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REDISCOVERIES
IN
CHILDREN' S
LITERATURE
CHILDREN'S LITERATUR E
AN D
CULTUR E
VOLUME 2
GARLAND REFERENC E LIBRAR Y O F SOCIA L SCIENC E
VOLUME 86Z
CHILDREN'S LITERATUR E
AN D
CULTUR E
JACK ZIPES,
General Editor
CHILDREN'S LITERATUR E REDISCOVERIE S
IN
COMES O F AGE CHILDREN' S LITERATUR E
Toward a New Aesthetic by Suzanne Rahn
by Maria Nikolajev a
REDISCOVERIES
IN
CHILDREN' S
LITERATURE
SUZANNE RAH N
First published by Garland Publishing, Inc.
This edition published 201 1 by Routledge:
Routledge Routledg e
Taylor & Francis Group Taylo r & Francis Grou p
711 Third Avenue 2 Park Square, Milton Park
New York, NY 1001 7 Abingdon , Oxo n 0X14 4R N
Copyright © 1995 b y Suzanne Rahn
All rights reserve d
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Dat a
Rahn, Suzanne .
Rediscoveries i n children's literature / Suzanne Rahn.
p.
cm . — (Garland referenc e librar y o f socia l science ; v. 862. Children's
literature and culture ; v. 2)
Includes bibliographical reference s an d index.
ISBN 0-8153-0930- 9
1.
Children's literature, American—History an d criticism. 2 . Children's lit -
erature, English—History an d criticism. 3 .
Lagerlof,
Selma , 1858-1940. Nil s
Holgerssons underbar a resa . 4 . Children—Books an d reading. I . Title.
II.
Series: Garland referenc e librar y o f social science ; v. 862. III . Series:
Garland referenc e librar y o f social science. Children' s literature an d
culture ; v. 2.
PS490.R25 199 5 94-3959 4
CIP
Cover illustration fro m St Nicholas Magazine 9 , 11 (September 1882):871.
Illustrations fro m Made-to-Order Stories by Dorothy Canfield , copyrigh t 192 5
by Harcourt Brac e & Compan y and renewed 195 3 by Dorothy Canfiel d Fisher ,
copyright Jonathan Cape , reproduced b y permission o f the publishers.
For my mother
who read me good books
Contents
General Editor's Preface i x
Acknowledgments x i
Preface xii i
I. Lif e at the Squirrel Inn: Frank Stockton' s
Fairy Tales 3
II.
Wil d Models o f the World: The Lure of
the Toy Theater 2 3
III.
Th e Boy and the Wild Geese: Selma
Lagerlof's Nils 3 9
IV. Empowerin g the Child: Dorothy Canfield' s
Made-to-Order Stories 5 1
V. America n Mosaic: Florence Crannell Means 75
VI.
Dee p Valley Revisited: The Betsy-Tacy Stories
of Maud Hart Lovelace 10 1
VII.
Cat-Child : Two Cat Stories by Beverly Cleary
and Ursula Moray Williams 11 5
VIII. Beneat h the Surface with Fungus the Bogeyman 12 9
viii Contents
IX. A Vaccine for Future Shock: Diana Wynne Jones 14 5
Epilogue 17 7
Index 17 9
General Editor's Prefac e
Dedicated t o furthering origina l research i n children's literatur e
and culture , th e Children' s Literatur e an d Cultur e serie s wil l
include monograph s o n individua l author s an d illustrators ,
historical examinations o f differen t periods , literary analyse s o f
genres, an d comparativ e studie s o n literatur e an d th e mas s
media. Th e serie s i s internationa l i n scop e an d i s intende d t o
encourage innovativ e researc h i n children' s literatur e wit h a
focus on interdisciplinary methodology .
Children's literatur e an d cultur e ar e understoo d i n th e
broadest sens e o f the term "children" to encompass the period o f
childhood up throug h lat e adolescence. Due t o the fac t tha t th e
notion o f childhood ha s change d s o much sinc e the originatio n
of children' s literature , thi s Garlan d serie s i s particularl y
concerned wit h transformation s i n children' s cultur e an d ho w
they hav e affecte d th e representatio n an d socializatio n o f
children. Whil e th e emphasi s o f th e serie s i s o n children' s
literature, al l type s o f studie s tha t dea l wit h children' s radio ,
film, television, and art will be included i n an endeavor t o gras p
the aesthetic s an d value s o f children' s culture . No t onl y hav e
there been momentou s change s i n children' s cultur e i n th e las t
fifty years , but ther e have been radica l shift s i n the scholarshi p
that deal s wit h thes e changes . I n thi s regard , th e Children' s
Literature an d Cultur e serie s wants t o enhance researc h i n thi s
field and , a t th e sam e time , point t o new direction s tha t brin g
together the best scholarly work throughout the world .
iX
Acknowledgments
This book and I owe a special debt to the encouragement o f Ger i
DeLuca and Roni Natov, who published several of its chapters as
articles i n The Lion and the Unicorn; t o Leonar d Marcus , wh o
deftly edite d m y firs t articl e fo r tha t journal; and t o Jack Zipes ,
who found
Rediscoveries
its home.
I woul d lik e t o than k Pacifi c Luthera n University , an d
especially Dean s Jane t Rasmusse n an d Pau l Menzel , fo r thei r
continuing support . A combined leav e o f absenc e an d Regenc y
Advancement Award fro m Pacifi c Lutheran enabled me to finis h
Rediscoveries,
Several friends have also given generously o f their suppor t
and appreciatio n durin g th e makin g o f thi s book . I woul d
especially lik e t o than k Hamid a Bosmajian , Sharo n Jansen ,
Sherry Jones—an d m y husban d John . An d m y mother , Mar y
Henry, who began it all.
Xi
Preface
As a chil d i n th e 1950s , I was droppe d of f a t th e librar y ever y
Saturday, whil e m y parent s di d thei r grocer y shopping . Th e
children's roo m wa s jus t t o th e righ t a s you wen t in— a great ,
dim cav e ful l o f books . It s resource s seeme d inexhaustible . I
could stil l lea d yo u t o th e exac t spo t wher e th e E . Nesbi t
fantasies wer e shelved, or the long line o f Freddy the Pig books,
or Memoirs of
a
London Doll, or the Doctor Dolittl e books, o r The
Little White Horse, o r Peacock Pie, o r Laurenc e Housman' s A
Doorway in Fairyland, o r th e small , precious cach e o f historica l
novels by Geoffre y Trease , o r Elizabet h Enright' s Spiderweb for
Two.
In my teens , I discovered tha t children' s literatur e had a
history. I rea d A Critical History of Children's Literature (b y
Cornelia Meigs and company) straight through. Here, enticingly
described, wer e dozen s o f children' s book s I had neve r eve n
heard o f before. I t was thank s t o A Critical History tha t I sought
out Jaco b Abbot t an d Julian a Ewin g an d Charlott e Yong e an d
old, bound volume s o f St. Nicholas. I also subscribed t o The Horn
Book, whic h tol d m e tha t th e flo w o f goo d children' s book s
would never stop.
Twenty year s later , children' s literatur e ha d becom e a
specialty fo r scholar s an d professor s a s wel l a s children' s
librarians an d elementar y schoo l teachers . Universitie s wer e
offering courses , eve n graduat e programs , i n children' s
literature. New academi c journals lik e Children's Literature, The
Lion and the Unicorn, Signal, and Children's Literature in Education
were publishin g analyse s o f Pinocchio an d The Secret Garden. I
was compilin g Children's Literature: An Annotated Bibliography of
the History and Criticism—and no t findin g wha t I expected. Fo r
xiii
xiv Preface
some authors, there might be a dozen critical essays—for others ,
nothing more than a memoir o r an appreciation published i n The
Horn
Book
forty years ago.
With fe w exceptions , the kind o f serious critical analysis I
was lookin g fo r seeme d limite d t o three categorie s o f children' s
books: well-known , undispute d "classics" ; work s b y a selec t
handful o f contemporar y author s (th e putativ e classic s o f th e
future);
and formula fictio n (suc h as Nancy Drew or the Bobbsey
Twins). Books in the firs t tw o categorie s were accorde d literar y
analysis fro m a variety o f critica l perspectives. Formula fiction ,
like popular fictio n fo r adults , was scrutinize d fo r what i t coul d
reveal abou t psychologica l needs , socia l attitudes , an d cultura l
change .
The majority o f what we had alway s simpl y calle d "goo d
books"—books o f hig h quality , distinc t individuality , an d
staying power—ha d someho w falle n int o th e ga p between. N o
one was writing about Geoffrey Treas e or Laurence Housman o r
Juliana Ewin g o r Elizabet h Enrigh t o r Fredd y th e Pig . (N o on e
was writin g anythin g nic e abou t Dr . Dolittle. ) Wa s i t simpl y a
bias i n favo r o f th e contemporary ? Bu t eve n contemporar y
authors seemed to be chosen from a very restricted list .
In th e proces s o f becomin g a n academi c fiel d o f study ,
children's literatur e ha d actuall y narrowe d i n scope . T o som e
extent, thi s ha d happene d b y default . Man y o f th e professor s
teaching (and later writing about) children's literature came to it
with little background; assigned willy-nill y to teach a class, they
were forced , a t leas t temporarily , t o rel y o n th e "classics "
everyone ha d hear d of , an d wha t the y coul d pic k u p fro m
awards, reviews, and textbook s fo r elementar y schoo l teacher s
about the contemporary scene. But to some extent, the narrowing
was deliberate. In order t o be accepted a s a legitimate branch o f
literature wit h hig h standard s o f teachin g an d research ,
children's literatur e (som e felt ) mus t hav e a n officia l canon— a
list o f literary "touchstones" with which no one could reasonabl y
disagree. I n 1980 , th e Children' s Literatur e Associatio n
appointed a Cano n Committee , an d i n 1985 , th e Committe e
presented a list o f 6 3 books (or , in a few cases , pairs o r series o f
books by the same author) which met their criteria o f excellenc e
and significance . Thi s lis t becam e th e basi s o f Touchstones:
Preface xv
Reflections on the Best in Children's Literature, edite d b y Perr y
Nodelman an d publishe d b y th e Association , a three-volum e
work in which each book was individually evaluated .
Although the intention o f the Canon Committee was never
to restric t th e stud y o f children' s literatur e t o th e canon , it s
approach wa s essentiall y exclusive , eve n competitive . Onl y a
few book s wer e allowe d t o b e "touchstones. " (Mos t o f
Nodelman's introductio n t o Volume Thre e o f Touchstones i s a n
explanation o f wh y s o man y fin e author s wer e omitted. )
Ironically, eve n a s children's literatur e wa s acquirin g a canon ,
canons themselve s wer e comin g increasingl y unde r fir e i n th e
literary worl d a t large , fo r thi s sam e tendenc y t o exclud e to o
much.
Meanwhile, since the 1970s, publishing houses have grow n
less incline d t o preserv e a n extensiv e backlis t o f children' s
books . Only those books which consistently produce high profit s
are allowe d t o survive , an d a numbe r o f "goo d books " hav e
slipped quietly out o f print. It is less likely than it used t o be for a
scholar or a teacher or a librarian—or a child—simply to come i n
contact wit h a book whic h i s neither brand ne w no r extremel y
popular.
In contrast, what one might call the traditional approach t o
children's literature—th e approac h o f my childhoo d library , A
Critical History, an d The Horn Book—was broadly inclusive. Even
the Newber y an d Caldecot t Award s wer e soo n expande d t o
include numerous Honor Books . There were list s and publishe d
series o f "children' s classics, " but th e ter m wa s use d loosely ;
there wa s alway s roo m fo r mor e "goo d books. " A typica l
example o f thi s approac h i s Realms of Gold in Children's Books,
published i n 192 9 b y Berth a Mahon y an d Elino r Whitney .
Despite the relatively low quality o f children's literature durin g
this decade, Mahony an d Whitney have managed t o cram ever y
good book they can find between the covers o f this large, fat, re d
volume. Eve n thei r titl e suggest s limitles s resource s o f goo d
reading.
The effec t o f focusin g al l seriou s attentio n o n a smal l
number o f books an d author s i s t o diminis h awarenes s o f th e
richness an d variet y o f children' s literature . I t become s
impossible t o grasp the development o f children's literature , o r
xvi Preface
the context in which individual books were written. Ultimately ,
the stud y o f children' s literatur e i s th e poore r fo r ignorin g s o
much fine material. And children are the poorer too, given fewe r
opportunities to hear o f books that might enrich their lives.
Some book an d journal editor s have trie d consciousl y t o
reverse the trend, encouraging contributors to seek out neglected
books an d authors . This book i s also a n attempt , not simpl y t o
"rediscover" a number o f books that deserve to be better known ,
but t o sugges t ho w man y "goo d books " ar e awaitin g
rediscovery. I have included onl y a small though varied sampl e
of what is out there.
The authors range in period fro m th e 1880 s to the 1980s —
from Fran k Stockto n t o Diana Wynn e Jones . Som e ar e British ,
some ar e American; one is from Sweden . There are fairy storie s
and fantasies , tal l tales , historical novels, ethnic novels, pictur e
books, eve n a specia l kin d o f children' s theater . Som e o f th e
books ar e obscure and lon g out o f print. Others have a place i n
the standar d historie s o f children' s literatur e lik e th e Meig s
Critical History, The Oxford Companion to Children's Literature, and
John Row e Townsend' s Written for Children. Som e ar e eve n
popular. All possess the historical importance, the high standar d
of craftsmanship , th e richnes s o f meaning , an d th e strikin g
individuality to make them worthy o f critical attention. Even the
oldest and most obscure can, in my judgment, stil l be enjoyed b y
children, i f som e knowledgeabl e adul t take s th e troubl e t o
perform a n introduction .
Why hav e thes e particula r works , a s wel l a s s o man y
others, been neglected? Although i t is much easie r to say why a
book basks in the limelight than why a n equally fin e book doe s
not, some theories can be advanced .
Comedy, i t has ofte n bee n remarked , i s a les s respecte d
mod e tha n tragedy. Serious books an d poems tend t o ge t mor e
respect—and muc h more analysis—tha n funn y ones . While thi s
is les s true fo r children' s literature , th e generalizatio n stil l ha s
weight. Th e Newbery Awar d winner s hav e certainl y tende d t o
be serious. More than one critic has pointed out how long it took
Beverly Cleary to be considered fo r a Newbery—and how, when
she did win the award, it was for the atypically serious Dear Mr.
Henshaw. Whe n humo r i s combine d wit h a colloquial ,
Preface xvii
unpretentious style , a s i t i s i n Cleary' s work , th e book i s eve n
less likel y t o b e regarde d a s "important. " Thes e attribute s fi t
several o f th e book s an d author s i n Rediscoveries: no t onl y
Cleary's Socks, but Doroth y Canfield' s Made-to-Order Stories, th e
fantasies o f Dian a Wynn e Jones , and th e Betsy-Tac y storie s o f
Maud Hart Lovelace .
Fungus the Bogeyman by Raymond Briggs , Island Mackenzie
by Ursula Mora y Williams , and Fran k Stockton' s fair y tale s ar e
also funny, thoug h i n their cas e humor i s compounded wit h a n
attribute tha t on e migh t cal l "eccentricity. " Whil e al l Briggs' s
picture books ar e unusual, Fungus i s unquestionably th e oddest .
Island Mackenzie mus t b e th e onl y ca t stor y eve r writte n i n th e
style o f Victoria n melodrama , whic h give s i t a n unsettling ,
though delightful , mock-heroi c quality . Stockton' s fair y tale s
wryly contradict one' s expectation s o f what shoul d happen i n a
fairy tale . Canfield's Made-to-Order Stories (unlike her Understood
Betsy) ar e nearly impossibl e t o "place" in terms o f genre. Selm a
Lagerlof's Nils, a bizarre combinatio n o f talkin g anima l fantas y
and socia l studies textbook, labors under the additional burdens
of elaborat e construction , awkwar d translation , an d Swedis h
nationality.
Controversy may occasionall y elevat e a children's book t o
greater prominence , but mor e ofte n become s a handicap. Th e
ethnic novels o f Florence Crannell Means were highly regarde d
in the 1930 s and 40s, but would have been too controversial for a
Newbery Awar d a t tha t time . Although on e o f her novel s wa s
designated a Newber y "Runner-up, " onl y th e actua l Awar d
winners have generally been publicized, listed, and kept in print.
Fungus the Bogeyman, whic h i s calculate d t o shoc k an d repe l
adult readers , ha s als o bee n tucke d ou t o f sight ; a s o f thi s
writing, it is Briggs's only picture book fo r children that is out o f
print in the United States .
Finally, none o f thes e books ha s eve r achieve d universa l
popularity. Fungus neve r reache d th e huge audienc e tha t love d
Briggs's The Snowman. Socks has alway s been les s popular tha n
Cleary's Ramon a books . Eve n th e fantasie s o f Dian a Wynn e
Jones ar e popula r onl y wit h childre n wh o hav e th e readin g
ability and the intelligence to meet her challenges. There remains
an ambivalenc e i n th e criticis m o f children' s literatur e tha t
xviii Preface
hesitates to separate quality from popular appeal. Can a book be
first-rate children' s literatur e i f it fails t o capture larg e number s
of young readers ?
Yet if the criticism o f children's literature is ever to come of
age,
i t mus t acknowledg e th e ultimat e authorit y o f th e
individual reader. I f the Morte Darthur and the poems o f Catullu s
can be considered first-rat e literature on the strength o f the small
audienc e tha t continue s t o read an d appreciat e them , the n th e
absolute numbe r o f childre n wh o stil l rea d Fran k Stockto n o r
Selma Lagerlof shoul d not matter either. It is the quality o f thei r
experience tha t counts . I t doe s not eve n reall y matte r whethe r
the readers are adults or children. A good book is one that never
loses its potential for rediscovery .
WORKS
CITED
Carpenter, Humphre y an d Mar i Prichard . The Oxford
Companion
to
Children's
Literature.
Oxford: Oxford University
Press,
1984.
Mahony, Berth a E. , and Elino r Whitney .
Realms
of
Gold
in Children's
Books.
Garden City, New
York:
Doubleday, Doran, 1929.
Meigs, Cornelia et al. A
Critical
History
of
Children's
Literature:
A Survey
of
Children's
Books
in
English.
Rev . ed. Ne w York : Macmillan ,
1969.
Nodelman, Perry , ed .
Touchstones:
Reflections
on the Best in
Children's
Literature.
3 vols. West Lafayette, Indiana : Children's Literatur e
Association, 1985-9.
Rahn, Suzanne .
Children's
Literature:
An Annotated
Bibliography
of
the
History and
Criticism.
New
York:
Garland,
1981.
Townsend, Joh n Rowe . Written for
Children:
An Outline of English-
Language Children's Literature. 4t h rev . ed . Ne w York :
HarperCollins, 1990.
REDISCOVERIES
IN
CHILDREN' S
LITERATURE
Life at the Squirrel Inn: Frank Stockton's
Fairy Tales
"I think," said the Sphinx, "that you have made your line
long enough."
"And I think," said the King, "that you made it a great
deal longer than it need to have been by taking me about
in such winding ways."
"It may be
so,"
said the Sphinx, with its mystic smile.
Frank Stockton,
"The Banished
King"
He is not only the first but one o f the greatest American master s
of the fairy tale for children. Yet today he is known, i f at all, by a
single shor t stor y fo r adults — "Th e Lad y o r th e Tiger?"—an d
two children's stories , "The Bee-Ma n o f Orn" an d "Th e Griffi n
and th e Mino r Canon, " whic h wer e resurrecte d onl y whe n
Maurice Sendak turned them into picture books. Sendak himsel f
confessed tha t fo r hi m Stockto n "ha d alway s been , quit e
honestly, Th e Lad y o r th e Tiger? ' man . I ha d neve r rea d
anything else . Reading 'Th e Griffi n an d th e Mino r Canon ' wa s
very much like opening a treasure chest" (Stockton, Griffin 5).
Frank Stockton' s treasur e ches t o f fair y tale s deserves re -
opening.1 His blend o f traditional folktale motif s an d character s
with his own common-sense logic, quirky humor, and individua l
philosophy i s mellow an d distinctive . Today' s childre n shoul d
enjoy th e fu n an d inventio n o f "Th e Griffin, " "Th e Bee-Man, "
"The Floatin g Prince, " "Th e Philopena, " "Th e Magician' s
Daughter, " and "Prince Hassak's March" no less than children o f
a hundred year s ago . Older reader s wil l appreciate thei r keen -
witted satire , and a sardonic view o f lif e and human nature tha t
is still far from usual in children's literature.
3
4 Life at the Squirrel Inn
Born in 1834 , the son and younger brother o f well-know n
crusading Methodists , Fran k Stockto n wa s no t encourage d t o
become a fictio n writer . Afte r graduatin g fro m hig h school , h e
trained a s a wood engraver , a "practical" trade a t which he wa s
no mor e tha n competent , an d whic h was , ironically , soo n t o
become technologicall y obsolete . In his spare time, however, h e
wrote storie s an d began t o publish them , and by th e 1870 s wa s
making a living a s a free-lance write r an d journalist. I n 187 3 he
was hire d a s assistan t edito r t o Mar y Mape s Dodge , th e
founding edito r o f a new children's magazine, St. Nicholas.
Stockton helped t o pilot St. Nicholas through it s formativ e
first fiv e years , befor e il l healt h force d hi m t o tak e a les s
strenuous positio n wit h Scribner's Monthly. Mos t o f his writin g
for childre n continue d t o appea r i n St. Nicholas wel l int o th e
early 1890s. 2 Besides fair y tales , h e churne d ou t nonfictio n
articles on science, travel, and history, translations o f French an d
German storie s an d poems , a book o f tru e pirat e stories , and a
historical novel with a medieval setting called The Story of Viteau.
Much o f thi s wa s hack-work—Stockto n eve n ha d tw o
pseudonyms t o prevent his name from appearin g too often in St.
Nicholas—but nice , readable hack-work in a clear and easy-goin g
style,
wit h tha t characteristi c ai r o f good-humore d rationalit y
that Stockton maintains through his wildest imaginings.
He began publishing at a time when little fantasy had bee n
written i n America fo r children. 3 We have com e t o assum e th e
pre-eminence o f fantasy i n children's literature, but i n the era o f
William Dean Howell s an d Henr y James , the typical children' s
story was set either in the here and now, or the here and when-I -
was-your-age (lik e Tom Sawyer). I n th e St. Nicholas volume s o f
the 1870 s an d 80s , onl y a smal l percentag e o f th e storie s ar e
fantasy o r retelling s o f myths , legends , o r folktales . Stockto n
became the first American author to make fairy tale s for childre n
hi s specialty , blazing a trail fo r th e generatio n o f Howard Pyl e
and L . Frank Baum.
Like Han s Christia n Anderse n an d Joh n Ruski n befor e
him, Stockton seem s to have taken of f int o fantasy straigh t fro m
the folktales o f Europe and the Near East that he had known a s a
child:
Life at the Squirrel Inn 5
I was very young when I determined t o write some fair y
tales because my mind was full o f them. I set to work, and
in course o f time, produced severa l which were printed .
These wer e constructe d accordin g t o m y ow n ideas . I
caused th e fanciful creature s who inhabited th e world o f
fairy-land t o act, as far as possible fo r them to do so, as if
they were inhabitants of the real world. I did not dispense
with monsters and enchanters, or talking beasts and birds,
but I oblige d thes e creature s t o infus e int o thei r
extraordinary action s a certain leaven o f common sense.
(quoted in Griffin 11 )
These firs t stories , featurin g a diminutiv e fair y name d
Ting-a-ling, wer e publishe d i n 187 0 a s Ting-a-ling (an d late r
renamed Ting-a-ling Tales). Compared t o his later work, they ar e
crudely done , wit h a boyishl y violen t humor . Bu t th e
combination o f "fancifu l creatures " an d " a certai n leave n o f
common sense " wa s t o permeat e al l o f Stockton' s fair y tales .
Two volume s o f thes e appeare d i n th e followin g decade , The
Floating Prince and Other Fairy Tales (1881 ) and The Bee-Man of
Orn and Other Fanciful Tales (1887).
L. Frank Baum has been called the originator o f a distinctly
American fantas y fo r children , but th e road t o Oz runs throug h
Frank Stockto n country . Stockto n employ s a mor e traditiona l
setting and cas t o f characters than Baum—small kingdoms wit h
a medieval flavo r an d a chiefly prince-and-peasan t population ,
plus a wide rang e o f "fancifu l creatures " from Gree k an d Nea r
Eastern mytholog y an d Europea n folklore ; fairies , dryads ,
sphinxes, afrits , wizards , dwarfs , giants , hobgoblins , genii ,
gnomes, griffins, an d hippogriffs al l mingle nonchalantly i n th e
same landscape . Hi s protagonists , whethe r prince s o r peasan t
girls (he is quite even-handed i n his choice o f sexes), are natives,
able t o encounter sphin x o r fair y wit h a minimum o f surprise .
Baum enlists a far higher proportio n o f invented creatures , an d
plays of f thei r oddit y agains t astonishe d newcomer s fro m ou r
world. But his basic narrative strategy (a s we see it in The Wizard
of Oz, The Road to Oz, The Lost Princess of Oz, etc. ) i s very lik e
Stockton's, an d ma y hav e bee n learne d fro m him : th e naiv e
protagonist journeyin g throug h strang e land s an d meetin g a
succession o f eccentri c ye t generall y sensibl e an d friendl y
creatures, who ofte n join themselves to the traveling party. An d
6 Life at the Squirrel Inn
like Stockton , Bau m make s a poin t o f ho w suc h a n assorte d
group ca n co-exist harmoniously. Fo r both authors , fairyland i s
recognizably American, being both multi-ethnic (i n its variety o f
creatures) an d (despit e th e kings an d queens ) democratic ; ther e
is littl e o f th e bickerin g ove r statu s an d powe r tha t goe s o n
constantly i n Lewi s Carroll' s worlds . Whil e th e "fancifu l
creatures" ma y pla y th e traditiona l animal-helpe r rol e i n
assisting the protagonist o n a quest, they also have independen t
"rights"
as characters, with quests and motivations o f their own .
Both Stockto n an d Baum , again , tak e grea t pleasur e i n
imaginary invention s an d labor-savin g devices , such a s were i n
real life the pride o f pre-World War I America. Baum's prototyp e
robot, th e clockwor k Tik-tok , woul d fee l a t hom e i n th e
mechanical cit y o f Stockton' s "Ho w th e Aristocrat s Saile d
Away," whic h als o mus t b e woun d u p periodicall y t o sta y
awake. Some o f Stockton' s stories , such a s "A Tal e o f Negativ e
Gravity" (1884 ) and "My Translataphone" (1900 ) (for adults) an d
"The Tricycl e o f th e Future " (1885 ) (fo r children ) ar e not eve n
fantasy, bu t earl y technologica l scienc e fiction . Willia m Dea n
Ho
wells,
who foun d Stockton' s work enjoyabl e bu t perplexing ,
complained tha t thi s "Edison " o f author s presente d huma n
nature itsel f a s " a cleverl y pu t togethe r toy"—tha t "th e
emotional element" was entirely absent from his stories, "except
as i t i s supplied no w an d the n by th e invento r t o lubricat e hi s
machinery a little" (136).4
For a novelist o f character an d emotio n lik e Howells, thi s
would b e a fata l limitation , an d Stockton' s "straight " novels ,
though the y have thei r defenders, 5 ar e not his most memorabl e
work. Fo r a write r o f nonsens e fantasy , however , i t i s logic ,
humor, and inventio n that ar e essential—character an d emotio n
that must be subordinated t o the smooth operation o f the whole.
Here Stockton, like Baum and Carroll, is superb.
Most Stockto n fair y tale s ar e base d o n familia r folktal e
patterns. The simplest storie s are about children who encounte r
a "fancifu l creature " nea r thei r ow n homes , an d ear n som e
reward fro m i t through thei r own goo d wil l or good sense , lik e
the folktale heroines o f "Toads and Diamonds" or "Snow Whit e
and Ros e Red. " Selm a i s hired b y gnome s a s a tuto r fo r thei r
prince an d take s hom e a generou s salar y i n gol d i n "Th e
Life at the Squirrel Inn 7
Emergency Mistress." Colin and his little sister win a Christma s
decoration an d a doll fro m th e dwarfs i n "Th e Sprig o f Holly. "
The characters learn lessons that children can apply to their ow n
everyday behavior . Whe n a dwar f offer s t o exchang e th e onl y
sprig o f holly i n th e fores t fo r a year o f service , Colin sensibl y
refuses—and continue s to refuse when the stakes are lowered t o
a month, a week, a day, a n hour, o r eve n a minute o f absolut e
obedience.
"A minute, then," said the
dwarf.
Colin hesitated. That was not a long time, but he might be
made t o fire a gun or do something very dangerou s in a
minute.
"No,
sir," said he.
"A second?" cried the
dwarf.
"I might strik e Dora in a second," thought Colin , and h e
sung out:
"No,
I won't."
(Floating Prince
125)
Afterwards, hi s fathe r praise s hi m fo r hi s '"stead y refusa l t o
make a rash bargain, even for a very short time'" (128).
A larger , mor e complex , an d mor e interestin g grou p o f
stories include s "Th e Floatin g Prince, " "Th e Magician' s
Daughter," "The Queen's Museum," "Th e Banished King," "Th e
Philopena," and "Princ e Hassak's March." Here the protagonist s
are o f roya l blood , thei r affair s involv e whol e kingdoms , an d
their quests take them far fro m home, where they may encounte r
not on e bu t a whol e menageri e o f "fancifu l creatures. " Thes e
stories sometime s en d i n traditiona l fashion , wit h a roya l
wedding , an d remin d u s o f suc h folktale s o f quest s an d
journeyings a s "Th e Golde n Bird, " "Th e Wate r o f Life, " "Th e
Fool of the World and the Flying Ship," or "The Seven Ravens."
The thir d grou p o f Stockton' s storie s i s the farthes t fro m
folktale origin s an d hardes t t o classify . Thes e storie s to o ma y
involve a journey an d encounter s with strang e beings, but thei r
protagonists ar e o f lowl y socia l status, with problem s tha t ar e
universal rathe r tha n royal—ol d ag e i n "Ol d Pipe s an d th e
Dryad," fate in "The Bee-Man o f Orn," the failure o f goodness i n
"The Griffi n an d th e Mino r Canon. " Thei r outcome s ar e no t
"happy endings. " Th e Bee-Ma n end s exactl y wher e h e began ,
8 Life at the Squirrel Inn
while "Ol d Pipes " an d "Th e Griffin " conclud e no t wit h a
wedding, but wit h th e deaths o f the drya d an d th e griffi n wh o
have befriended th e protagonists.6
Like Andersen , Ruskin , Thackera y (i n The Rose and the
Ring),
an d Baum , Stockto n buil t o n traditiona l foundation s o f
setting, characters , an d plot . Bu t i n al l hi s fair y tales , thes e
traditional element s ar e outweighed by his consciously moder n
and critical approach to them. "I obliged these creatures to infus e
into thei r extraordinar y action s a certai n leave n o f commo n
sense." Th e incongruit y o f commo n sens e i n a gian t o r a
hippogriff become s bot h a sourc e o f humo r an d a wa y o f
parodying th e irrationalit y o f th e folktale . Bu t th e parod y i s
affectionate. Unlik e Mark Twain, Stockton fel t none o f that urg e
to destroy the European past that took form in The Prince and the
Pauper and A Connecticut Yankee at King Arthur's Court. Hi s
Personally Conducted, a Europea n travelogu e publishe d i n St.
Nicholas in 1887-8, encourages young readers to overcome thei r
national prejudice s an d lear n "ne w merit s an d virtues " fro m
"the people we meet" i n England , Germany, Italy , Switzerland ,
and France :
The more the right kind o f an American journeys the more
he is likely to be satisfied tha t he is an American, but the
better h e become s acquainte d wit h othe r nation s an d
learns not onl y t o avoi d thei r fault s bu t t o imitat e thei r
virtues, the greater advantag e i s he to his ow n country .
(347)
Stockton's satirica l target s onl y begi n wit h th e folktale ;
that sam e fondnes s fo r commo n sens e lead s him t o poke fu n a t
political systems, unrealistic social reformers, and human vanit y
itself.
In "The Floating Prince," for example, Prince Nassime has
been cast out o f his kingdom by a usurper an d decide s t o foun d
a new real m o f his own. "'The firs t person I meet/" he declares ,
"'shall be my chie f councilo r o f state, the second shall be head o f
the army, the third shall be admiral o f the navy, the next shall be
chief treasurer, and then I will collect subjects o f various classes'"
(Floating Prince 2) . The firs t perso n h e meet s i s a five-inch-tal l
fairy named Lorilla—wh o makes an excellen t chie f councilor . A
giant become s hi s general , a shepher d o n stilt s his admiral , a
clam-digger his treasurer. A class o f schoolboys is recruited to be
THE KINGDO M O F NASSIMI A AFLOAT .
An original illustration by
E.
B.
Bensell
for
"The Floating
Prince,"
first published in
St.
Nicholas
Magazine
8,2 (December
1880):
p. 100.
THE MA P O F TH E PRINCE' S JOURNE Y FRO M 1TOB Y T O VAN .
A route that failed t o "go straight." "Prince Hassak's March" may have been inspired by the Hollental Road in Ger-
many, which was cut right through the rocks of the Black Forest to provide a straight route for Marie Antoinette on her
journey from Austria
to
her marriage with the French dauphin. Reginald Birch's illustration was originally published in
St
Nicholas Magazine
11,2 (December
1883):
p. 150.
Life at the Squirrel Inn 9
the Prince' s aristocracy , while a caravan o f ric h merchants an d
philosophers become s hi s commo n people . Th e resul t o f hi s
random selection s is a happy and prosperous community—wit h
the implicatio n tha t rando m selectio n migh t creat e a bette r
society than our time-hallowed present system .
"The Clocks o f Rondaine," published i n 1887 , satirizes th e
current passio n fo r reform . Littl e Ari a own s a beautifu l cloc k
which sh e i s sure keeps perfec t time . Disturbed b y hearing th e
other clocks of Rondaine habitually striking the hour a t disparat e
intervals, sh e set s of f t o persuad e thei r owner s t o se t the m
uniformly. Sh e i s disappointe d t o fin d n o on e willin g t o rese t
their clocks—an d disconcerte d whe n a kindly museum curato r
proves to her that her own clock is ten minutes slow.
Aria's i s th e innocen t self-righteousnes s o f a child , an d
Stockton i s not har d o n her . Arrogan t adults , especiall y thos e
with power , ar e fai r game . Th e eponymou s her o o f "Princ e
Hassak's March " decide s tha t i t i s "beneat h th e dignit y o f a
prince" to be force d fro m hi s chose n path by natural obstacles .
He declares that when he travels from Itob y to visit his uncle, the
King of Yan,
"Mountains an d hill s shal l b e tunneled , river s shal l b e
bridged; house s shal l b e leveled ; a roa d shal l b e cu t
through forests; and, when I have finished m y march, the
course over which I have passed shall be a mathematically
straight
line."
(141)
Accompanying Prince Hassak on his journey ar e a small army o f
laborers, thre e courtiers , two officer s charge d wit h settin g hi s
mathematically straigh t course by the stars and recording it on a
map,
an d te n boys an d girl s fro m th e school s o f Itoby . Fo r th e
prince wishes to show the children "how, when a thing was to be
done, the best wa y was t o g o straight ahea d an d d o it , turnin g
aside for nothing" (141).
On th e firs t day , al l goe s well , "wit h n o furthe r troubl e
than tha t occasione d b y th e tearin g dow n o f fence s an d walls ,
and th e destructio n o f a fe w cottage s an d barns" (141) . On th e
second day , the party come s to a rocky hill, on the top o f whic h
lives a jovial Jolly-cum-pop. He suggests that while the laborer s
drive a tunnel through the hill, the Prince and his party can join
him o n a hunt i n th e forest—bu t instea d o f findin g game , th e
10 Life at the Squirrel Inn
party itsel f i s trapped b y a jailer who needs prisoners t o fil l hi s
empty cells . The y escap e wit h th e hel p o f som e pigwidgeo n
fairies, wander los t and starvin g through th e wilderness (failin g
to catc h a rabbit), volunteer i n exchang e fo r foo d t o "for m th e
nucleus" o f a ne w city , an d finall y mak e thei r wa y t o Yan ,
marching int o th e cit y i n thei r priso n uniform s o f bright gree n
and yello w wit h larg e red spots . "'My dea r Hassak/ " say s th e
Prince's uncle, "'The next time you pay me a visit, I beg that, fo r
your sak e an d m y own , yo u wil l com e i n th e ordinar y way' "
(150).
Back in Itoby a t last, the map-maker show s th e Prince th e
map he has made o f the journey fro m Itob y to Yan—the cours e
which was to be "a mathematically straight line."
Th e Prince glanced at it and then he cast his eyes upon the
floor. "Leave me," he said. "I would be alone." (150)
The story—whos e twist s an d turn s I have simplified—i s
typical Stockton in its inventiveness, its picaresque structure an d
varied characters , an d it s fina l irony . I t i s als o typica l i n it s
criticism o f foolis h prid e an d th e rigid pursui t o f one' s goal . Its
hero i s not th e would-be heroic Hassak, but th e Jolly-cum-pop ,
who accept s with unfailin g goo d humor whateve r lif e brings t o
him. Eve n findin g himsel f th e onl y prisone r to o fa t t o escap e
through the narrow window o f the jail does not trouble him:
"It i s the most ridiculous thin g in the world," he said. " I
suppose I must stay here and cry until I get thin." And the
idea so tickled him, that he laughed himself to sleep. (144)
Later, when he has finally tire d o f the jail, he decides on a simple
stratagem an d easil y free s
himself .
Bac k at home, he dismisse s
the prince's miners—who have succeeded i n tunneling halfwa y
through his hill—and convert s the tunnel into convenient cella r
space.
The journey through life expressed symbolically in "Princ e
Hassak's March " take s architectura l for m i n The Squirrel Inn
(1891),
a nove l fo r adults . Th e in n i s a buildin g o f eccentri c
design, which exert s a peculiar an d unsettlin g influenc e o n th e
lives o f its assorted inhabitants. Susan, the innkeeper's wife, is as
frustrated a s Prince Hassa k whe n thing s don' t tur n ou t a s sh e
expects them to, and complain s that "'nothing ca n go straight i n
Life at the Squirrel Inn 11
a crooke d house' " (198) . T o he r husband , however , thi s i s
something to be grateful for :
"It strikes me, Susan, that our lives are very seldom built
with a hall throug h th e middle an d th e room s alik e o n
both sides . I don't thin k we'd lik e i t i f they were . The y
would b e stupi d an d humdrum . Th e right sor t o f a lif e
should hav e it s up s an d downs , it s in s an d outs , it s
different levels , its outside stair s and it s inside stairs, its
balconies, windows, an d roof s o f differen t period s an d
different styles . Thi s i s education . Thes e thing s ar e th e
advantages that our lives get from the lives of others.
"Now, for
myself,
I like the place I live in to resemble my
life an d tha t o f the people about me. And I am sure tha t
nothing could be better suited to all that than the Squirrel
Inn." (198).
To hav e succeede d i n marchin g straigh t t o Ya n woul d
have taught Princ e Hassak nothing. His education spring s fro m
the unforeseen adventure s that befall him—in fact , from th e very
failure o f his quest.
Many o f Fran k Stockton' s fair y tale s tel l o f a ques t tha t
fails t o "g o straight, " o r eve n end s i n failure . Th e Bee-Man' s
quest fo r a mor e impressiv e "origina l form " result s i n hi s
becoming a humble bee-man again . The king i n "Th e Banishe d
King" set s ou t o n his travels t o learn how t o rule mor e wisely ,
but become s a perpetual wanderer, leavin g his kingdom i n th e
competent hands o f his queen. Loris and Ninkum never do reac h
"The Castle o f Bim," where everything is "'positively charming ,
and ever y body i s just a s happy an d ga y a s ca n be'" (Floating
Prince 186). As another character concludes, "'I don't believe an y
of us wil l fin d tha t place'" (198) . In "Th e Sister s Thre e an d th e
Kilmaree," Stockto n eve n invent s a boa t tha t wil l no t sai l
straight—the nautical equivalent o f the Squirrel Inn:
A kilmare e i s a boat use d exclusivel y b y fairies , an d i s
shaped a good deal like a ram's horn, with little windows
and door s in various parts o f it. The waters between th e
main-land and the island of the sisters were full o f strange,
entangled currents, and could be navigated only by a boat
like a kilmaree, which could twis t about a s much a s any
current or stream of water could possibly twist or turn. Of
12 Life at the Squirrel Inn
course thes e boat s ar e ver y har d t o manage , fo r th e
passengers sometime s hav e t o get int o on e door , an d
sometimes into another; and the water sometime s come s
in at a front window and goes out at a back one, while at
other times it comes in at a back window and goes out at a
front one ; sometimes the boat twists aroun d an d aroun d
like a screw, while at other times it goes over and over like
a wheel , s o tha t i t i s eas y t o see tha t an y on e no t
accustomed t o managing suc h boats would hav e a hard
tim e if he undertook to make a trip in
one.
(943)
Stockton's less fantastic tale s often ech o the same theme o f
the ques t tha t end s i n failure . Arl a fail s t o refor m th e clock s o f
Rondaine. The boy inventor o f "The Tricycle o f the Future" see s
his inventio n destroyed . Severa l stories—includin g hi s fin e
comic novel fo r adults , The Casting Away of Mrs. Lecks and Mrs.
Aleshine—deal wit h shipwrecks, a classic symbol for the rando m
destruction o f human hopes and plans.
The theme is especially striking, however, in his fairy tales,
for i n both traditiona l an d literar y fair y tale s a quest tha t doe s
not succee d i s a virtua l self-contradiction . Nassime , i n "Th e
Floating Prince," is an exception who proves the point; he gain s
a kingdo m fo r himsel f becaus e h e doe s no t attemp t t o marc h
straight toward hi s goal, but "floats, " learning from "th e peopl e
he meets " an d th e opportunitie s tha t com e his way. "This, " a s
Frank Stockton says, "is education."
There i s something stoical , i n a pleasant way , abou t thi s
philosophy, an d indeed , lik e man y humorists , Stockto n use d
humor a s a defense agains t hi s ow n melancholy . Accordin g t o
his wif e Marian, "He hated mourning an d gloom . They seeme d
to paralyz e hi m mentall y unti l hi s brigh t spiri t ha d agai n
asserted itsel f an d h e recovere d hi s balance" (Maria n Stockto n
206).
And he spoke with intuitive understanding o f the darknes s
in his great contemporary Mark Twain:
It i s wel l know n tha t th e acto r o f comed y ofte n cast s
longing glances toward the tragic mask, and when he has
an opportunity to put it on, he often wears it so well that
one cannot sa y that he has no right to it. The same pen -
point that will make a man laugh out in church, i f gently
pricked by it, will not only slay a bride at the altar, but will
"THE BOA T BEGA N T O LOO K SOMETHIN G LIK E A KILMAK E
A boat that cannot sail straight. An original illustration by E. B. Bensell fo r "Th e Sis-
ters Three and the Kilmaree" from St. Nicholas Magazine 9,12 (Octobe r 1882) : p. 946.
"The Griffin sa t lookin g a t his image al l th e morning an d al l the after -
noon." An origina l illustratio n by E . B . Bensell fo r "Th e Griffi n an d th e
Minor Canon" from St. Nicholas Magazine 12,12 (October 1885) : p. 897.
Life at the Squirrel Inn 13
go entirely through her and kil l her fathe r wh o is giving
her away, (quoted in Golemba 66)
In Stockton too, we occasionally feel the increased pressur e
of th e pen-point . Readin g "Th e Lad y o r th e Tiger? " we mus t
identify wit h a princes s force d t o choos e betwee n he r lover' s
marriage t o anothe r woma n an d hi s death . Stockto n subtl y
weights th e stor y towar d th e tiger—then , b y endin g wit h th e
famous question , force s u s t o articulat e th e choic e ourselves .
And th e underlyin g melanchol y i n som e o f hi s best children' s
stories give s way t o a n eve n bleaker vie w o f human natur e i n
"The Griffin an d the Minor Canon. "
Stockton wrote the story in Chester, England, inspired b y
the strang e woo d an d ston e carving s o f it s ancien t cathedra l
(Marian Stockton 194) . One day a Griffin come s flying out o f th e
wilderness, t o a tow n whos e churc h ha s a grea t ston e griffi n
carved abov e its porch; it is the Griffin's firs t chanc e to discove r
what h e look s like , fo r h e ha s alway s live d alone . Th e
townspeople ar e terrifie d o f th e monster , an d onl y on e ma n
dares t o approac h an d sho w hi m th e statue . Thi s i s the Mino r
Canon o f th e church — " a youn g ma n o f a kin d disposition "
(Stockton, Griffin 15 ) who i s used t o performing th e dutie s n o
one els e care s for , conductin g service s fo r a weekda y
congregation o f three old women, visiting the sick and poor, an d
teaching a school o f bad children. But even after severa l days th e
monster shows no sig n o f leaving. He has conceived a liking fo r
the Mino r Canon , an d begin s t o accompan y hi m abou t hi s
duties.
As th e autum n equino x approaches , whe n th e Griffi n i s
known t o tak e his semi-annua l meal , the townspeopl e becom e
increasingly apprehensive . They order the Minor Canon t o exil e
himself t o th e wilderness , assumin g tha t th e Griffi n wil l g o i n
search o f him. Instead, the Griffi n begin s to take on some o f th e
Minor Canon's duties
himself.
"It does not matte r s o much abou t th e church," he said ,
"for nobody went there; but it is a pity about the school. I
think
I
will teach it myself until he returns." (35)
The Griffi n s o terrifies th e children tha t the y work harder tha n
they ever have before.
14 Life at the Squirrel Inn
The Griffin use d no severity toward them , but there was a
look abou t hi m which mad e the m unwillin g t o g o to be d
until the y were sure they kne w thei r lesson s fo r th e nex t
day (38) .
When th e Griffi n visit s th e sick , th e effect s ar e literall y
"miraculous. All, except those who wer e very il l indeed, jumpe d
from thei r beds whe n the y heard h e wa s coming , an d declare d
themselves quit e well" (38) .
As for th e poor, they seemed t o have utterly disappeared .
All those who ha d depende d upo n charit y fo r thei r dail y
bread wer e now a t work i n some way o r other , many o f
them offerin g t o do od d job s fo r thei r neighbor s just fo r
the sak e o f thei r meals— a thin g whic h befor e ha d bee n
seldom heard o f in the town. The Griffin coul d find no one
who needed his assistance. (40 )
When a t las t th e desperat e townspeopl e approac h th e
monster directly , he inform s the m tha t he despise s the m al l fa r
too much t o devour them :
"They
appear t o be all cowards, and, therefore, mean an d
selfish. .. . I n fact , ther e wa s onl y on e creatur e i n th e
whole place fo r whom I could have had an y appetite, an d
that wa s th e Mino r Canon , who ha s gon e away . H e wa s
brave an d goo d an d honest , an d I think I should hav e
relished him. "
"Ah!" said one o f the old men very politely, "in that case I
wish we had not sent him to the dreadful wilds! " (42-3)
Learning fo r th e firs t tim e o f th e Mino r Canon' s
banishment, th e Griffi n i s furious. H e declare s tha t he wil l fin d
the Canon an d bring him back .
"And if , when your Mino r Canon comes back to you, yo u
do not bow yourselves before him, put him in the highes t
place amon g you , an d serv e an d hono r hi m al l hi s life ,
beware o f m y terribl e vengeance ! Ther e wer e onl y tw o
good thing s i n this town: the Minor Canon an d th e ston e
image o f mysel f ove r your churc h door. One o f these yo u
have sen t away , and th e other I shall carry away
myself. "
(48)
Life at the Squirrel Inn 15
Wrenching of f th e statue , th e Griffi n carrie s i t t o his cave . H e
finds the Minor Canon, dying o f starvation, and nurses him back
to health, then returns him t o the town. Here the young man a t
last receives the treatment he deserves , and "befor e h e died, h e
became a bishop."
The story ends,
But they need never have been afrai d o f the Griffin. Th e
autumna l equino x cam e round , an d th e monste r at e
nothing. If he could not have the Minor Canon, he did not
care fo r anything . So , lyin g down , wit h hi s eye s fixe d
upon th e grea t ston e griffin , h e graduall y decline d an d
died. I t was a good thin g fo r som e o f th e people o f th e
town that they did not know this.
If you should eve r visit the old town, you would stil l see
the little griffins o n the sides o f the church; but the great
stone griffin tha t was over the door is gone. (55-6)
Stockton ma y hav e mean t "Th e Griffi n an d th e Mino r
Canon" as a parody o f such hero-versus-monsters legend s as St.
George and th e Dragon. In his version, the monster i s o f noble r
character than his potential victims; the hero triumphs not by a n
act o f slaughter but by kindness, humility, and self-sacrifice ; an d
the monste r rescue s him. Suc h a reversa l woul d hav e bee n
characteristic o f Stockton's personal distaste for violent solutions.
Stockton not only opposed the Spanish-American War (Golemb a
31-2),
but published a heartfelt pamphlet in 1860, urging that the
South be allowed t o secede peaceably from th e Union (Golemb a
28-9).
His fictio n include s suc h strongl y pacifis t work s a s (fo r
adults) The Great War Syndicate (1889) and (fo r children) "Derido ;
or, The Giant's Quilt."
But th e story' s satir e reache s deepe r tha n parody . Th e
townspeople see m t o represen t no t merel y suc h foolis h
individuals as Prince Hassak, but th e generality o f humanity— a
cowardly, selfish , short-sighte d humanity , willin g enoug h t o
sacrifice thei r on e hero , ye t neve r appreciatin g wha t h e is .
Stockton underline s th e indictmen t wit h sl y jab s o f hi s pen .
These fol k ar e afrai d tha t the Griffi n wil l devour thei r children ,
but read y "t o mention tha t ther e was a n orpha n asylu m i n th e
next town " (42) . Poverty , sickness , an d naughtines s ar e
impervious t o th e Canon' s kindness , ye t vanis h wit h th e firs t
16 Life at the Squirrel Inn
whiff o f fear. Eve n the Griffin notice s how irrelevan t th e churc h
is to these people's lives (35) . And though Stockton allows that in
time the y learne d "t o hono r an d reverenc e thei r forme r Mino r
Canon without the fear o f being punished i f they did not do so "
(54),
he ends by commenting, on the Griffin's death , that "It was
a good thing for some o f the people o f the town that they did no t
know this."
The Mino r Cano n himsel f i s Christ-lik e i n hi s persona l
qualities, his self-impose d dutie s t o the sick , the poor , an d th e
outcast, an d hi s rejectio n b y th e ver y fol k h e saves . Hi s
banishment recall s th e traditiona l identificatio n o f Chris t wit h
the scapegoat , whic h i s lade n wit h th e sin s o f th e peopl e an d
driven ou t int o th e wildernes s (Leviticu s 16 : 8-10 , 21 , 22) .
Stockton's echoin g o f Biblica l phrases — "thei r dail y bread, "
"bow yourselve s befor e him, " "pu t hi m i n th e highes t plac e
among you " —and , o f course , th e presenc e o f th e churc h a s
setting fo r th e stor y als o guid e th e reade r towar d a religiou s
interpretation. Stockto n seem s t o suggest tha t Christia n virtue s
are no t trul y valued , tha t i f Chris t reappeare d h e woul d onc e
more be crucified by a stupid mob, and—since the Minor Cano n
ranks s o lo w i n th e churc h hierarchy—tha t th e religiou s
establishment has lost sight o f its own priorities.
But what , then , o f th e Griffin ? I f th e Mino r Cano n
represent s Christ , on e migh t expec t hi m t o vanquis h a Devil -
monster. Thi s does not happen; instead, the Griffi n save s his lif e
an d ensure s hi s advancement . I t i s th e Griffin , no t th e Mino r
Canon, who becomes the protagonist o f the story and give s it its
special quality . Again , a s in "Th e Lad y o r th e Tiger? " Stockto n
forces us to confront a monster—but th e simple, savage tiger has
been replace d b y a creature whose comple x form , hal f lio n an d
half eagle , reflects its rich ambiguity.
The stor y begins an d end s wit h th e Griffin' s statue . "I n
some wa y o r other, " say s Stockto n (explainin g nothing) , "th e
old-time sculptor had see n him, and afterward, t o the best o f his
memory, had copie d his figure i n stone" (9). The statue is "not a
pleasant one to look at," but impressive in its monstrous power ,
its "large head, with enormou s ope n mouth an d savag e teeth, "
its "great wings" and long, barbed tai l (7-8). Its placement abov e
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