.
Security and Surveillance: AI technologies are used in public security and surveillance, raising ethical concerns
about privacy and the potential for governmental overreach in monitoring citizens.
52
THE FUTURE LANDSCAPE:
Skills needed for the colleges of the future
•Digital Literacy: Proficiency in using digital tools and platforms will be fundamental. This includes navigating
online learning environments, utilizing AI-based educational tools, and understanding digital security practices.
•Self-directed Learning: AI-driven personalized learning environments will require students to be proactive in
setting their learning goals, seeking out resources, and managing their education path.
•Critical Thinking: The ability to critically assess information, arguments, and AI-generated content will be
crucial. Students will need to differentiate between high-quality information and misinformation.
•Data Literacy: Understanding and interpreting data will be essential, as AI technologies often present
information through data analytics. This skill will enable students to make informed decisions based on
empirical evidence.
•Adaptability to Technological Change: As AI technologies evolve rapidly, students must be adaptable, willing to
explore new tools, and capable of integrating new methods into their learning process.
53
CON’T
•Collaboration and Teamwork: Even in digital learning environments, the ability to work effectively with
others, including AI entities, will be vital. This includes project management, communication, and conflict
resolution skills.
•Ethical Reasoning and Digital Citizenship: Understanding the ethical implications of technology, including AI’s
impact on society, privacy issues, and the digital divide, will be critical. Students will need to navigate these
challenges thoughtfully.
•Creative and Innovative Thinking: Creativity will be valued as AI handles more routine tasks. The ability to
think innovatively, ask new questions, and approach problems from unique perspectives will set students
apart.
•Emotional Intelligence: As digital interactions increase, the ability to express empathy, understand emotions,
and maintain meaningful personal connections will be more important than ever.
•Cross-disciplinary Knowledge: With AI integrating into various fields, having knowledge across disciplines will
enable students to apply AI tools effectively and creatively in diverse contexts.
54
THE FUTURE LANDSCAPE: Skills needed for
the workplaces of the future
•Digital Literacy and AI Proficiency: Understanding how AI systems work and being comfortable using
digital tools and platforms will be crucial.
•Critical Thinking and Problem-Solving: The ability to analyze complex problems, think critically, and devise
effective solutions will be invaluable.
•Adaptability and Flexibility: With rapid technological changes, individuals must be willing to continuously
learn and adapt.
•Ethical and Responsible Decision-Making: Understanding the ethical implications of AI, including issues
related to privacy, bias, and fairness, and being able to apply this understanding in making responsible
decisions.
•Interpersonal and Communication Skills: Despite advances in AI, the ability to communicate effectively,
empathize with others, and work collaboratively in diverse teams will remain critically important.
55
Con’t
•Creative and Innovative Thinking: Creativity will be in high demand as businesses look for innovative ways to
apply AI technologies. Thinking outside the box and developing new ideas will be key.
•Leadership and Social Influence: The capacity to lead, inspire, and influence others will be essential,
especially as teams become more diverse and collaborative work with AI systems becomes common.
•Emotional Intelligence: The ability to be aware of, control, and express one's emotions, and to handle
interpersonal relationships judiciously and empathetically, will be more crucial than ever.
•Data Literacy: As data becomes the lifeblood of decision-making, understanding data collection, analysis, and
interpretation will be fundamental. This includes statistical skills and the ability to use data visualization tools.
•Cross-Cultural Competency: The global nature of digital platforms and the integration of AI in international
contexts will require the ability to work across cultural boundaries and understand diverse perspectives.
56
DEVELOPING FUTURE-READY SKILLS
Educational strategies must prioritize the development of skills that are essential across
all areas of future life: critical thinking, digital literacy, and ethical reasoning. Project-
based learning, experiential learning, and interdisciplinary approaches are effective in
cultivating these competencies, allowing students to apply their knowledge in real-world
contexts (Bell, 2010; Larmer, Mergendoller, & Boss, 2015).
Teaching K-12 students Future Ready Skills is imperative if we are going to prepare
students to be successful in colleges, careers, and civic life in a future world heavily
influenced by AI.
57
Conclusion
The rapid advancement of AI technology necessitates a reevaluation of educational
practices to ensure students are prepared for the future. By integrating AI literacy,
critical thinking, and ethical considerations into the curriculum, educators can equip
students with the skills needed for success in college, their careers, and civic life. As we
look towards a future dominated by AI, the role of education in shaping an informed,
adaptable, and ethically conscious generation becomes increasingly crucial.
58
References
Bell, S. (2010). Project-based learning for the 21st century: Skills for the future. The Clearing House: A Journal of
Educational Strategies, Issues and Ideas, 83(2), 39-43.
Bughin, J., Hazan, E., Lund, S., Dahlström, P., Wiesinger, A., & Subramaniam, A. (2018). Skill shift: Automation
and the future of the workforce. McKinsey Global Institute.
Grover, S., & Pea, R. (2013). Computational thinking in K-12: A review of the state of the field. Educational
Researcher, 42(1), 38-43.
Luckin, R., Holmes, W., Griffiths, M., & Forcier, L.B. (2016). Intelligence Unleashed: An argument for AI in
education. Pearson.
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Education Frontiers, 3(1), 25-30.
60
Ten AI Strategies for
Enhancing Elementary
Social Studies Education
61
NEW
INTERNATIONAL
VIRTUAL
CONFERENCE
ASSOCIATION
Spring Conference
April 16-17, 2024
Dr. Steven Grubaugh, UNLV Dr. Greg Levitt, UNLV
62
Abstract
This article examines the transformative potential of
Artificial Intelligence in elementary social studies education.
It identifies and discusses ten primary ways in which AI-
powered tools can be integrated into social studies lesson
plans to promote deeper student engagement, personalized
learning, and historical thinking skill development.
The article considers both the benefits and potential
drawbacks of AI in this context, offering practical
recommendations for teachers.
63
Introduction
Social studies, a foundational subject in elementary education, aims to
cultivate students' understanding of history, civics, geography, and diverse
cultures.
In recent years, Artificial Intelligence has emerged as a transformative
force across various educational domains.
We identify and discuss ten key ways in which AI can be harnessed to
enhance student engagement, personalize learning experiences, and
cultivate essential historical thinking skills.
64
Literature Review
!The rapidly expanding field of Artificial Intelligence in Education has
garnered significant attention within the broader educational research
community
!Researchers highlight the ability of AI-powered technologies to facilitate
adaptive and personalized learning
!Research suggests that AI-powered simulations and virtual
environments can facilitate immersive historical experiences, fostering
deeper student engagement and understanding of different eras and
cultures
!It is also crucial to examine potential risks such as biases within AI
algorithms and the need to cultivate responsible uses of technology
within the context of social studies
65
Top Ten AI Applications in Elementary Social Studies
Interactive Virtual Field Trips: AI-powered virtual field trips facilitate
simulated, immersive visits to historical locations, archaeological sites, or
reconstructions of cultural settings from different time periods.
Adaptive Learning Paths: AI platforms can tailor social studies content,
pacing, and activities to individual students' learning styles and
comprehension levels.
AI-powered Tutors Chatbots and intelligent virtual assistants can serve
as flexible companions for supplementary learning, answering students'
questions about historical figures, events, or geographic concepts.
66
Top Ten AI Applications in Elementary Social Studies
Historical Figure Simulations Historical: Figures are brought to life through AI chatbot programs
trained on extensive datasets of their writings, speeches, or other forms of recorded discourse.
Multilingual Translation for Source Analysis: Students often encounter historical documents,
newspapers, or letters written in languages other than their own.
Gamified Learning Experiences: Game-based platforms infused with AI make social studies
interactive and engaging.
AI-Assisted Historical Inquiry: AI tools can enhance research skills, guide students toward reliable
sources, and assist in the critical analysis of historical evidence.
67
Top Ten AI Applications in Elementary Social Studies
Automated Feedback and Formative Assessment: AI-driven evaluation of short essays,
quizzes, and project-based work provides teachers with actionable data on student
comprehension and identifies areas for improvement.
Collaborative Project Facilitators: AI-powered online platforms can connect classrooms on
a global scale for collaborative social studies projects.
Ethical Considerations and Digital Citizenship Lessons: AI algorithms have potential
biases, making their incorporation into social studies an opportunity for discussions about
ethical technology use and awareness of how historical narratives can be distorted.
68
Discussion
The ten AI applications outlined in this article demonstrate the
significant potential to transform elementary social studies
education.
From immersive virtual tours to adaptable learning platforms,
the integration of AI tools offers an array of benefits that align
with established goals of social studies learning.
AI holds the key to enriching and personalizing the study of
history, geography, and civics for young learners.
AI algorithms can cater to diverse learning speeds and styles,
delivering targeted support for those who may struggle while
pushing learners who are ready for greater challenges.
69
Discussion
!While AI tools offer assistance for individualized learning, teachers
ultimately provide the scaffolding for conceptual understanding,
historical contextualization, and ethical discussions relevant to
social studies.
70
Recommendations
Investment in Infrastructure and Access: Equitable distribution of digital
resources and hardware in all schools and communities to prevent
widening existing gaps in achievement based on socioeconomic factors.
Professional Development: Targeted training for teachers on best
practices, AI technology integration, and critical evaluation of AI tools to
optimize their adoption.
Critical Examination: Incorporating lessons on responsible AI use,
algorithmic biases, and the importance of contextualized historical
understanding throughout social studies instruction.
71
Conclusion
However, the successful integration of AI necessitates a responsible and informed approach.
Collaboration between educators, policymakers, and technology developers is essential to
leverage the full potential of AI while mitigating potential drawbacks.
Through continuous learning and a focus on pedagogy, the ethical implementation of AI can
support elementary social studies in becoming a field where all students thrive and gain the
understanding necessary to be informed, active participants in an ever-evolving world.
72
References
!AI in Education. (2023, February 15). Retrieved from
https://aiineducation.org/
!Aleven, V., McLaughlin, E. A., Glenn, R. A., & Koedinger, K. R. (2016).
Instruction based on adaptive learning technologies. In R. E. Mayer &
P. A . A le x an de r ( E ds. ) , Ha n db oo k o f r ese ar c h o n l e ar nin g a nd
instruction (pp. 522-560). Routledge.
!Baker, R.S., Esbenshade, L., Vitale, J., & Karumbaiah, S. (2022). Using
demographic data as predictor variables: A questionable choice.
Proceedings of the 15th International Conference on Educational Data
Mining. https://doi.org/10.35542/osf.io/y4wvj
!Black, P. & Wiliam, D. (1998). Inside the black box: Raising standards
through classroom assessment. Phi Delta Kappan, 92(1), 81-90.
https://kappanonline.org/inside-the-black-box-raising-standards-
through-classroom-assessment/
!Black, P., & Wiliam, D. (2009). Developing the theory of formative
assessment. Educational Assessment, Evaluation and Accountability,
21(1), 5-31. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11092-008-9068-5
73
References
!Bryant, J., Heitz,C., Sanghvi, S., & Wagle, D. (2020, January 14).
How artificial intelligence will impact K-12 teachers. McKinsey.
https://www.mckinsey.com/industries/education/our-
insights/how-artificial-intelligence-will-impact-k-12-teachers
!Celik, I., Dindar, M., Muukkonen, H. & Järvelä, S. (2022). AI-
supported collaborative inquiry on historical thinking. Technology,
Knowledge and Learning 27, 837-863.
!Chen, L., Chen, P., & Lin, Z. (2020). Artificial intelligence in
education: A review. IEEE Access, 8, 75264-75278.
https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2020.2988510
!Huang, B., Hew, K. F., & Lo, C. K. (2019). Investigating the effects
of gamification on learners' intrinsic motivation and performance
in asynchronous online discussions. Australasian Journal of
Educational Technology, 35(3), 39-58.
74
References
!Levine, P., & Moss, C. (2014). How children learn history. Oxford
University Press.
!National Council for the Social Studies. (2016). National curriculum
standards for social studies: A framework for teaching, learning,
and assessment. National Council for the Social Studies.
!Ng, F. F. Y., Wong, M. T., & Wong, F. K. C. (2022). History education:
Virtual field trips as effective pedagogical tools and their potential
contributions to students' cognitive processes. Education and
Information Technologies, 27, 8149-8174.
!Pan, Z., Cheok, A. D., Yang, H., Zhu, J., & Shi, J. (2020). Virtual
reality and mixed reality for virtual learning environments.
Computers & Education, 24(1), 103803.
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References
!Radziwill, N. M., & Benton, M. C. (2017). Evaluating quality of
chatbots and intelligent conversational agents. arXiv preprint
arXiv:1704.04
!Zawacki-Richter, O., Marín, V. I., Bond, M., & Gouverneur, F.
(2019). Systematic review of research on artificial intelligence
applications in higher education – where are the educators?
International Journal of Educational Technology in Higher
Education, 16, 39. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41239-019-0171-0
76
Benefits and Detriments to
Individuals and Society for
Students Learning or Not
Learning the Social Studies
77
§
§
§
78
Background
A short history of the Social Studies: From the early days of public schooling in
America, Social Studies has been a staple in the K-12 curriculum. In the late 1950s,
high schoolers were expected to complete up to three years of Civics, alongside
Geography and comprehensive history courses covering state, U.S., and global
perspectives. Elementary students, from kindergarten through eighth grade,
delved into these subjects, too and Civics was an integral part of the curriculum.
However, the educational landscape shifted dramatically following the Soviet
Union's launch of Sputnik in 1957, the first satellite to orbit Earth. This event
sparked a nationwide emphasis on Science in K-12 education. Fast forward nearly a
century, and we witness a stark change: Social Studies and Science are fading from
elementary classrooms, and the once-robust Social Studies requirements in
secondary education have been significantly pared down.
The surge in STEM (Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics) education
has somewhat overshadowed Social Studies. This subject, crucial for
understanding societal structures and our democratic system, is now often
sidelined in many elementary schools. In middle and high schools, the curriculum
has been condensed to just a few mandatory courses. For instance, in the CCSD
(Clark County School District) schools, Civics, which was once a two-year course, is
now crammed into a single semester and shares its time with Financial Literacy
education.
79
Introduction
The primary question that began the research into this
topic was, “Is it necessary for K-12 teachers to teach all
Social Studies Standards every year.? This question led to
research on the K-12 Social Studies Curriculum and
Standards across states in the United States.
Given the sparse teaching of the Social Studies in
elementary schools and the declining requirements for
teaching the Social Studies in secondary schools, this
paper focuses on the question, “What are the Benefits or
Detriments to Individuals and Society for Students
Learning or Not Learning the Social Studies?”
80
What are the potential BENIFITS
for students meeting grade level
Nevada Social Studies standards:
§Critical Thinking – Developing critical thinking skills which are
fundamental in college and various career paths.
§Historical Understanding – Gaining a deep understanding of
historical events and contexts, which can foster a richer
understanding of contemporary society and global contexts.
§Civic Engagement – Being better prepared for active participation
in civic life, including a nuanced understanding of government
structures and processes.
§Cultural Awareness – Building awareness and appreciation of
different cultures and perspectives, which can promote inclusivity
and diversity in both college and career environments.
§Beginning Research Skills – Learning to research effectively using
a range of sources, a skill that is transferrable to a variety of
academic and career contexts.
81
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
§
82
DETRIMENTAL IMPACTS on K-12 students who do not
receive adequate instruction in the Social Studies
1. Limited Historical Context – Students may lack a comprehensive understanding of
historical events and contexts, hindering their ability to critically analyze current events
and societal trends.
2 .Reduced Critical Thinking Skills – Without opportunities to analyze complex social
issues, students might not develop the critical thinking skills necessary for academic and
professional success.
3.Inadequate Understanding of Government Functions – Students might not fully
grasp how government structures function, which can hamper their ability to engage
effectively in civic processes and understand policy discussions.
4.Impaired Decision-Making Skills – A lack of exposure to the diverse perspectives
presented in social studies can lead to impaired decision-making skills, with a limited
understanding of the wider implications of decisions.
5.Decreased Cultural Sensitivity and Awareness – Students may not develop a
nuanced understanding of different cultures and perspectives, potentially leading to
prejudice and a lack of inclusivity.
6.Underdeveloped Communication Skills – Limited exposure to discussions, debates,
and collaborative projects in social studies classes can result in underdeveloped verbal
and written communication skills.
7.Insufficient Economic Understanding – Students may lack a basic understanding of
economic principles, impacting their ability to navigate financial decisions in adulthood.
8.Limited Global Awareness – Without an understanding of global contexts and
international relations, students might be less prepared to engage in a globally
interconnected world.
83
Con’t
§9. Reduced Social Skills – Students missing out on group activities and discussions that
social studies classes often facilitate might not develop essential social skills to the same
extent as their peers.
§10. Inadequate Research Skills – A lack of exposure to research projects in social studies
can result in limited research skills, hindering academic performance in later educational
stages.
§11. Ethical Understanding – Students might not develop a deep understanding of ethical
considerations and social justice issues, which can impact their ability to engage ethically in
society.
§12. Limited Sense of Civic Duty – Without understanding the role of citizenship in a
democratic society, students might not develop a sense of civic duty and the importance of
community engagement.
§13. Lack of Preparedness for Modern Careers – Many modern careers require skills such
as critical thinking, analysis, and understanding of social dynamics, all of which are fostered
through social studies education.
§14. Impaired Self-Identity and Community Understanding – Students might not develop
a strong understanding of their identity and the dynamics of their community, potentially
leading to a sense of isolation or alienation.
§15. Decreased Empathy – Limited exposure to the diverse narratives and perspectives
presented in social studies can result in decreased empathy and understanding for others'
experiences.
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15 Potential Detrimental Impacts on Your
Students and American Democracy
§1. Erosion of Democratic Values – Without a grounded understanding of
democratic principles, individuals may not value or uphold the principles of
democracy, such as justice, equality, and freedom.
§2. Low Voter Turnout – An uninformed citizenry may be less likely to vote,
potentially leading to lower voter turnout and a government that is less
representative of the people’s will.
§3. Increased Susceptibility to Misinformation – Lack of critical thinking and
analytical skills can make individuals more susceptible to misinformation and
propaganda, potentially destabilizing democratic processes.
§4. Reduced Civic Engagement – Without adequate education on the importance
of civic engagement, there may be a decline in people actively participating in
community organizations, local government, and other civic institutions.
§5. Intolerance and Discrimination – Insufficient exposure to diverse perspectives
and cultures can foster intolerance and discrimination, undermining the democratic
value of equality.
§6. Ineffective Policymaking – A populace with limited understanding of historical,
economic, and social contexts may struggle to engage constructively in policy
discussions, leading to less effective and nuanced policymaking.
§7. Economic Disparities – Without a foundational understanding of economic
principles, individuals might not fully grasp the nuances of economic policies,
potentially leading to greater economic disparities and less economic mobility.
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SUMMARY
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