Cast-Mistresses: The Widow Figure in Oroonoko PDF Free Download
1 / 24/24
100%
ChapterChapter 44
Cast-Mistresses:Cast-Mistresses:
TheThe
WidowWidow
FigureFigure inin OroonokoOroonoko
Kristina
Kristina Bross
Bross and
and Kathryn
Kathryn Rummell
Rummell
AphraAphra Behn'sBehn's proseprose narrativenarrative OroonokoOroonoko seemsseems bentbent onon confusion.confusion. AA mixmix
ofof
settings,settings, times,times, andand narrativenarrative strategies,strategies, thethe storystory beginsbegins withwith aa briefbrief descriptiondescription
ofof
Surinam,
Surinam, the
the primary
primary setting,
setting, moves
moves
to
to
West
West Africa
Africa to
to detail
detail the
the background
background
of
of
OroonokoOroonoko
as
as aa young,young, noblenoble warriorwarrior inin Coramantien,Coramantien, andand thenthen returnsreturns toto itsits NewNew
WorldWorld setting.setting. Fictional,Fictional, autobiographical,autobiographical, andand historichistoric elementselements minglemingle inin aa taletale
that
that contains
contains both
both heroic
heroic and
and bathetic
bathetic sentiments,
sentiments, recounted
recounted memoir-style
memoir-style by
by an
an
olderolder narratornarrator andand throughthrough as-told-toas-told-to storiesstories
ofof
thethe tale'stale's mainmain character.character. ByBy
contrast,contrast, ThomasThomas Southerne'sSoutherne's 16961696 revisionrevision
ofof
Behn'sBehn's proseprose narrativenarrative intointo aa fivefive
actact dramadrama (also(also titledtitled Oroonoko)Oroonoko)
isis
aa muchmuch moremore orderlyorderly retellingretelling
ofof
thethe story.story. ItsIts
onlyonly majormajor complication,complication, aa splitsplit plot,plot, resolvesresolves cleanlycleanly intointo clearlyclearly tragictragic andand
clearly
clearly comic
comic conclusions.
conclusions. Southerne's
Southerne's neatly-staged
neatly-staged play
play avoids
avoids Behn's
Behn's
eclecticism,
eclecticism, in
in part
part by
by confining
confining the
the West
West African
African scenes
scenes to
to the
the background
background and
and
eliminating
eliminating any
any staging
staging
ofof
CoramantienCoramantien altogether.altogether.
ManyMany
ofof
Southerne'sSoutherne's changeschanges havehave beenbeen wellwell documenteddocumented inin recentrecent
scholarshipscholarship --hishis transformationtransformation
ofof
Behn'sBehn's narratornarrator intointo thethe cross-dressingcross-dressing CharlotteCharlotte
Welldon andand thethe
ofof
Welldon 'whitening''whitening'
ofof
ImoindaImoinda inin particularparticular havehave beenbeen thethe focusfocus
excellentexcellent commentary.]commentary.] SurprisinglySurprisingly littlelittle attentionattention hashas beenbeen paid,paid, however,however, toto
an
an
equallyequally strikingstriking departuredeparture fromfrom hishis source:source: Southerne'sSoutherne's introductionintroduction
ofof
aa stockstock
charactercharacter fromfrom RestorationRestoration drama,drama, thethe rich,rich, man-hungryman-hungry widow.widow.22 ForFor readersreaders
familiarfamiliar onlyonly withwith Behn'sBehn's originaloriginal
ofof
OroonokoOroonoko --andand eveneven forfor somesome whowho knowknow
bothboth worksworks --Southerne'sSoutherne's WidowWidow LackittLackitt maymay comecome asas aa surprise;surprise; therethere seemsseems toto bebe
nono parallelparallel charactercharacter inin Behn'sBehn's workwork toto thisthis conventionalconventional stagestage widow.widow.33 ThisThis veryvery
conventionality,conventionality, however,however, masksmasks herher connectionsconnections
toto
Behn'sBehn's moremore experimentalexperimental
narrative.narrative. Older,Older, wealthy,wealthy, fullfull
ofof
sexualsexual desire,desire, wily:wily: thesethese characteristicscharacteristics describedescribe
WidowWidow Lackitt,Lackitt, butbut theythey alsoalso describedescribe Onahal,Onahal, thethe 'cast-mistress''cast-mistress'
ofof
thethe
Coramantien
Coramantien king
king and
and an
an important
important female
female character
character from
from Behn's
Behn's West
West African
African
sequencesequence whowho
isis
lostlost inin Southerne'sSoutherne's revision.revision.44 Indeed,Indeed, attentionattention
toto
'widow'widow figures,'figures,'
especiallyespecially toto Onahal,Onahal, makesmakes thethe linkslinks betweenbetween thethe firstfirst andand lastlast partsparts
of
of
Behn'sBehn's
narrativenarrative clearclear andand helpshelps makemake sensesense
ofof
thethe work'swork's disparatedisparate elements.elements. And,And,
althoughalthough WidowWidow LackittLackitt andand OnahalOnahal areare relativelyrelatively minorminor characters,characters, theythey
exemplifyexemplifY eacheach author'sauthor's approachapproach toto thethe intersectingintersecting issuesissues
ofof
slavery,slavery, marriage,marriage,
and
and women's
women's agency.
agency.
60 60
TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
Further,Further,
wewe
seesee aa parallelparallel betweenbetween thesethese widowwidow figuresfigures andand BehnBehn herself.herself.
AtAt thethe timetime
ofof
Oroonoko'sOroonoko's publication,publication, BehnBehn waswas bothboth anan olderolder widowwidow andand aa
possiblepossible 'cast-mistress.''cast-mistress.'
ItIt
isis
notnot surprising,surprising, then,then, thatthat sheshe createscreates aa femalefemale narratornarrator
whowho alsoalso functionsfunctions likelike aa widowwidow
inin
thethe text;text; thoughthough sheshe doesn'tdoesn't loselose aa husband,husband, thethe
deathdeath
ofof
thethe narrator'snarrator's fatherfather leavesleaves herher largelylargely independentindependent
inin
Surinam.Surinam. ThisThis
femalefemale narrator,narrator, whowho holdsholds aa vexedvexed positionposition
ofof
authorityauthority overover OroonokoOroonoko andand
ImoindaImoinda butbut whowho
isis
incapableincapable
ofof
savingsaving theirtheir lives,lives, representsrepresents Behn'sBehn's frustrationsfrustrations atat
herher ownown lacklack
ofof
powerpower inin thethe male-dominatedmale-dominated literaryliterary world,world, aa circumscribedcircumscribed
positionposition thatthat SoutherneSoutherne
isis
happyhappy toto reflectreflect
inin
hishis representationsrepresentations
ofof
womenwomen whowho
attemptattempt toto 'author''author' theirtheir ownown stories.stories. However,However, asas wewe willwill see,see, thoughthough Behn'sBehn's
narratornarrator
isis
notnot powerfulpowerful enoughenough toto overcomeovercome thethe patriarchalpatriarchal politicspolitics inin Surinam,Surinam,
sheshe nonethelessnonetheless seizesseizes narrativenarrative controlcontrol toto telltell Oroonoko'sOroonoko's storystory andand ensureensure BehnBehn aa
lastinglasting placeplace
inin
thethe literaryliterary canon.canon.
InIn
orderorder
toto
understandunderstand thethe limitslimits andand
possibilitiespossibilities
ofof
femalefemale agencyagency (both(both politicalpolitical andand rhetorical),rhetorical), wewe mustmust firstfirst
understandunderstand thethe placeplace andand functionfunction
ofof
thethe widowwidow figurefigure inin Southerne'sSoutherne's andand Behn'sBehn's
texts.texts. AA comparisoncomparison
ofof
WidowWidow LackittLackitt andand OnahalOnahal maymay seemseem strained;strained; afterafter all,all,
LackittLackitt
isis
aa whitewhite womanwoman who,who, whilewhile limitedlimited byby herher statusstatus
asas
aa woman,woman, alsoalso exertsexerts
somesome powerpower andand authorityauthority inin SurinamSurinam asas aa slaveslave owner.owner. SheShe enjoysenjoys friendshipsfriendships andand
hashas neighborlyneighborly (or(or atat leastleast business)business) relationsrelations withwith manymany colonists,colonists, bothboth menmen andand
women.women. Onahal,Onahal, byby contrast,contrast,
isis
anan AfricanAfrican womanwoman inin CoramantienCoramantien whowho couldcould veryvery
easilyeasily becomebecome enslavedenslaved toto thethe likeslikes
ofof
WidowWidow Lackitt.Lackitt. SheShe
isis
notnot technicallytechnically aa
widow,widow, butbut ratherrather
isis
immuredimmured inin thethe Otan,Otan, thethe king'sking's harem,harem, forbiddenforbidden contactcontact withwith
anyany butbut thethe king'sking's otherother wives.wives. However,However, atat thethe riskrisk
ofof
erasingerasing thesethese differences,differences,
wewe wouldwould likelike toto suggestsuggest thatthat aa comparisoncomparison
ofof
thesethese twotwo characterscharacters cancan andand shouldshould
bebe mademade
onon
thethe basisbasis
ofof
theirtheir statusstatus withinwithin theirtheir respectiverespective (fictionalized)(fictionalized) cultures.cultures.
Behn'sBehn's CoramantienCoramantien society,society, thoughthough clearlyclearly meantmeant toto bebe anan exotic,exotic, distantdistant setting,setting,
nonethelessnonetheless functionsfunctions
asas
aa (to(to thethe English)English) familiarfamiliar patriarchalpatriarchal societysociety afterafter thethe
fashionfashion
ofof
RestorationRestoration London.London.55 AA similarsimilar casecase cancan bebe mademade forfor women'swomen's positionposition
inin Southerne'sSoutherne's Surinam.Surinam. InIn bothboth CoramantienCoramantien andand Surinam,Surinam, OnahalOnahal andand Lackitt,Lackitt,
asas
wellwell asas mostmost
ofof
thethe otherother femalefemale characters,characters, confrontconfront thethe samesame dilemmasdilemmas
ofof
findingfinding
suitablesuitable sexualsexual partners,partners, pursuingpursuing theirtheir ownown desires,desires, andand forgingforging friendshipsfriendships withwith
womenwomen whowho are,are, inin thethe marketplacemarketplace
ofof
courtship,courtship, theirtheir personalpersonal andand economiceconomic
rivals.rivals. InIn bothboth
ofof
thesethese fictionalfictional societies,societies, however,however, thethe widowwidow figurefigure hashas aa uniqueunique
position.position. SexuallySexually experienced,experienced, sheshe knowsknows whatwhat sheshe likeslikes inin aa man;man; wealthywealthy andand
largelylargely independent,independent, sheshe hashas thethe meansmeans toto pursuepursue him.him. SuchSuch discernmentdiscernment andand
ambitionambition inin aa womanwoman areare riskyrisky inin aa societysociety that,that, whilewhile affordingaffording thethe 'widow''widow' aa
certaincertain amountamount
ofof
selfself determination,determination, particularlyparticularly
asas
toto herher economiceconomic position,position,
nonethelessnonetheless reservereserve asas inviolableinviolable thethe romanticromantic oror maritalmarital relationsrelations thatthat gavegave herher
thatthat statusstatus inin thethe firstfirst place.place. InIn short,short, whilewhile bothboth
ofof
thesethese womenwomen areare rich,rich, theythey
cannotcannot successfullysuccessfully buybuy theirtheir ownown wayway intointo thethe marriagemarriage oror sexualsexual marketmarket
inin
whichwhich
theythey areare commoditiescommodities andand notnot traders.traders. TheThe reductionreduction toto chattelchattel
ofof
womenwomen whowho areare
inin
soso
manymany otherother waysways 'self-possessed''self-possessed' couldcould makemake forfor radicalradical socialsocial commentary,commentary,
and,and, indeed,indeed, somesome criticscritics makemake justjust thisthis claimclaim forfor Southerne'sSoutherne's workwork asas hehe stagesstages thethe
61 61
Cast-MistressesCast-Mistresses
parallelsparallels betweenbetween thethe marriagemarriage marketmarket
ofof
whitewhite womenwomen andand thethe slaveslave marketmarket
ofof
(especially)(especially) blackblack menmen inin Surinam.Surinam.66 However,However, aa closercloser looklook atat thethe characterizationcharacterization
andand fatefate
ofof
WidowWidow Lackitt,Lackitt, especiallyespecially
in
in comparisoncomparison
toto
Behn'sBehn's Onahal,Onahal, illustratesillustrates
thatthat thethe comiccomic widowwidow undercutsundercuts thethe play'splay's purportedpurported socialsocial commentary.commentary.
InIn Behn'sBehn's narrative,narrative, byby contrast,contrast, thethe widowwidow figure,figure, withwith herher uniquelyuniquely
powerful
powerful and
and yet
yet dangerous
dangerous position,
position,
is
is
a
a key
key to
to the
the work
work
as
as
a
a whole,
whole, both
both
in
in
terms
terms
ofof
structurestructure andand characterization.characterization. InIn thethe CoramantienCoramantien courtcourt intrigueintrigue involvinginvolving
Onahal,Onahal, aa powerfulpowerful femalefemale charactercharacter whowho attemptsattempts toto 'narrate''narrate' herher ownown romanticromantic
plot,plot, BehnBehn offersoffers
anan
objectobject lessonlesson
onon
thethe dangersdangers
ofof
femalefemale alliances.alliances. SuchSuch
alliancesalliances areare ultimatelyultimately circumscribedcircumscribed byby thethe patriarchypatriarchy andand cancan proveprove dangerous,dangerous,
indeedindeed fatal,fatal,
ifif
theythey accordaccord tootoo muchmuch powerpower toto women.women. WithWith thisthis lesson,lesson, BehnBehn
teachesteaches herher readersreaders toto understandunderstand betterbetter thethe self-protectiveself-protective decisionsdecisions
of
of
herher
controversialcontroversial femalefemale narratornarrator andand
toto
seesee thatthat whilewhile thethe narrator'snarrator's abilityability toto telltell
Oronooko'sOronooko's storystory mightmight pointpoint toto aa kindkind
ofof
limitedlimited controlcontrol
inin
thethe literaryliterary patriarchypatriarchy
ofof
LondonLondon itit nonethelessnonetheless cannotcannot changechange thethe factfact thatthat thethe narratornarrator
isis
politicallypolitically
powerlesspowerless inin Surinam.Surinam.
***
***
TheThe mostmost obviousobvious formalformal differencedifference betweenbetween Behn'sBehn's andand Southerne'sSoutherne's piecespieces
is,is,
ofof
course,course, generic,generic, whichwhich maymay helphelp
toto
explainexplain thethe functionfunction
ofof
thethe widowwidow figurefigure
inin
eacheach work.work. Behn'sBehn's workwork
isis
aa proseprose fictionfiction thatthat criticscritics havehave comparedcompared toto laterlater
novels,novels, especiallyespecially toto thosethose
ofof
DefoeDefoe (see(see Guffey).Guffey). Furthermore,Furthermore, herher narrativenarrative
isis
aa
tragedy,tragedy, endingending withwith thethe deathsdeaths
ofof
OroonokoOroonoko andand hishis pregnantpregnant wifewife Imoinda.Imoinda.
Southeme'sSoutheme's work,work, onon thethe otherother hand,hand,
isis
aa dramadrama --aa split-plotsplit-plot tragicomedytragicomedy --thatthat
retainsretains thethe pathospathos
ofof
Qroonoko'sQroonoko's storystory temperedtempered byby aa traditionaltraditional comiccomic marriagemarriage
plot.plot. HisHis decisiondecision
toto
addadd thethe comiccomic plotplot toto Behn'sBehn's fullyfully seriousserious andand tragictragic storystory
ofof
thethe royalroyal princeprince raisesraises thethe questionquestion
ofof
motive:motive: whywhy diddid hehe choosechoose toto dodo so?so? AndAnd
whywhy diddid Behn,Behn, whowho hadhad alreadyalready provenproven herselfherself aa successfulsuccessful comiccomic playwright,playwright, soso
scrupulouslyscrupulously avoidavoid comedycomedy inin herher story??story??
Ironically,Ironically, inin hishis dedicatorydedicatory epistleepistle toto hishis Oroonoko,Oroonoko, SouthemeSoutheme
acknowledgesacknowledges hishis debtdebt toto BehnBehn andand famouslyfamously wonderswonders whywhy sheshe nevernever broughtbrought herher
most
most compelling
compelling hero
hero to
to the
the stage
stage herself.
herself. 88 Critics
Critics seeking
seeking to
to make
make sense
sense
of
of
his
his
split-plotsplit-plot formform havehave suggestedsuggested thatthat withwith itit hehe mirroredmirrored hishis contemporarycontemporary societysociety
andand mournedmourned thethe lossloss
ofof
certaincertain heroicheroic oror fraternalfraternal ideals.ideals.99 Specifically,Specifically, MaryMary
VermillionVermillion readsreads Southerne'sSoutherne's genregenre choicechoice
asas
hishis wayway
ofof
attackingattacking thethe dangerousdangerous
encroachmentencroachment
ofof
womenwomen writers,writers, contendingcontending thatthat SouthemeSoutheme regretsregrets women'swomen's
partialpartial entranceentrance intointo thethe male-dominatedmale-dominated worldworld
ofof
lettersletters (28).(28). Vermillion'sVermillion's
argumentargument helpshelps makemake sensesense
ofof
Southerne'sSoutherne's choices,choices, butbut understandingunderstanding hishis
variationsvariations onon OroonokoOroonoko alsoalso shedssheds lightlight onon Behn'sBehn's position.position.
IfIf
Southeme'sSoutheme's revisionrevision
functionsfunctions asas anan attackattack onon women'swomen's entranceentrance intointo malemale spheres,spheres, aa conservativeconservative
retellingretelling
ofof
Behn'sBehn's proseprose fictionfiction narratednarrated byby aa woman,woman, thethe comiccomic plotplot withwith WidowWidow
,..
....
62 62 TropingTroping OroonokoOroonoko fromfrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
LackittLackitt asas aa centralcentral charactercharacter standsstands inin starkstark contrastcontrast toto thethe veryvery seriousserious messagemessage
BehnBehn deliversdelivers aboutabout thethe placeplace andand powerpower
ofof
womenwomen inin RestorationRestoration society.society.
Briefly,Briefly, Southerne'sSoutherne's comiccomic plotplot introducesintroduces CharlotteCharlotte andand Lucy,Lucy, twotwo sisterssisters
recentlyrecently arrivedarrived inin SurinamSurinam fromfrom LondonLondon inin orderorder toto gogo 'a-husband-hunting'a-husband-hunting intointo
America'America' (1.1.4).(1.1.4). CharlotteCharlotte dressesdresses inin men'smen's clothingclothing inin orderorder
toto
claimclaim thethe
inheritanceinheritance
ofof
aa recentlyrecently deceaseddeceased planter,.planter,. andand inin thisthis guiseguise s/hes/he
isis
desireddesired byby thethe
WidowWidow Lackitt.Lackitt. CharlotteCharlotte asas 'Welldon''Welldon' convincesconvinces thethe widowwidow
toto
pairpair herher foolish,foolish,
effeminateeffeminate sonson withwith LucyLucy inin orderorder toto clearclear thethe wayway forfor theirtheir ownown marriage.marriage. OnOn herher
weddingwedding nightnight withwith thethe widow,widow, CharlotteCharlotte usesuses anotheranother character,character, JackJack Stanmore,Stanmore,
whowho hadhad longlong beenbeen courtingcourting LackittLackitt toto nono avail,avail, asas aa sexualsexual stand-in.stand-in. Meanwhile,Meanwhile,
asas Welldon,Welldon, sheshe befriendsbefriends Jack'sJack's cousincousin Stanmore,Stanmore, aa desirabledesirable planter,planter, andand interestsinterests
himhim inin thethe picturepicture
ofof
herher 'cousin''cousin' --actuallyactually herselfherself inin femalefemale clothing.clothing. WhenWhen thethe
'unmasking''unmasking' comes,comes, LucyLucy hashas aa richrich andand tractabletractable husbandhusband inin thethe Widow'sWidow's sonson
Daniel,Daniel, JackJack StanmoreStanmore hashas thethe Widow,Widow, andand Charlotte,Charlotte, havinghaving cheatedcheated LackittLackitt outout
ofof
aa smallsmall fortune,fortune, chooseschooses StanmoreStanmore forfor herher ownown husband.husband.
1010
ItIt
isis Charlotte'sCharlotte's controlcontrol
ofof
thethe situationsituation thatthat hashas ledled somesome readersreaders
toto
seesee thethe
playasplayas
sociallysocially radical.radical. MaximillianMaximillian E.E. NovakNovak andand DavidDavid StuartStuart Rodes,Rodes, forfor
instance,instance, pointpoint
toto
Southerne'sSoutherne's implicitimplicit critiquecritique
ofof
women'swomen's oppressionoppression inin marriagemarriage
(xiii-xlii),(xiii-xlii), andand JacquelineJacqueline PearsonPearson callscalls hishis workwork 'one'one
ofof
thethe mostmost challengingchallenging andand
subversivesubversive presentationspresentations
ofof
womenwomen inin thethe period'period' (Prostituted(Prostituted MuseMuse 145).145). Indeed,Indeed,
thethe happyhappy endingending dependsdepends onon Charlotte'sCharlotte's authorialauthorial abilities.abilities. SheShe putsputs onon men'smen's
clothesclothes andand manipulatesmanipulates Stanmore,Stanmore, JackJack andand thethe WidowWidow LackittLackitt
toto
achieveachieve herher endsends
inin
aa wealthywealthy matchmatch forfor herher sistersister andand aa companionatecompanionate marriagemarriage forfor herself.herself. AsAs sheshe
explainsexplains
toto
StanmoreStanmore inin thethe lastlast act,act, sheshe 'made'made thatthat littlelittle plot'plot' --thatthat is,is, herher
masquerademasquerade asas firstfirst WelldonWelldon andand thenthen asas Welldon'sWelldon's cousincousin --inin orderorder
toto
assureassure
herselfherself
ofof
hishis affectionaffection (5.1.71).(5.1.71). ThisThis happyhappy endingending contrastscontrasts withwith thethe situationsituation
ofof
mostmost womenwomen
ofof
thethe periodperiod whowho couldcould notnot similarlysimilarly spinspin aa 'little'little plot'plot' andand choosechoose
theirtheir ownown husbands.husbands. LikeLike AfricansAfricans shippedshipped
toto
Surinam,Surinam, womenwomen areare tradedtraded andand soldsold
onon thethe 'marriage''marriage' ratherrather thanthan thethe 'slave''slave' market,market, aa connectionconnection thatthat thethe openingopening scenescene
stronglystrongly marks.marks. CharlotteCharlotte andand LucyLucy discussdiscuss theirtheir reasonsreasons forfor comingcoming toto America,America,
revealingrevealing thatthat inin London,London, theythey werewere 'out'out
ofof
fashion.'fashion.' CharlotteCharlotte arguesargues thatthat inin
LondonLondon womenwomen areare likelike silks:silks: 'you'you maymay tumbletumble 'em'em overover andand overover atat theirtheir firstfirst
comingcoming
upup
andand nevernever disparagedisparage theirtheir price;price; butbut theythey fallfall uponupon wearingwearing immediately,immediately,
lowerlower andand lowerlower inin theirtheir value,value, tilltill theythey comecome
toto
thethe brokerbroker atat last'last' (1.1.27-30).(1.1.27-30).
Women,Women, likelike slaves,slaves, areare littlelittle moremore thanthan commoditiescommodities forfor menmen toto buybuy andand sell,sell, andand
Charlotte'sCharlotte's authoringauthoring
ofof
herher 'little'little plot'plot' mightmight leadlead toto thethe conclusionconclusion thatthat SoutherneSoutherne
isis denouncingdenouncing women'swomen's oppressionoppression inin thethe marriagemarriage market.market.
Indeed,Indeed, ifif Charlotte'sCharlotte's agencyagency alonealone inin thethe comiccomic plotplot
isis
examined,examined, wewe areare ledled
toto
thethe conclusionconclusion thatthat SoutherneSoutherne
isis
likeninglikening thethe plightplight
ofof
womenwomen andand
ofof
slavesslaves --andand
condemningcondemning thethe marriagemarriage andand slaveslave marketsmarkets together.together. However,However, aa fullerfuller
explorationexploration
ofof
women'swomen's placeplace inin thethe playplay (or(or atat leastleast inin thethe comiccomic plot)plot) andand
ofof
Southerne'sSoutherne's linkagelinkage
ofof
womenwomen andand slavesslaves mustmust includeinclude anan analysisanalysis
ofof
WidowWidow
Lackitt,Lackitt, forfor itit
isis
herher losseslosses thatthat makemake possiblepossible Charlotte'sCharlotte's gains,gains, herher manipulationmanipulation
thatthat createscreates Charlotte'sCharlotte's agency,agency, andand herher ridiculeridicule thatthat providesprovides Charlotte'sCharlotte's dignity.dignity.
Ultimately,Ultimately, Lackitt'sLackitt's rolerole undercutsundercuts thethe notionnotion thatthat thethe playplay critiquescritiques women'swomen's
63
63
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
oppression;
oppression; in
in fact,
fact, Southerne's
Southerne's treatment
treatment
of
of
the
the Widow
Widow endorses
endorses women's
women's
subordinate
subordinate status.
status.
Southeme
Southeme does
does give
give Widow
Widow Lackitt
Lackitt admirable
admirable characteristics;
characteristics; she
she
is
is
not
not
completely
completely a
a buffoon
buffoon nor
nor a
a fool
fool (that
(that distinction
distinction is
is reserved
reserved for
for Daniel,
Daniel, whom
whom
Stanmore
Stanmore describes
describes as
as Lackitt's
Lackitt's 'boobily
'boobily son').
son'). Lackitt
Lackitt reveals
reveals
in
in
her
her dialogue
dialogue a
a
sagacious
sagacious understanding
understanding about
about the
the relative
relative 'worth'
'worth'
of
of
young
young versus
versus old
old women,
women, but
but
she
she also
also understands
understands that
that her
her experience
experience (and
(and fortune)
fortune) are
are worthy
worthy
of
of
desire.
desire. After
After
confessing
confessing that
that she
she would
would be
be willing
willing to
to marry
marry Welldon,
Welldon, she
she worries
worries that
that she
she may
may
have
have overstepped
overstepped the
the bounds
bounds
of
of
'modesty,'
'modesty,' but
but upon
upon reflection
reflection notes
notes 'modesty
'modesty
means
means nothing
nothing and
and
is
is
the
the virtue
virtue
of
of
a
a girl
girl that
that does
does not
not know
know what
what she
she would
would be
be
at.
at.
A
A widow
widow should
should be
be
wiser'
wiser' (1.1.200-202).
(1.1.200-202). And
And she
she goes
goes on
on to
to offer
offer Welldon
Welldon both
both
her
her 'fortune
'fortune and
and person'
person' (1.1.208).
(1.1.208).
Moreover,
Moreover, Lackitt
Lackitt sees
sees herself
herself not
not only
only as
as desirable,
desirable, but
but
as
as
still
still desiring:
desiring:
as
as
a
a widow
widow she
she 'lacks'
'lacks' sexual
sexual fulfillment.
fulfillment. After
After her
her night
night with
with Jack
Jack Stanmore,
Stanmore, she
she
is
is
so
so pleased
pleased with
with his
his sexual
sexual performance
performance that
that she
she believes
believes her
her flushed
flushed countenance
countenance
will
will betray
betray her:
her:
do
do I
I really
really look
look so
so cheerfully,
cheerfully, so
so amiably?
amiably? There's
There's no
no such
such paint
paint in
in the
the
world
world as
as the
the natural
natural glowing
glowing
of
of
a
a complexion.
complexion. Let
Let 'em
'em find
find me
me out,
out,
if
if
they
they
please,
please, poor
poor creatures
creatures [other
[other women],
women], I
I pity
pity 'em.
'em. They
They envy
envy me,
me, I'm
I'm sure,
sure,
and
and would
would
be
be glad
glad to
to mend
mend their
their looks
looks upon
upon the
the same
same occasion.
occasion. (4.1.1
(4.1.1 00-
00-
104)
104)
She
She goes
goes on
on to
to
argue
argue that
that young,
young, sexually
sexually inexperienced
inexperienced women
women are
are too
too self-
self-
centered
centered to
to understand
understand the
the sexual
sexual needs
needs
of
of
older
older women:
women:
The
The young
young jill-flirting
jill-flirting girls,
girls, forsooth,
forsooth, believe
believe nobody
nobody must
must have
have a
a husband
husband
but
but themselves,
themselves, but
but I
I would
would have
have 'em
'em to
to know
know there
there are
are other
other things
things to
to be
be
taken
taken care
care
of
of
besides
besides their
their green
green sickness
sickness
[Le.
[Le.
their
their virginity].
virginity]. (4.1.105-108)
(4.1.105-108)
Her
Her belief
belief in
in her
her sexual
sexual potency
potency extends
extends also
also
to
to
the
the wisdom
wisdom she
she has
has gained
gained over
over
the
the years:
years: young
young women
women in
in their
their arrogance
arrogance believe
believe that
that in
in a
a world
world otherwise
otherwise driven
driven
by
by economic
economic striving
striving their
their bodies
bodies are
are compensation
compensation enough.
enough.
As
As
she
she presents
presents
£I
000Welldon
Welldon with
with £1000 in
in gold
gold and
and jewels,
jewels, she
she reminds
reminds him
him that
that 'there
'there are
are comforts
comforts in
in
marrying
marrying an
an elderly
elderly woman'
woman' that
that young
young women
women cannot
cannot offer
offer (4.1.127).
(4.1.127). Lackitt
Lackitt
knows
knows that
that economic
economic and
and sexual
sexual 'payment'
'payment' go
go together:
together: 'a
'a young
young woman
woman would
would
have
have fancied
fancied she
she had
had paid
paid you
you with
with her
her person
person or
or had
had done
done you
you the
the favor'
favor'
(4.1.128-129).
(4.1.128-129). And
And Lackitt
Lackitt
is
is
not
not willing
willing to
to buy
buy herself
herself just
just any
any husband
husband -
-she
she
uses
uses her
her money
money to
to satisfy
satisfy her
her interests
interests and
and desires.
desires. She
She rebuffs
rebuffs Jack
Jack Stanmore,
Stanmore, for
for
instance:
instance: 'Lord!
'Lord! How
How can
can you
you be
be so
so troublesome?
troublesome? Nay,
Nay, so
so unconscionable
unconscionable to
to
think
think that
that every
every rich
rich widow
widow must
must throw
throw herself
herself away
away upon
upon a
a young
young fellow
fellow that
that has
has
nothing?'
nothing?' (1.2.73-76).
(1.2.73-76).
In
In spite
spite
of
of
her
her understanding
understanding
of
of
sexual
sexual economics,
economics, Widow
Widow Lackitt
Lackitt
is
is
a
a
straightforward
straightforward comic
comic figure,
figure, gullible
gullible despite
despite her
her economic
economic acumen,
acumen, vulnerable
vulnerable to
to
Southeme'sWelldon's
Welldon's looks
looks and
and flattery
flattery despite
despite her
her worldliness.
worldliness. Southerne's comic
comic plot
plot makes
makes
sure
sure the
the audience
audience
is
is
aware
aware
of
of
Lackitt's
Lackitt's situation.
situation. We
We know
know that
that Well
Welldon
don
is
is
IIIIiIio
"'r:
64 64 TropingTroping OroonokoOroonoko fromfrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
CharlotteCharlotte inin men'smen's clothing,clothing, andand thatthat Lackitt'sLackitt's desiredesire forfor himhim willwill bebe usedused againstagainst
her,her, aa pointpoint emphasizedemphasized byby LucyLucy andand Charlotte'sCharlotte's asides.asides. LackittLackitt teasesteases WelldonWelldon
aboutabout kissingkissing likelike aa 'younger'younger brother,'brother,' 'as'as
ifif
youyou expectedexpected toto bebe paidpaid for't'for't' (1.1.118),(1.1.118),
andand enthusesenthuses 'we'we widowswidows areare commonlycommonly thethe betterbetter forfor youngeryounger brothers'brothers' (1.1.122-(1.1.122-
123).123). ButBut LucyLucy observes,observes, 'you'you won'twon't bebe muchmuch betterbetter forfor him,him, II cancan telltell you'you'
(1.1.124-125).(1.1.124-125). Later,Later, whenwhen LackittLackitt solvessolves thethe problemproblem
ofof
aa husbandhusband forfor Charlotte'sCharlotte's
SOliloquizes:sistersister LucyLucy byby offeringoffering herson,herson, WelldonWelldon soliloquizes:
TheThe widow'swidow's inin haste,haste, II see.see. 11 thoughtthought 11 hadhad laidlaid aa rubrub
inin
thethe roadroad aboutabout
mymy
sister,sister, butbut sheshe hashas steppedstepped overover that.that. She'sShe's makingmaking wayway forfor herselfherself
asas
fastfast
asas
sheshe can,can, butbut littlelittle thinksthinks wherewhere sheshe isis going.going. II couldcould telltell herher sheshe
isis
goinggoing
toto
playplay thethe fool,fool, butbut peoplepeople don'tdon't lovelove
toto
hearhear
ofof
theirtheir faults.faults. Besides,Besides, thatthat isis
notnot mymy businessbusiness atat present.present. (2.1.69-74)(2.1.69-74)
WeWe areare nevernever allowedallowed
toto
forgetforget thatthat sheshe isis thethe buttbutt
ofof
thethe comiccomic plot,plot, thethe dupedupe byby
whichwhich thethe others'others' fortunesfortunes areare made.made.
WeWe
mightmight seesee
inin
Lackitt'sLackitt's comeuppancecomeuppance supportsupport forfor thethe argumentargument thatthat inin thisthis
playplay SoutherneSoutherne advocatesadvocates women'swomen's choiceschoices inin marriage,marriage, andand attacksattacks thethe institutioninstitution
ofof
marriagemarriage asas akinakin
toto
women'swomen's slavery.slavery. Lackitt'sLackitt's frankfrank self-valuationself-valuation andand herher
cheerfulcheerful paymentpayment toto WelldonWelldon contrastcontrast painfullypainfully withwith thethe 'men's''men's' coldcold assessmentassessment
ofof
herher attractionsattractions andand worth.worth. DressedDressed inin men'smen's clothing,clothing, WelldonWelldon callscalls herher anan 'old,'old,
wantonwanton witch,'witch,' althoughalthough acknowledgingacknowledging aa fewfew momentsmoments earlierearlier thatthat whenwhen herher
fortunefortune isis addedadded toto herher body,body, thethe packagepackage isis 'not'not contemptible'contemptible' (1.1.252,(1.1.252, 1.1.240).1.1.240).
TheThe slave-shipslave-ship captaincaptain explainsexplains
hishis
lacklack
ofof
interestinterest inin herher solelysolely withwith regardregard toto herher
moneymoney (1.2.91).(1.2.91). InIn thesethese momentsmoments wewe knowknow thatthat althoughalthough thethe WidowWidow LackittLackitt
believesbelieves sheshe
isis
authoringauthoring herher ownown marriagemarriage plot,plot, sheshe isis reallyreally aa pawnpawn inin others'others'
games.games. SuchSuch aa misapprehensionmisapprehension couldcould resultresult
inin
tragedy,tragedy, asas wewe seesee inin Behn'sBehn's work.work.
IfIf
SoutherneSoutherne wishedwished toto makemake usus examineexamine women'swomen's lotlot withinwithin anan oppressiveoppressive
patriarchalpatriarchal system,system, however,however, hehe chosechose anan especiallyespecially difficultdifficult genregenre withinwithin whichwhich toto
makemake hishis point.point. ThisThis halfhalf
ofof
thethe split-plotsplit-plot dramadrama
isis
aa comedy,comedy, andand therethere cancan bebe nono
tragictragic ending,ending, eveneven thoughthough LackittLackitt maymay bebe 'ruined''ruined' --pregnantpregnant withwith JackJack Stanmore'sStanmore's
child,uchild,u InIn thethe comiccomic plot'splot's conclusion,conclusion, LackittLackitt good-naturedlygood-naturedly resignsresigns herselfherself toto
Charlotte'sCharlotte's tricktrick (and(and toto JackJack Stanmore'sStanmore's sexualsexual prowess)prowess) byby saying,saying, 'Nay,'Nay, II cancan
blameblame nobodynobody butbut myselfmyself (5.1.149),(5.1.149), andand
wewe
areare allowedallowed toto laughlaugh atat herher
foolishness,foolishness, whereaswhereas thethe widowwidow figurefigure inin Behn'sBehn's taletale losesloses herher status,status, herher freedomfreedom
andand perhapsperhaps herher life.life. AtAt mostmost LackittLackitt hashas lostlost aa bitbit
ofof
pridepride andand £1000.£1000.
1212
SheShe hashas
gained,gained, moreover,moreover, aa husband,husband, aa wifewife forfor herher boobybooby son,son, andand inin CharlotteCharlotte whowho hashas
apparentlyapparently 'done'done well,'well,' aa friendfriend willingwilling toto 'live'live neighborlyneighborly andand lovinglylovingly together'together'
(5.1.141-2).(5.1.141-2). ByBy makingmaking LackittLackitt aa comic,comic, ratherrather thanthan tragic,tragic, figure,figure, SoutherneSoutherne
carefullycarefully separatesseparates thethe fatefate
ofof
thethe BritishBritish womenwomen fromfrom thatthat
ofof
thethe slaves;slaves; inin doingdoing
so,so, hehe investsinvests thethe subplotsubplot withwith comedycomedy andand thethe mainmain plot,plot, thatthat
ofof
ImoindaImoinda andand
Oroonoko,Oroonoko, withwith tragedy.tragedy.
SoutherneSoutherne endsends hishis comiccomic plotplot affirmingaffirming Charlotte'sCharlotte's superiorsuperior cunningcunning byby
givinggiving herher fortune,fortune, husband,husband, andand statusstatus
inin
Surinam.Surinam. Charlotte'sCharlotte's achievement,achievement, then,then,
cancan bebe seenseen asas somewhatsomewhat subversive;subversive; dresseddressed inin men'smen's clothesclothes sheshe manipulatesmanipulates
65
65
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
others
others to
to detennine
detennine her
her own
own fate,
fate, secure
secure her
her own
own fortune,
fortune, and
and choose
choose her
her own
own
husband.
husband. Pearson
Pearson argues
argues that
that through
through her
her cross
cross dressing,
dressing, Charlotte
Charlotte exercises
exercises
agency
agency and
and power
power by
by becoming
becoming a
a buyer
buyer in
in
a
a patriarchal
patriarchal system
system she
she cannot
cannot
overthrow,
overthrow, and
and she
she concludes
concludes by
by asserting
asserting that
that 'Southeme
'Southeme shows
shows himself
himself unusually
unusually
sympathetic
sympathetic to
to the
the woman
woman forced
forced by
by a
a brutal
brutal society
society to
to adopt
adopt brutal
brutal methods
methods to
to
gain
gain what
what she
she wants'
wants' (Prostituted
(Prostituted Muse
Muse 115).
115). We
We agree
agree that
that Charlotte's
Charlotte's disguise
disguise
Southerne'senables
enables her
her to
to exercise
exercise more
more power
power than
than most
most women
women can,
can, but
but we
we see
see Southeme's
treatment
treatment
of
of
marriage
marriage and
and women's
women's social
social status
status as
as much
much less
less radical.
radical. Rather
Rather than
than
'treat[ing]
'treat[ing] female
female characters
characters with
with great
great tact
tact and
and sympathy'
sympathy' (Pearson,
(Pearson, Prostituted
Prostituted
Muse
Muse 113),
113), Southerne avoids
avoids constructing
constructing Surinam
Surinam as
as a
a place
place
of
of
potential
potentialSoutheme
economic
economic or
or political
political power
power for
for women
women outside
outside
of
of
conventional
conventional marriage
marriage
arrangements.
arrangements. In
In fact,
fact, his
his play
play reifies
reifies the
the 'marriage
'marriage market'
market'
of
of
London
London and
and limits
limits
women's
women's choices.
choices. Unlike
Unlike Behn's
Behn's narrator
narrator in
in
Surinam,
Surinam, the
the sole
sole reason
reason for
for the
the
(1.1.4);
presence
presence
of
of
Charlotte
Charlotte and
and Lucy
Lucy in
in
Surinam
Surinam is
is
'a-husband-hunting'
'a-husband-hunting'
(l.lA);
here,
here,
there
there
is
is
no
no possibility
possibility
of
of
an
an independent
independent existence
existence outside
outside
of
of
marriage.
marriage. And,
And, in
in
fact,
fact, marriage
marriage spells
spells the
the end
end
of
of
the
the kind
kind
of
of
power
power Charlotte
Charlotte exerted
exerted in
in
her
her days
days
masquerading
masquerading as
as Welldon.
Welldon.
Similarly,
Similarly, and
and perhaps
perhaps more
more importantly,
importantly, marriage
marriage brings
brings an
an end
end to
to Widow
Widow
Lackitt's
Lackitt's independence
independence and
and economic
economic freedom.
freedom. As
As
Barbara
Barbara
J.
J.
Todd
Todd reminds
reminds us,
us,
widows,
widows, both
both real
real and
and fictional,
fictional, posed
posed a
a fonnidable
fonnidable threat
threat to
to the
the patriarchy
patriarchy since
since
they
they constituted
constituted the
the heads
heads
of
of
their
their households.
households. A
A widow,
widow, poor
poor or
or propertied,
propertied,
controlled
controlled her
her own
own life
life and
and fortune
fortune (55).
(55). At
At the
the beginning
beginning
of
of
the
the play,
play, Widow
Widow
Lackitt
Lackitt clearly
clearly enjoys
enjoys such
such control;
control; confident
confident in
in her
her fortune,
fortune, she
she rebuffs
rebuffs Jack
Jack
Stanmore
Stanmore and
and manages
manages her
her own
own finances,
finances, as
as evidenced
evidenced by
by her
her dealing
dealing in
in slaves
slaves
(1.2).
(1.2). That
That she
she
is
is
willing
willing to
to sacrifice
sacrifice this
this control
control for
for
marriage
marriage might
might illustrate
illustrate that
that
Southeme
Southeme is
is
not
not as
as sympathetic
sympathetic to
to his
his women
women characters
characters as
as his
his treatment
treatment
of
of
Charlotte
Charlotte would
would lead
lead us
us
to
to think.
think.
Moreover,
Moreover, in
in the
the Widow's
Widow's participation
participation in
in the
the slave
slave market
market we
we see
see the
the
limitations
limitations
of
of
Southeme's
Southeme's seemingly
seemingly radical
radical treatment
treatment
of
of
parallel
parallel slave
slave and
and
marriage
marriage markets.
markets. The
The Widow
Widow suffers
suffers as
as a
a plantation
plantation slave
slave owner
owner because
because she
she
cannot
cannot 'get'
'get' slaves,
slaves, that
that is,
is, she
she cannot
cannot impregnate
impregnate her
her female
female slaves
slaves and
and because
because
she,
she, as
as the
the subsequent
subsequent comic
comic exchange
exchange shows,
shows,
is
is
herself
herself a
a commodity,
commodity, albeit
albeit not
not a
a
very
very desirable
desirable one.
one. The
The captain
captain dismisses
dismisses her
her because
because he
he has
has no
no
need
need
of
of
her
her
fortune:
fortune:
I'm
I'm rich
rich myself.
myself. She
She has
has nothing
nothing that
that I
I want.
want. I
I have
have
no
no
leaks
leaks to
to stop.
stop. Old
Old
women
women are
are fortune-menders.
fortune-menders. I
I have
have made
made a
a good
good voyage
voyage and
and would
would reap
reap
the
the fruits
fruits
of
of
my
my labor.
labor.
mas~ers,
We
We
plow
plow the
the deep,
deep,
my
my masters, but
but our
our harvest
harvest
is
is
on
on
shore.
shore. I'm
I'm for
for a
a young
young woman.
woman. (1.2.90-94).
(1.2.90-94).
The
The scene
scene presents
presents doubled
doubled economies
economies
of
of
flesh,
flesh, suggesting
suggesting a
a critique
critique
of
of
women's
women's
status
status in
in
this
this society,
society, but
but the
the problem
problem seems
seems less
less an
an
issue
issue
of
of
fundamental
fundamental
inequalities
inequalities and
and more
more one
one
of
of
access.
access. While
While the
the widow
widow struggles,
struggles, Charlotte,
Charlotte,
as
as
Welldon,
Welldon,
is
is
quite
quite adept
adept at
at negotiating
negotiating the
the flesh
flesh trade.
trade. She
She acts
acts as
as a
a marriage
marriage rather
rather
than
than a
a slave
slave trader,
trader, even
even echoing
echoing the
the slave
slave ship
ship captain's
captain's words.
words. The
The latter
latter refuses
refuses
iii;
66 66
TropingTroping OroonokoOroonokofromfrom BehnBehn
toto
BandeleBandele
toto accommodateaccommodate thethe Widow'sWidow's desiredesire toto havehave aa slaveslave lotlot
ofof
malesmales andand femalesfemales mixedmixed
together,together, answeringanswering 'Let'Let 'em'em minglemingle togethertogether andand bebe damned,damned, whatwhat carecare I?I? WouldWould
youyou havehave meme pimppimp forfor thethe goodgood
ofof
thethe plantation?'plantation?' (1.2.(1.2. II9-20).9-20). AndAnd laterlater
Charlotte,Charlotte, afterafter revealingrevealing herher severalseveral plotsplots toto Stanmore,Stanmore, asks,asks, 'Can'Can youyou forgiveforgive meme
forfor pimpingpimping forfor youryour family?'family?' (5.1.85).(5.1.85). AlthoughAlthough sheshe asksasks forfor forgiveness,forgiveness, therethere areare
nono
illill
effectseffects fromfrom herher participationparticipation inin thethe market.market. TheThe comiccomic plotplot suggestssuggests thatthat thethe
degradingdegrading factorfactor inin thethe marriagemarriage marketmarket
isis
notnot thethe subordinatesubordinate positionposition
ofof
womenwomen
withinwithin marriage,marriage, butbut thethe similarsimilar treatmenttreatment asas chattelchattel
ofof
whitewhite womenwomen beforebefore
marriagemarriage andand
ofof
AfricansAfricans inin slavery.slavery. AsAs LauraLaura
J.J.
RosenthalRosenthal argues,argues, byby acceptingaccepting
Southeme'sSoutherne's equivalenciesequivalencies
ofof
womenwomen andand slaves,slaves, readersreaders mustmust assumeassume
hishis ownown erasureerasure
ofof
blackblack AfricanAfrican women:women: CharlotteCharlotte andand LucyLucy (and(and forfor thatthat
matter,matter, Imoinda)Imoinda) areare notnot onlyonly women,women, butbut whitewhite women.women. SpokenSpoken toto thethe
African,African, enslavedenslaved ImoindaImoinda
ofof
Behn'sBehn's novel,novel, Charlotte'sCharlotte's outcryoutcry againstagainst
treatingtreating womenwomen
asas
slavesslaves wouldwould makemake nono sense.sense. TheThe point,point, then,then, belongsbelongs
lessless toto feminismfeminism thanthan toto anan argumentargument forfor racialracial privilege.privilege. (42)(42)
Southeme's)InIn otherother words,words, Charlotte'sCharlotte's (and(and Southerne's) protestprotest
isis
notnot thatthat womenwomen shouldshould notnot
bebe slaves;slaves; itit isis simplysimply thatthat whitewhite womenwomen shouldshould notnot be.be.
Southeme'sAdditionally,Additionally, thethe radicalismradicalism
ofof
Southerne's equationequation
ofof
marriagemarriage andand slaveslave
marketsmarkets comescomes underunder scrutinyscrutiny inin thethe lastlast actact
ofof
thethe play.play. There,There, thethe womenwomen
ofof
thethe
comiccomic subplotsubplot areare transformedtransformed intointo womenwomen
ofof
feeling,feeling, urgingurging thethe whitewhite patriarchypatriarchy
toto bebe kindkind toto Oroonoko.Oroonoko. TheirTheir focus,focus, then,then, eveneven Charlotte's,Charlotte's, becomesbecomes centeredcentered onon
theirtheir sentimentalsentimental attachmentattachment toto thethe blackblack herohero ratherrather thanthan theirtheir ownown oppressedoppressed
positionposition inin thatthat samesame patriarchy.patriarchy. OnceOnce theythey areare allall comfortablycomfortably married,married, thesethese
concemed JaneJane SpencerSpencer evenevenwomenwomen areare nono longerlonger concerned withwith theirtheir statusstatus asas 'slaves.''slaves.'
Southeme'sspeculatesspeculates thatthat thethe successsuccess
ofof
Southerne's playplay withwith femalefemale theatergoerstheatergoers laylay notnot inin
theirtheir identificationidentification withwith thethe so-calledso-called feministfeminist CharlotteCharlotte WelIdon,WelIdon, butbut insteadinstead withwith
theirtheir sentimentalsentimental responseresponse toto thethe tragedytragedy
ofof
thethe AfricanAfrican lovers;lovers; sheshe arguesargues thatthat asas
thethe WelldonsWelldons andand LackittLackitt becomebecome sympatheticsympathetic toto thethe plightplight
ofof
Oroonoko,Oroonoko, soso doesdoes
thethe audienceaudience (237).(237). Thus,Thus, SpencerSpencer believesbelieves thatthat thethe playplay taughttaught aa 'manifestation'manifestation
ofof
femininityfemininity thatthat contemporariescontemporaries recommendedrecommended toto ladiesladies
ofof
thethe audience'audience' (237),(237), ThisThis
'manifestation'manifestation
ofof
femininity'femininity' seemsseems aa farfar crycry fromfrom thethe subversivesubversive feministfeminist protestprotest
Southeme'sthatthat hashas oftenoften beenbeen attributedattributed toto Southerne's play.play.
******
SouthemeAlthoughAlthough wewe havehave beenbeen arguingarguing thatthat Southerne adheresadheres toto thethe conventionsconventions
ofof
thethe
RestorationRestoration stagestage
byby
erasingerasing Behn'sBehn's WestWest AfricanAfrican storystory line,line, substitutingsubstituting hishis comiccomic
plotplot andand insertinginserting thethe stockstock figurefigure
ofof
thethe widow,widow, wewe cancan findfind thethe seedsseeds
ofof
hishis
revisionrevision containedcontained inin Behn'sBehn's original.original. Behn,Behn, too,too, adoptsadopts dramaticdramatic conventionsconventions toto
structurestructure herher proseprose fiction,fiction, anan understandableunderstandable strategystrategy givengiven herher experienceexperience withwith
playplay writing.writing.
1313
OneOne
ofof
thethe mostmost evidentevident
ofof
thesethese conventionsconventions
isis
thethe pairingpairing
ofof
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
67
67
upper-
upper- and
and lower-class
lower-class characters
characters
in
in
Surinam.
Surinam. On
On the
the Restoration
Restoration stage,
stage, upper-
upper-
class
class characters
characters often
often have
have comic
comic lower-class
lower-class counterparts.
counterparts. Usually
Usually servants,
servants, these
these
play
play a
a critical
critical role
role in
in the
the heroes'
heroes' ultimate
ultimate successes
successes
in
in
love
love and
and fortune.
fortune.
Congreve's
Congreve's
Way
Way
of
of
the
the World,
World, for
for example,
example, features
features Waitwell
Waitwell and
and Foible
Foible
as
as
servants
servants
of
of
Mirabell
Mirabell and
and Lady
Lady Wishfort.
Wishfort. We
We can
can see
see this
this dramatic
dramatic convention
convention
being
being played
played out
out in
in the
the West
West African
African portion
portion
of
of
Behn's
Behn's narrative,
narrative, too.
too. Oroonoko
Oroonoko
and
and Imoinda
Imoinda have
have counterparts
counterparts
in
in
Aboan
Aboan and
and Onahal.
Onahal. Though
Though neither
neither
of
of
these
these
characters
characters is
is strictly
strictly 'servant'
'servant' to
to the
the royal
royal pair,
pair, both
both are
are lower
lower in
in
the
the Coramantien
Coramantien
social
social order
order than
than their
their royal
royal counterparts.
counterparts. Onahal
Onahal is
is 'one
'one
of
of
the
the Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
of
of
the
the old
old
King,'14
King,'14 meaning
meaning that
that she
she simultaneously
simultaneously teaches
teaches Imoinda
Imoinda and
and
is
is
also
also
strangely
strangely subservient
subservient to
to the
the current
current chosen
chosen wife
wife
of
of
the
the king.
king. Aboan,
Aboan,
on
on the
the other
other
hand,
hand, enjoys
enjoys no
no such
such authority
authority over
over Oroonoko;
Oroonoko; he
he
is
is
clearly
clearly subservient
subservient to
to the
the
royal
royal prince.
prince.
IS
IS
Like
Like Waitwell
Waitwell and
and Foible
Foible with
with Mirabell
Mirabell and
and Millamant,
Millamant, Onahal
Onahal and
and
Aboan
Aboan are
are instrumental
instrumental in
in helping
helping Oroonoko
Oroonoko and
and Imoinda
Imoinda consummate
consummate their
their love.
love.
Unlike
Unlike the
the traditional
traditional 'lower-class'
'lower-class' counterpart,
counterpart, however,
however, neither
neither Aboan
Aboan nor
nor Onahal
Onahal
serves
serves as
as comic
comic relief.
relief. Yet,
Yet,
as
as
we
we
will
will see,
see, Behn
Behn consciously
consciously sets
sets
up
up
humorous
humorous
potential
potential with
with Onahal,
Onahal, only
only to
to thwart
thwart this
this latent
latent comedy
comedy with
with a
a tragedy
tragedy that
that has
has
been
been neglected
neglected by
by scholarly
scholarly commentaries.
commentaries.
Behn's
Behn's presentation
presentation
of
of
Onahal,
Onahal, especially
especially in
in her
her relationship
relationship with
with Aboan,
Aboan,
seems
seems continually
continually on
on the
the edge
edge
of
of
the
the comic.
comic. Onahal
Onahal seems
seems to
to fit
fit perfectly
perfectly into
into the
the
role
role
of
of
the
the aging
aging widow
widow figure
figure so
so prominent
prominent on
on the
the Restoration
Restoration stage.
stage. First,
First, Behn
Behn
[sic],describes
describes Onahal
Onahal as
as 'a
'a former
former old
old Wife
Wife
of
of
the
the King's
King's [sic]' (51),
(51), which
which perhaps
perhaps
indicates
indicates her
her age
age as
as well
well as
as her
her widow-like
widow-like status.
status. Behn
Behn further
further underscores
underscores
Onahal's
Onahal's age
age and
and fading
fading beauty
beauty when
when she
she juxtaposes
juxtaposes Onahal
Onahal with
with the
the object
object
of
of
her
her
affections,
affections, the
the youthful
youthful and
and handsome
handsome Aboan:
Aboan:
This
This young
young Man
Man was
was not
not only
only one
one
of
of
the
the best
best Quality,
Quality, but
but a
a Man
Man extreamly
extreamly
Otan,
well
well made,
made, and
and beautiful;
beautiful; and
and coming
coming often
often to
to attend
attend the
the King
King
to
to the
the Gtan,
Onahal
he
he had
had subdued
subdued the
the Heart
Heart
of
of
the
the antiquated
antiquated Gnahal (52).
(52).
Behn
Behn hints
hints at
at humor
humor with
with the
the descriptor
descriptor 'antiquated,'
'antiquated,' but
but she
she quickly
quickly imbues
imbues
Onahal
Onahal with
with more
more important
important qualities:
qualities: 'And
'And though
though she
she had
had some
some Decays
Decays
in
in
her
her
Face,
Face, she
she had
had none
none in
in her
her Sense
Sense and
and Wit;
Wit; she
she was
was there
there agreeable
agreeable still,
still, even
even to
to
Aboan's
Aboan's Youth'
Youth' (52).
(52). Onahal's
Onahal's internal
internal qualities
qualities shine
shine through
through -
-her
her sense
sense and
and wit
wit
are
are her
her most
most attractive
attractive attributes,
attributes, and
and it
it
is
is
these
these qualities
qualities that
that Aboan
Aboan admires
admires the
the
most.
most.
So
So although
although Behn's
Behn's description
description suggests
suggests Onahal's
Onahal's potential
potential as
as a
a comic
comic
character,
character, Behn
Behn quickly
quickly defuses
defuses our
our impulse
impulse to
to laugh.
laugh.
Behn
Behn also
also writes
writes Onahal
Onahal as
as full
full
of
of
sexual
sexual dysire,
d~sire,
another
another characteristic
characteristic
typical
typical
of
of
the
the Restoration
Restoration widow
widow figure,
figure, and
and one
one that
that Southerne's
Southerne's Lackitt
Lackitt certainly
certainly
shares.
shares. In
In her
her relationship
relationship with
with Aboan,
Aboan, Onahal
Onahal is
is figured
figured as
as the
the pursuer.
pursuer. For
For
instance,
instance, Aboan
Aboan begins
begins to
to court
court her
her with
with sighs
sighs and
and 'soft'
'soft' eyes
eyes (52).
(52). His
His actions
actions
seem
seem modest
modest and
and guarded,
guarded, though,
though, when
when compared
compared to
to Onahal's
Onahal's almost
almost predatory
predatory
response:
response:
----~
~--.'-~
-~---,-.~_.'""-
-
68 68 TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
He
He had
had also
also observ'd
observ'd that
that she
she had
had given
given him
him Glances
Glances more
more tender
tender and
and
inviting,
inviting, than
than she
she had
had done
done to
to others
others
of
of
hishis Quality:Quality: AndAnd now,now, whenwhen hehe sawsaw
that
that her
her Favour
Favour cou'd
cou'd so
so
absolutely
absolutely oblige
oblige the
the Prince,
Prince, he
he
fail'd
fail'd not
not to
to sigh
sigh in
in
her
her Ear,
Ear, and
and to
to look
look with
with Eyes
Eyes all
all soft
soft upon
upon her,
her, and
and give
give her
her Hope
Hope that
that she
she
had
had made
made some
some Impressions
Impressions on
on his
his Heart.
Heart.
He
He
foundfound herher pleas'dpleas'd atat this,this, andand
making
making a
a thousand
thousand Advances
Advances to
to him.
him. (52)
(52)
Similarly,Similarly, Onahal'sOnahal's desiredesire outstripsoutstrips Aboan's.Aboan's. WhenWhen OroonokoOroonoko asksasks AboanAboan
toto
woowoo
OnahalOnahal inin orderorder
toto
helphelp himhim seesee Imoinda,Imoinda, hehe imploresimplores AboanAboan toto 'engage'engage herher
entirely;entirely; whichwhich hehe cou'dcou'd notnot failfail toto do,do,
ifif
hehe comply'dcomply'd withwith herher Desires'Desires' (53,(53,
emphasisemphasis ours).ours). Onahal'sOnahal's desiresdesires inspireinspire herher withwith clevernesscleverness andand ingenuity;ingenuity; sheshe
contrivescontrives aa wayway
toto
admitadmit AboanAboan andand OroonokoOroonoko toto thethe Otan,Otan, reassuringreassuring AboanAboan
ofof
herher intelligenceintelligence andand creativity:creativity: 'Oh!'Oh! DoDo notnot fearfear aa Woman'sWoman's Invention,Invention, whenwhen LoveLove
setssets herher a-thinking'a-thinking' (54).(54). TheThe fulfillmentfulfillment
ofof
Onahal'sOnahal's 'invention''invention' providesprovides BehnBehn
withwith whatwhat couldcould bebe thethe mostmost promisingpromising comiccomic momentmoment
inin
thethe text.text. AfterAfter sneakingsneaking
OroonokoOroonoko andand AboanAboan intointo thethe Otan,Otan,
OnahalOnahal ledled thethe PrincePrince to
to
thethe ApartmentApartment
of
of
Imoinda;Imoinda; who,who, notnot knowingknowing
anything
anything
of
of
herher Happiness,Happiness, waswas laidlaid
in
in
Bed.Bed. ButBut OnahalOnahal onlyonly leftleft himhim inin herher
Chamber,
Chamber, to
to make
make the
the best
best
of
of
hishis Opportunity,Opportunity, andand tooktook herher deardear AboanAboan toto
her
her own;
own; where
where he
he shew'd
shew'd the
the heighth
heighth
of
of
ComplaisanceComplaisance forfor hishis Prince,Prince, when,when,
to
to give
give him
him an
an Opportunity,
Opportunity, he
he
suffer'd
suffer'd himself
himself to
to
be
be caress'd
caress'd in
in Bed
Bed by
by
Onahal.Onahal. (55-6)(55-6)
TheThe comediccomedic potentialpotential here,here, especiallyespecially forfor thethe stage,stage,
isis
limitless.limitless. AnAn actoractor mightmight
optopt forfor thethe easyeasy laughlaugh byby positioningpositioning hishis AboanAboan onon hishis back,back, staringstaring idlyidly atat thethe
ceiling,ceiling, asas OnahalOnahal lasciviouslylasciviously
(if(if
arthritically)arthritically) devoursdevours him.him. Behn'sBehn's languagelanguage
itselfitself seemsseems
toto
begbeg forfor ourour laughter.laughter. TheThe young,young, handsomehandsome AboanAboan 'suffer['suffer[
s]s]
himselfhimself toto bebe caress'd'caress'd' byby thethe witheringwithering Onahal;Onahal; hishis participationparticipation
isis
notnot active,active, butbut
passive,passive, asas hehe showsshows thethe 'heighth'heighth
ofof
ComplaisanceComplaisance forfor hishis Prince.'16Prince.'16 Onahal'sOnahal's
sexualsexual prowessprowess might,might, underunder otherother circumstances,circumstances, provideprovide opportunityopportunity forfor comedy;comedy;
certainlycertainly thethe WidowWidow Lackitt'sLackitt's unabashedunabashed pursuitpursuit
ofof
WelldonWelldon
isis
ridiculedridiculed inin
Southerne'sSoutherne's play.play. Here,Here, though,though, BehnBehn failsfails
toto
deliverdeliver thethe punchpunch line;line; althoughalthough wewe
areare temptedtempted toto laughlaugh atat Onahal'sOnahal's pursuit,pursuit, inin thethe endend wewe dodo not.not.
OneOne explanationexplanation forfor Behn'sBehn's unwillingnessunwillingness toto makemake Onahal'sOnahal's sexualitysexuality comiccomic
mightmight comecome fromfrom Behn'sBehn's personalpersonal historyhistory andand herher ownown statusstatus asas aa womanwoman writer.writer.
JanetJanet ToddTodd suggestssuggests thatthat asas sheshe wrotewrote Oroonoko,Oroonoko, BehnBehn waswas aa widowwidow oror perhaps,perhaps,
even,even, anan abandonedabandoned wife.wife.
I?I?
BehnBehn alsoalso experiencedexperienced thethe painpain
ofof
unrequitedunrequited lovelove andand
waswas subjectsubject
toto
romantic/sexualromantic/sexual manipulation.manipulation. SheShe pursuedpursued aa romanticromantic relationshiprelationship
withwith JohnJohn Hoyle,Hoyle, aa violentviolent andand narcissisticnarcissistic lawyerlawyer whowho seemedseemed toto delightdelight
inin
toyingtoying
withwith Behn'sBehn's affections.affections. ThroughoutThroughout theirtheir tumultuoustumultuous affair,affair, HoyleHoyle controlledcontrolled thethe
relationship,relationship, bringingbringing BehnBehn runningrunning whenwhen hehe desireddesired herher attentionsattentions andand castingcasting herher
asideaside whenwhen hehe diddid not.not.
1818
Moreover,Moreover, whateverwhatever herher personalpersonal experiences,experiences, women'swomen's
writingswritings inin generalgeneral werewere oftenoften labeledlabeled 'obscene''obscene' (Pearson,(Pearson, ProstitutedProstituted MuseMuse
11),11),
andand Behn'sBehn's 16841684 volumevolume PoemsPoems onon SeveralSeveral Occasions,Occasions, withwith itsits emphasisemphasis onon
seductionseduction andand sexuality,sexuality, mostmost likelylikely qualifiedqualified forfor thisthis labellabel inin manymany readers'readers' eyes.eyes.
...
69
69
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
The
The charges
charges against
against Behn
Behn extended
extended
to
to
her
her personal
personal reputation.
reputation. Male
Male writers
writers
accused
accused her
her
of
of
having
having loose
loose sexual
sexual morals,
morals, as
as Pope's
Pope's satirical
satirical words
words make
make clear:
clear:
'The
'The stage
stage how
how loosely
loosely does
does Astrea
Astrea tread,
tread, /
/ Who
Who fairly
fairly puts
puts all
all Characters
Characters to
to bed'
bed'
(290-91).
(290-91).
As
As
Janet
Janet Todd
Todd notes,
notes, Behn
Behn herself
herself at
at times
times seems
seems
to
to invite
invite such
such
accusations;
accusations; in
in her
her popular
popular comedy,
comedy,
The
The
Rover,
Rover, Behn
Behn names
names the
the prostitute
prostitute
Angellica
Angellica Bianca,
Bianca, and
and thus
thus shares
shares initials
initials with
with the
the character
character
(12).19
(12).19 Behn's
Behn's
already-tenuous
already-tenuous reputation
reputation was
was compounded
compounded by
by the
the fact
fact that
that she,
she, like
like Onahal,
Onahal,
was
was
a
a widow;
widow;
as
as
a
a writer
writer and
and as
as a
a widow,
widow, she
she threatened
threatened the
the power
power
of
of
the
the patriarchal
patriarchal
world.
world. Behn,
Behn, then,
then, may
may have
have avoided
avoided mocking
mocking Onahal
Onahal because
because ridiculing
ridiculing an
an older,
older,
single
single woman
woman imputed
imputed to
to have
have rapacious
rapacious sexual
sexual desires
desires may
may have
have hit
hit too
too close
close to
to
home.
home. Another
Another reason
reason we
we might
might hesitate
hesitate
to
to
laugh
laugh at
at Onahal
Onahal inheres
inheres in
in the
the tension
tension
Behn
Behn creates
creates between
between Onahal
Onahal as
as pursuer
pursuer and
and Onahal
Onahal as
as pawn.
pawn. Onahal
Onahal believes
believes
that
that she
she is
is masterminding
masterminding a
a plot
plot to
to win
win the
the youthful
youthful and
and handsome
handsome Aboan.
Aboan. Despite
Despite
her
her age
age and
and the
the 'decays
'decays in
in her
her face,'
face,' she
she retains
retains an
an internal
internal beauty
beauty and
and self-
self-
confidence
confidence that
that enable
enable her
her to
to admonish
admonish Aboan:
Aboan:
Nor
Nor wou'd
wou'd I
I have
have you
you believe,
believe, that
that because
because I
I am
am the
the abandoned
abandoned Mistress
Mistress
of
of
a
a
King,
King, I
I esteem
esteem my
my
self
self
altogether
altogether divested
divested
of
of
Charms.
Charms. No,
No, Aboan;
Aboan; I
I have
have
still
still a
a Rest
Rest
of
of
Beauty
Beauty enough
enough engaging,
engaging, and
and have
have leam'd
leam'd to
to please
please too
too well,
well,
not
not to
to be
be desirable.
desirable. I
I can
can have
have Lovers
Lovers still,
still, but
but will
will have
have none
none but
but Aboan.
Aboan.
(53-4).
(53-4).
Like
Like Lackitt,
Lackitt, Onahal
Onahal recognizes
recognizes that
that her
her age
age and
and experience
experience have
have given
given her
her
'Charms'
'Charms' that
that younger
younger women
women do
do not
not have.
have. Additionally,
Additionally, she
she demonstrates
demonstrates a
a
judicious
judicious knowledge
knowledge
of
of
her
her desirability.
desirability.
As
As
did
did Lackitt,
Lackitt, Onahal
Onahal understands
understands the
the
economies
economies
of
of
sex,
sex, and
and proves
proves this
this understanding
understanding by
by giving
giving Aboan
Aboan 'two
'two large
large
Pearls'
Pearls' from
from her
her ears
ears (54).
(54). That
That Onahal
Onahal thinks
thinks the
the seduction
seduction is
is her
her doing
doing is
is evident
evident
when
when Behn
Behn writes
writes that
that she
she is
is 'wholly
'wholly transported
transported with
with Joy,
Joy, for
for having
having subdu'd
subdu'd the
the
finest
finest
of
of
all
all the
the King's
King's Subjects
Subjects to
to her
her Desires'
Desires' (54).
(54). Behn's
Behn's choice
choice
of
of
'subdued'
'subdued'
here
here is
is also
also important
important as
as we
we read
read
of
of
Onahal's
Onahal's stereotypically
stereotypically masculine
masculine behavior;
behavior;
surely
surely we
we are
are
to
to make
make the
the connection
connection between
between Onahal's
Onahal's 'thousand
'thousand Advances'
Advances' (52)
(52)
and
and her
her success
success at
at 'subduing'
'subduing' Aboan.
Aboan. Clearly,
Clearly, Onahal
Onahal believes
believes herself
herself in
in control
control
of
of
this
this seduction.
seduction.
Moreover,
Moreover, Onahal's
Onahal's decision
decision to
to
forward
forward her
her own
own romantic
romantic desires
desires by
by aiding
aiding
Imoinda
Imoinda and
and Oroonoko
Oroonoko is
is a
a rejection
rejection
of
of
her
her assigned
assigned place
place within
within the
the economy
economy
of
of
the
the Otan.
Otan. No
No longer
longer a
a sexual
sexual partner
partner for
for the
the king,
king, her
her duties
duties include
include instructing
instructing the
the
king's
king's new
new wives
wives in
in the
the 'wanton
'wanton Arts
Arts
of
of
love'
love' (52).
(52). Like
Like Widow
Widow Lackitt
Lackitt in
in
Southerne's
Southerne's play,
play, she
she could
could
be
be said
said
to
to
trade
trade
in
in flesh;
flesh; both
both women,
women, despite
despite their
their
racial
racial differences,
differences, in
in some
some way
way exploit
exploit others.
others. At
At the
the other
other extreme,
extreme, however,
however, we
we
must
must see
see both
both Onahal
Onahal and
and Widow
Widow Lackitt
Lackitt as
as
exploited
exploited themselves.
themselves. After
After all,
all,
Onahal
Onahal was
was once
once herself
herself a
a new
new bride
bride who
who was
was 'trained'
'trained' by
by the
the older
older ones.
ones. And
And the
the
Widow,
Widow, while
while able
able to
to trade
trade in
in slaves,
slaves, is
is also
also oppressed
oppressed by
by
virtue
virtue
of
of
being
being a
a female
female
owner
owner -
-her
her complaints
complaints
of
of
unfair
unfair treatment
treatment go
go unheeded
unheeded (1.2).
(1.2). The
The difference
difference
between
between the
the characters
characters -
-and
and it
it
is
is
an
an important
important one
one -
-is
is that
that Onahal
Onahal herself
herself belongs
belongs
_"""
~._,,~_._
<.~
••
,O;-'·.":S"''''''';~''''''M,''''';\\'i,'_'t·",,-_~
"·O'~"P';'"
~.,.
70 70 TropingTroping OroonokoOroonoko fromfrom BehnBehn
toto
BandeleBandele
toto
thethe king.king. WhereasWhereas SoutherneSoutherne makesmakes Lackitt'sLackitt's subjectionsubjection
toto
aa marriage/slavemarriage/slave
marketmarket metaphorical,metaphorical, forfor OnahalOnahal itit isis quitequite literal.literal. AndAnd ultimately,ultimately, theirtheir similaritiessimilarities
founderfounder onon theirtheir genericgeneric fate.fate. WhileWhile
wewe
havehave seenseen thatthat LackittLackitt emergesemerges relativelyrelatively
unscathedunscathed inin Southerne'sSoutherne's comiccomic plot,plot, thethe penaltypenalty forfor tryingtrying
toto
exertexert eveneven aa limitedlimited
amountamount
ofof
influenceinfluence oror controlcontrol isis muchmuch moremore severesevere forfor OnahalOnahal inin Behn'sBehn's tragictragic
story.story. AsAs OnahalOnahal spinsspins herher romanticromantic plot,plot, readersreaders perceiveperceive anotheranother plotplot inin whichwhich
sheshe isis aa meremere pawn.pawn. AfterAfter thethe kingking confinesconfines ImoindaImoinda
toto
thethe Otan,Otan, OroonokoOroonoko
entreatsentreats AboanAboan toto seduceseduce OnahalOnahal soso thatthat sheshe willwill helphelp thethe princeprince gaingain accessaccess toto hishis
beloved.beloved. AllAll thethe whilewhile OnahalOnahal isis relishingrelishing herher triumph,triumph, AboanAboan andand OroonokoOroonoko areare
plottingplotting theirs:theirs: 'Aboan'Aboan fail'dfail'd notnot thatthat NightNight
toto
telltell thethe PrincePrince
ofof
hishis Success,Success, andand
howhow advantageousadvantageous thethe ServiceService
ofof
OnahalOnahal mightmight bebe toto hishis AmourAmour withwith Imoinda.Imoinda.
TheThe PrincePrince waswas overjoy'doverjoy'd withwith thisthis goodgood News'News' (53).(53). RestorationRestoration comediescomedies
encourageencourage playgoersplaygoers
toto
snickersnicker atat thethe foolishfoolish oldold womanwoman andand rootroot
forfor
thethe princelyprincely
herohero
toto
dupedupe her.her.2020 Indeed,Indeed, asas wewe havehave argued,argued, Southerne'sSoutherne's playplay remindsreminds thethe
audienceaudience regularlyregularly thatthat LackittLackitt isis thethe dupedupe
ofof
Welldon'sWelldon's ownown plot,plot, andand playgoersplaygoers
werewere surelysurely meantmeant
toto
rootroot forfor WelldonWelldon toto bestbest thethe foolishfoolish Lackitt.Lackitt. Behn,Behn, however,however,
causescauses usus toto questionquestion anyany easyeasy allegianceallegiance toto thethe princeprince andand hishis servant.servant. TheThe
alliancealliance betweenbetween OroonokoOroonoko andand AboanAboan turnsturns almostalmost sinistersinister whenwhen wewe realizerealize whatwhat
isis atat stakestake forfor Onahal:Onahal: 'For'For thenthen (said(said thethe Prince)Prince) HerHer lifelife lyinglying
atat
youryour Mercy,Mercy, sheshe
mustmust grantgrant youyou thethe RequestRequest youyou makemake
inin
mymy Behalf'Behalf' (53).(53). HereHere BehnBehn remindsreminds
usus
ofof
thethe gravegrave dangerdanger forfor OnahalOnahal
ifif
herher dalliancedalliance withwith AboanAboan isis discovereddiscovered byby thethe
kingking --herher veryvery life,life, notnot merelymerely herher fortunefortune oror herher pride,pride, isis atat stake.stake.
Onahal'sOnahal's subsequentsubsequent abruptabrupt disappearancedisappearance fromfrom thethe texttext underscoresunderscores herher
rolerole asas aa pawnpawn
ofof
Oroonoko'sOroonoko's machinations.machinations. UnlikeUnlike WidowWidow Lackitt,Lackitt, whowho resignsresigns
herselfherself
toto
herher 'fate''fate' (a(a husbandhusband andand aa new-foundnew-found femalefemale friend)friend) andand liveslives happilyhappily
everever after,after, OnahalOnahal vanishesvanishes fromfrom thethe text,text, signalingsignaling aa discursivediscursive andand possiblypossibly aa
literalliteral death.death. HerHer disappearancedisappearance mightmight alsoalso highlighthighlight aa lessonlesson BehnBehn wantswants toto teachteach
aboutabout femalefemale alliances.alliances. AlthoughAlthough OnahalOnahal certainlycertainly hadhad self-servingself-serving reasonsreasons
toto
pursuepursue Aboan,Aboan, herher pursuitpursuit ultimatelyultimately alliesallies herher withwith Imoinda.Imoinda. OnahalOnahal servesserves asas aa
go-betweengo-between forfor thethe royalroyal lovers,lovers, severalseveral timestimes throughoutthroughout thethe texttext reassuringreassuring
OroonokoOroonoko ofImoinda'sofImoinda's lovelove (51,(51, 57).57). AndAnd whenwhen thethe kingking questionsquestions hishis twotwo wives,wives,
OnahalOnahal fallsfalls prostrateprostrate withwith ImoindaImoinda
toto
corroboratecorroborate herher storystory thatthat OroonokoOroonoko
'ravish'd''ravish'd' herher (57).(57).
OfOf
course,course, OnahalOnahal isis tryingtrying
toto
protectprotect herself,herself, butbut BehnBehn
neverthelessnevertheless suggestssuggests thethe importanceimportance --asas wellwell asas thethe riskrisk --
ofof
femalefemale alliances,alliances,
whetherwhether drivendriven byby affection,affection, loyalty,loyalty, oror self-preservation.self-preservation.
ThisThis connectionconnection betweenbetween OnahalOnahal andand ImoindaImoinda becomesbecomes eveneven moremore
significantsignificant whenwhen
wewe
rememberremember thethe pettypetty jealousyjealousy
ofof
thethe otherother olderolder wives:wives:
'twas'twas thesethese (now(now pastpast theirtheir Beauty)Beauty) thatthat werewere mademade Guardians,Guardians, oror
GovernantsGovernants toto
thethe
new,new, andand thethe youngyoung Ones;Ones; andand whosewhose BusinessBusiness itit was,was,
toto
teachteach themthem allall thosethose wantonwanton ArtsArts
ofof
Love,Love, withwith whichwhich theythey prevail'dprevail'd andand
charm'dcharm'd heretoforeheretofore inin theirtheir Turn;Turn; andand whowho nownow treatedtreated thethe triumphingtriumphing happyhappy
OnesOnes withwith allall thethe Severity,Severity, asas toto LibertyLiberty andand Freedom,Freedom, thatthat waswas possible,possible, inin
revengerevenge
ofof
thosethose HonoursHonours theythey robrob themthem of;of; envyingenvying themthem thosethose
71
71
Cast-MistressesCast-Mistresses
Satisfactions,
Satisfactions, those
those Gallantries
Gallantries and
and Presents,
Presents, that
that were
were once
once made
made
to
to
themselves,
themselves, while
while Youth
Youth and
and Beauty
Beauty lasted,
lasted, and
and which
which they
they now
now saw
saw pass
pass
regardless
regardless by,
by, and
and pay'd
pay'd only
only to
to the
the Bloomings
Bloomings
...
...
These
These abandon'd
abandon'd Ladies
Ladies
therefore
therefore endeavour
endeavour to
to revenge
revenge
all
all
the
the Despights,
Despights,
and
and Decays
Decays
of
of
Time
Time on
on
these
these flourishing
flourishing happy
happy Ones.
Ones. (52)
(52)
OtanOtan politicspolitics foregroundforeground thethe 'feminine''feminine' qualitiesqualities
of
of
jealousyjealousy andand pettinesspettiness andand
preclude
preclude the
the very
very idea
idea
of
of
female
female alliances.
alliances. Onahal,
Onaha
I,
however,
however, defies
defies such
such
stereotypes
stereotypes by
by helping
helping Imoinda.
Imoinda. Yet
Yet this
this loyalty
loyalty
is
is
cruelly
cruelly rewarded:
rewarded: the
the king
king
orders
orders Onahal
Onahal and
and Imoinda
Imoinda to
to 'be
'be both
both sold
sold off,
off, as
as Slaves,
Slaves,
to
to
another
another Country,
Country,
either
either Christian,
Christian, or
or Heathen;
Heathen; 'twas
'twas
nono
mattermatter where.'where.' TheThe punishmentpunishment
isis
aa
'Sentence,
'Sentence, worse
worse than
than Death'
Death' (58).
(58). Later,
Later, we
we learn
learn just
just how
how devastating
devastating Onahal's
Onahal's
enslavement
enslavement would
would have
have seemed
seemed
to
to
a
a wife
wife
of
of
many
many years.
years. Imoinda
Imoinda submits
submits
to
to
Oroonoko'sOroonoko's knifeknife becausebecause 'when'when aa ManMan findsfinds anyany occasionoccasion toto quitquit hishis Wife,Wife,
ifif
he
he
love
love her,
her, she
she dyes
dyes by
by his
his Hand;
Hand;
if
if
not,
not, he
he sells
sells her,
her, or
or suffers
suffers some
some other
other
to
to
kill
kill her'
her'
(95).
(95). Onahal
Onahal was
was not
not even
even afforded
afforded the
the dubious
dubious respect
respect
of
of
a
a quick
quick death.
death. While
While
the
the punishment
punishment was
was aimed
aimed primarily
primarily at
at Imoinda,
Imoinda, surely
surely it
it rankled
rankled more
more deeply
deeply for
for
Onahal,
Onahal, who
who had
had been
been the
the king's
king's wife
wife for
for much
much longer.
longer.
In
In addition,
addition, although
although the
the
king
king later
later regrets
regrets his
his decision
decision
to
to
sell
sell Imoinda,
Imoinda, he
he never
never once
once mentions
mentions Onahal's
Onahal's
fate.
fate. The
The cast-mistress,
cast-mistress, once
once the
the favored
favored wife,
wife,
is
is
now
now actually
actually cast
cast off,
off, punished
punished
for
for being
being an
an accomplice
accomplice
to
to
Imoinda's
Imoinda's happiness.
happiness. The
The lesson
lesson Behn
Behn seems
seems to
to be
be
teaching
teaching
is
is
that
that women's
women's alliances
alliances cannot
cannot go
go unpunished
unpunished
in
in
a
a male-dominated
male-dominated
world.
world. Southeme's
Of
Of
course,
course, Southerne's play
play also
also seems
seems
to
to
teach
teach the
the impossibility
impossibility
of
of
female
female
alliances.
alliances. Pearson
Pearson writes
writes that
that 'in
'in the
the play's
play's divided
divided worlds,
worlds, it
it
is
is
impossible
impossible for
for
women
women to
to unite
unite to
to combat
combat the
the forces
forces
of
of
patriarchy
patriarchy and
and imperialism.
imperialism. The
The slave-
slave-
women
women envy
envy and
and mock
mock Imoinda,
Imoinda, Welldon
Welldon tricks
tricks Mrs.
Mrs. Lackitt'
Lackitt' (Prostituted
(Prostituted Muse
Muse
115).
115). While
While we
we agree
agree
that
that
this
this interpretation
interpretation shapes
shapes Southerne's
Southerne's presentation
presentation
in
in
part,
part, as
as
we
we
have
have argued
argued any
any potentially
potentially radical
radical critique
critique
of
of
women's
women's status
status
is
is
Southeme'sultimately
ultimately contained
contained by
by Southerne's choice
choice
of
of
genre:
genre: the
the women
women who
who inhabit
inhabit the
the
comic
comic plot
plot
of
of
the
the play
play do
do little
little more
more than
than support
support the
the status
status quo,
quo, even
even
if
if
they
they do
do go
go
about
about it
it in
in
an
an
unusual
unusual way.
way. The
The Widow,
Widow, Lucy
Lucy and
and Charlotte
Charlotte finally
finally endorse
endorse the
the
conservative
conservative standard
standard
of
of
marriage,
marriage, despite
despite the
the potential
potential reversal
reversal
of
of
social
social and
and
economic
economic conditions
conditions afforded
afforded in
in the
the New
New World.
World. Though
Though Lucy
Lucy and
and Charlotte
Charlotte
seemingly
seemingly tum
tum the
the patriarchal
patriarchal standard
standard on
on its
its ear
ear by
by commodifying
commodifying men
men as
as oranges
oranges
in
in Act
Act I,
I, by
by the
the end
end
of
of
Act
Act 5
5 they
they have
have restored
restored these
these standards
standards by
by securing
securing
hierarchy.21 Within
Within the
the
husbands
husbands and
and taking
taking their
their prescribed
prescribed place
place
in
in
the
the social
social hierarchy.2l
<.>f
workingsworkings
of
of
thisthis comiccomic plot,plot, then,then, thethe impossibilityimpossibility
of
femalefemale alliancesalliances doesdoes notnot
seem
seem to
to be
be universally
universally disadvantageous
disadvantageous
to
to
women,
women, as
as it
it does
does in
in
Behn's
Behn's work.
work.
Moreover,
Moreover, in
in the
the comic
comic subplot
subplot at
at least,
least, female
female alliances
alliances are
are thwarted
thwarted by
by the
the
womenwomen themselves,themselves, whowho maneuvermaneuver aroundaround andand throughthrough oneone anotheranother
toto
achieveachieve
their
their desired
desired marriages.
marriages. While
While Behn
Behn
is
is
not
not so
so idealistic
idealistic as
as
to
to
suggest
suggest that
that her
her
female
female characters
characters are
are not
not susceptible
susceptible to
to the
the same
same motives
motives -
-Onahal
Onahal uses
uses Imoinda,
Imoinda,
after
after all,
all, to
to win
win Aboan
Aboan -
-
it
it
is
is
male
male power,
power, not
not female
female wiles,
wiles, that
that disrupts
disrupts alliances.
alliances.
"""'""
72 72 TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn
toto
BandeleBandele
KeepingKeeping Behn'sBehn's treatmenttreatment
ofof
femalefemale alliancesalliances
inin
mind,mind, Onahal'sOnahal's actionsactions andand
fatefate
inin
thethe firstfirst partpart
ofof
thethe storystory cancan offeroffer
usus
insightinsight intointo thethe secondsecond part,part, setset inin
Surinam,Surinam, inin whichwhich thethe narratornarrator assumesassumes somesome
ofof
Onahal'sOnahal's functions.functions. LikeLike OnahalOnahal
inin
Coramantien,Coramantien, thethe narratornarrator occupiesoccupies aa uniqueunique placeplace
inin
thethe socialsocial orderorder
ofof
colonialcolonial
Surinam.Surinam. SheShe hashas comecome toto thethe colonycolony becausebecause herher fatherfather hadhad beenbeen appointedappointed
'Lieutenant-General'Lieutenant-General
ofof
sixsix andand thirtythirty Islands,Islands, besidesbesides thethe ContinentContinent
ofof
Surinam'Surinam'
(76),(76), butbut hehe dieddied atat seasea andand nevernever tooktook office.office. So,So, whilewhile thethe narratornarrator mightmight havehave
occupiedoccupied aa subordinate,subordinate,
ifif
privileged,privileged, positionposition
asas
thethe daughterdaughter
ofof
aa high-rankinghigh-ranking
official,official, sheshe findsfinds herselfherself insteadinstead
inin
aa curiouslycuriously independentindependent state.state. AlthoughAlthough thethe
narratornarrator mentionsmentions herher mothermother andand siblings,siblings, herher storystory doesdoes notnot describedescribe anyany realreal
relationshiprelationship withwith them,them, andand sheshe
isis
fairlyfairly freefree toto actact
asas
sheshe chooses.chooses. Unmarried,Unmarried,
wealthy,wealthy, givengiven thethe 'best'best House'House'
inin
SurinamSurinam --sheshe tellstells LordLord MaitlandMaitland
inin
herher
dedicatorydedicatory letterletter thatthat
'I'I
hadhad nonenone aboveabove meme
inin
thatthat Country'Country' (37)(37) --sheshe seeminglyseemingly
hashas freedomfreedom
ofof
thought,thought, movementmovement andand activity.activity. InIn aa sense,sense, thethe narratornarrator occupiesoccupies
thethe samesame rolerole
inin
SurinamSurinam thatthat OnahalOnahal diddid inin Coramantien:Coramantien: bothboth enjoyenjoy relativerelative
freedomfreedom whilewhile stillstill livingliving inin aa patriarchalpatriarchal society.society.
Additionally,Additionally, wewe cancan seesee similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween Onahal'sOnahal's rolerole
inin
thethe OtanOtan andand
thethe narrator'snarrator's inin Surinam.Surinam. BothBoth womenwomen educateeducate newcomersnewcomers inin theirtheir respectiverespective
societies;societies; thethe narratornarrator instructsinstructs ImoindaImoinda andand OroonokoOroonoko asas OnahalOnahal instructedinstructed
Imoinda.Imoinda. 2222 OnahalOnahal asas Imoinda'sImoinda's educatoreducator exercisesexercises powerpower overover thethe youngeryounger
woman,woman, givinggiving OnahalOnahal greatergreater freedomfreedom
inin
thethe Otan,Otan, yetyet thisthis powerpower perpetuatesperpetuates thethe
patriarchalpatriarchal systemsystem toto whichwhich sheshe herselfherself
isis
subjected.subjected. Similarly,Similarly, thethe narratornarrator hashas aa
measuremeasure
ofof
authorityauthority overover thethe couplecouple thatthat ultimatelyultimately supportssupports thethe colonialcolonial powerpower
thatthat enslavesenslaves themthem andand thatthat circumscribescircumscribes herher ownown life.life. TheThe ambivalenceambivalence
ofof
thethe
characters'characters' relationsrelations toto oneone anotheranother andand
toto
thethe colonialcolonial hierarchyhierarchy
inin
whichwhich theythey
residereside stemsstems fromfrom theirtheir mutualmutual affection.affection. TheThe narratornarrator enjoysenjoys intimaciesintimacies andand
experiencesexperiences withwith thethe royalroyal couplecouple wellwell outsideoutside thethe normnorm
ofof
mostmost white,white, colonialcolonial
womenwomen
inin
Surinam.Surinam. WhenWhen thethe narratornarrator describesdescribes herher relationshiprelationship withwith ImoindaImoinda
inin
particular,particular, thethe echoesechoes
ofof
Onahal'sOnahal's rolerole withinwithin thethe OtanOtan areare clear.clear. TheThe narratornarrator
undertakesundertakes toto instructinstruct ImoindaImoinda
inin
'all'all thethe prettypretty WorksWorks thatthat II waswas MistressMistress
offoff
[sic];[sic];
andand tellingtelling herher StoriesStories
ofof
Nuns'Nuns' (74),(74),
anan
educationeducation that,that, whilewhile directeddirected towardtoward
chastitychastity andand notnot thethe 'wanton'wanton Arts'Arts'
ofof
thethe Otan,Otan, neverthelessnevertheless
isis
designeddesigned toto fitfit
ImoindaImoinda
toto
thethe orthodoxorthodox gendergender rolesroles
ofof
thethe narrator'snarrator's society.society. ThusThus thethe narrator,narrator,
likelike Onahal,Onahal, fitsfits ImoindaImoinda toto herher newnew positionposition andand increasesincreases herher economiceconomic andand
sexualsexual value.value. LikeLike Onahal'sOnahal's interestinterest
inin
Aboan,Aboan, thethe narrator'snarrator's friendlinessfriendliness andand
fascinationfascination withwith OroonokoOroonoko leadlead toto momentsmoments
ofof
cross-gendercross-gender interaction.interaction. WhileWhile sheshe
tellstells ImoindaImoinda 'pretty''pretty' stories,stories, sheshe sharesshares 'the'the LivesLives
ofof
Romans,Romans, andand greatgreat Men'Men' (74)(74)
withwith Oroonoko;Oroonoko; suchsuch classicalclassical learninglearning waswas usuallyusually reservedreserved forfor menmen inin
RestorationRestoration London.London.2323 Additionally,Additionally, thethe narratornarrator accompaniesaccompanies OroonokoOroonoko onon tiger-tiger-
huntinghunting adventuresadventures andand visitsvisits
toto
IndianIndian villages,villages, surpassingsurpassing otherother planters,planters, menmen andand
women,women, withwith herher daringdaring spirit.spirit.
AtAt thisthis pointpoint thethe carefulcareful readerreader
ofof
thethe firstfirst partpart
ofof
Behn'sBehn's narrativenarrative maymay
uneasilyuneasily recallrecall Onahal'sOnahal's fatefate afterafter sheshe linkedlinked herselfherself toto Imoinda,Imoinda, andand thisthis dis-easedis-ease
shouldshould deependeepen uponupon readingreading
ofof
thethe narrator'snarrator's increasinglyincreasingly intimateintimate friendshipfriendship withwith
73
73
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
Oroonoko
Oroonoko and
and lmoinda,
lmoinda, an
an intimacy
intimacy encouraged
encouraged and
and exploited
exploited by
by the
the colony's
colony's
white
white planters:
planters:
I
I was
was oblig'd,
oblig'd, by
by some
some Persons,
Persons, who
who fear'd
fear'd a
a Mutiny
Mutiny (which
(which
is
is very
very Fatal
Fatal
sometimes
sometimes
in
in
those
those Colonies,
Colonies, that
that abound
abound so
so with
with Slaves,
Slaves, that
that they
they exceed
exceed
the
the Whites
Whites
in
in vast
vast Numbers)
Numbers) to
to discourse
discourse with
with Caesar,
Caesar, and
and to
to give
give him
him all
all
the
the Satisfaction
Satisfaction I
I possibly
possibly cou'd'
cou'd' (74).
(74).
The
The narrator's
narrator's ready
ready acquiescence
acquiescence
to
to
the
the planters'
planters' plot
plot to
to distract
distract and
and placate
placate
Oroonoko
Oroonoko indicates
indicates her
her privileged
privileged status
status over
over him
him by
by virtue
virtue
of
of
her
her race.
race. She
She
is
is
invested
invested with
with power
power over
over Oroonoko,
Oroonoko, albeit
albeit a
a power
power circumscribed
circumscribed by
by the
the colonial
colonial
system
system within
within which
which they
they both
both are
are enmeshed,
enmeshed, and
and like
like Onahal
Onahal within
within the
the Otan,
Otan, she
she
is
is
free
free to
to exercise
exercise that
that power
power only
only within
within certain
certain bounds.
bounds.
Her
Her extraordinary
extraordinary intimacy
intimacy with
with Oroonoko,
Oroonoko, enabled
enabled by
by the
the indulgence
indulgence
of
of
the
the colonial
colonial planters
planters who
who are
are using
using her
her to
to control
control their
their slaves,
slaves,
is
is
thus
thus fraught
fraught with
with
ambiguities
ambiguities stemming
stemming from
from race,
race, gender
gender and
and power.
power. How
How are
are we
we to
to read,
read, for
for
instance,
instance, Oroonoko's
Oroonoko's affectionate
affectionate term
term for
for the
the narrator:
narrator: 'Great
'Great
Mistress'
Mistress' (74)?
(74)? This
This
epithet,
epithet, coming
coming as
as it
it does
does after
after a
a lengthy
lengthy description
description
of
of
the
the mutual
mutual interests
interests and
and
activities
activities
of
of
the
the narrator
narrator and
and couple,
couple, implies
implies a
a romantically-inclined
romantically-inclined relationship.
relationship.
It
It
suggests
suggests the
the chivalric
chivalric addresses
addresses
of
of
the
the early
early modern
modern lover
lover to
to the
the 'mistress'
'mistress'
of
of
his
his
heart.
heart. The
The narrator
narrator herself
herself understands
understands her
her designation
designation as
as 'mistress'
'mistress' as
as pertaining
pertaining
to
to her
her powers
powers
of
of
persuasion:
persuasion: 'and
'and indeed,
indeed,
my
my
Word
Word wou'd
wou'd go
go a
a great
great way
way with
with him'
him'
(74).24
(74).24
The
The narrator
narrator prides
prides herself
herself on
on Oroonoko's
Oroonoko's attachment
attachment
to
to
her.
her. He
He lays
lays the
the
spoils
spoils
of
of
his
his tiger
tiger hunt
hunt at
at her
her feet
feet (78),
(78), and
and Oroonoko's
Oroonoko's 'many
'many fine
fine Discourses;
Discourses;
of
of
Accidents
Accidents
in
in
War,
War, and
and Strange
Strange Escapes'
Escapes' (79)
(79) are
are surely
surely meant
meant to
to suggest
suggest Othello's
Othello's
addresses
addresses to
to Desdemona?5
Desdemona?5
It
It
is
is
a
a short
short leap
leap from
from the
the narrator's
narrator's descriptions
descriptions
of
of
her
her
activities
activities and
and adventures
adventures with
with Oroonoko
Oroonoko to
to a
a reading
reading
of
of
their
their relationship
relationship as
as
courtship.
courtship. And
And yet,
yet,
of
of
course,
course, the
the story
story precludes
precludes any
any such
such erotic
erotic attachment.
attachment. The
The
narrator
narrator
is
is
deeply
deeply interested
interested
in
in
the
the romance
romance and
and marriage
marriage
of
of
Imoinda
Imoinda and
and
Oroonoko.
Oroonoko. Moreover,
Moreover, given
given Surinam's
Surinam's twinned
twinned economies
economies
of
of
marriage
marriage and
and
slavery,
slavery, it
it would
would be
be unthinkable
unthinkable for
for an
an English
English woman
woman
to
to
indulge
indulge a
a sexual
sexual interest
interest
in
in an
an African
African slave.
slave. The
The term
term 'Great
'Great Mistress'
Mistress' cannot
cannot fail
fail to
to remind
remind the
the reader
reader
of
of
Oroonoko's
Oroonoko's enslavement,
enslavement, and
and
of
of
course
course he
he comes
comes to
to call
call her
her 'mistress'
'mistress' in
in the
the course
course
of
of
her
her spying
spying on
on him
him on
on behalf
behalf
of
of
the
the colonial
colonial planters.
planters. She
She amuses
amuses and
and interests
interests
him
him with
with stories
stories and
and excursions
excursions in
in order
order to
to divert
divert him
him from
from plots
plots
of
of
escape
escape and
and
revenge.
revenge.
It
It
is
is
at
at this
this point
point that
that many
many readers
readers
of
of
the
the story
story stumble.
stumble. How
How
is
is
it
it
that
that
this
this narrator,
narrator, seemingly
seemingly so
so interested
interested
in
in
and
and affectionate
affectionate toward
toward Oroonoko
Oroonoko and
and
Imoinda,
Imoinda, can
can betray
betray them?
them? How
How
is
is
it,
it,
as
as she
she herself
herself admits,
admits, 'though
'though I
I had
had none
none
above
above
me
me
in
in that
that Country,
Country, yet
yet I
I wanted
wanted power
power to
to preserve
preserve this
this Great
Great Man'
Man'
(3
(3
7)?
7)?
26
26
Here,
Here,
it
it
seems,
seems, the
the West
West African
African storyline
storyline must
must
be
be
taken
taken into
into account.
account.
Whereas
Whereas Behn's
Behn's narrator
narrator told
told Oroonoko-cum-Caesar
Oroonoko-cum-Caesar tales
tales
of
of
great
great Roman
Roman lives,
lives,
and
and so
so perhaps
perhaps inspired
inspired (or
(or intensified)
intensified) his
his heroic
heroic resistance
resistance to
to slavery,
slavery, Oroonoko
Oroonoko
has
has told
told the
the narrator
narrator a
a tragic
tragic story
story
of
of
Onahal,
Onahal, a
a woman
woman caught
caught between
between her
her desires
desires
and
and the
the realities
realities
of
of
an
an economy
economy driven
driven by
by marriage
marriage and
and slavery.
slavery. The
The West
West African
African
story
story warns
warns readers
readers and
and the
the narrator
narrator herself
herself as
as she
she hears
hears the
the story
story that
that women
women who
who
~
74 74
TropingTroping OroonokoOroonoko fromfrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
trytry toto workwork togethertogether riskrisk reprisals.reprisals. Moreover,Moreover,
ifif
olderolder womenwomen whowho areare givengiven thethe
responsibilityresponsibility
inin
thisthis patriarchalpatriarchal kingdomkingdom
ofof
control1ingcontrol1ing youngeryounger womenwomen andand
initiatinginitiating themthem inin theirtheir sexualsexual dutiesduties chal1engechal1enge thatthat orderorder byby seizingseizing sexualsexual pleasurepleasure
forfor themselvesthemselves oror helpinghelping youngeryounger womenwomen toto fulfillfulfill theirtheir ownown sexualsexual desires,desires, theythey
wil1wil1
bebe punished.punished.22?? TheirTheir plansplans willwill fail,fail, theirtheir limitedlimited powerpower willwill bebe strippedstripped fromfrom
them,them, andand theythey
wil1wil1
bebe erased.erased. InIn thethe firstfirst partpart
ofof
herher story,story,
asas
BehnBehn describesdescribes
OnahalOnahal andand herher fate,fate, sheshe assertsasserts thethe futilityfutility
ofof
women'swomen's al1iancesal1iances andand illustratesillustrates thethe
dangersdangers inherentinherent inin theirtheir attemptsattempts toto authorauthor theirtheir ownown storiesstories withinwithin patriarchy.patriarchy.
WhileWhile menmen suchsuch asas thethe kingking maymay bebe sexual1ysexual1y impotent,impotent, womenwomen areare political1y,political1y, eveneven
personal1y,personal1y, powerless.powerless.
GivenGiven thisthis objectobject lessonlesson inin sexsex andand power,power, itit isis nono wonderwonder thatthat inin thethe secondsecond
part,part, thethe SurinamSurinam
halfhalf
ofof
thethe story,story, thethe narratornarrator refusesrefuses toto savesave OroonokoOroonoko andand
allowsallows ImoindaImoinda toto bebe sacrificedsacrificed withwith scarcelyscarcely aa murmur.murmur. TowardsTowards thethe endend
ofof
thethe
narrative,narrative, then,then, whenwhen OroonokoOroonoko andand ImoindaImoinda wouldwould mostmost benefitbenefit fromfrom herher help,help,
sheshe makesmakes herher choice,choice, abjuringabjuring eveneven herher limitedlimited authorityauthority inin favorfavor
ofof
aa protective,protective,
implicitimplicit alliancealliance withwith thethe moremore powerfulpowerful colonizingcolonizing forces.forces. HerHer withdrawalwithdrawal shouldshould
notnot bebe tootoo surprisingsurprising
toto
aa readerreader whowho hashas attendedattended carefullycarefully toto thethe lessonslessons onon thethe
sexualsexual andand maritalmarital economieseconomies writtenwritten intointo thethe earlyearly partpart
ofof
thethe narrative.narrative. WhateverWhatever
herher freedomfreedom
ofof
movementmovement andand
ofof
associationassociation beforebefore Oroonoko'sOroonoko's rebellion,rebellion, thethe
patriarchypatriarchy willwill notnot brookbrook herher interferenceinterference inin itsits market-drivenmarket-driven controlcontrol overover slavery,slavery,
sex,sex, marriagemarriage andand reproduction?8reproduction?8 ShouldShould sheshe trytry toto intervene,intervene, thethe narrativenarrative
suggestssuggests thatthat sheshe wouldwould atat bestbest bebe unsuccessfulunsuccessful --
asas
Trefry,Trefry, aa whitewhite malemale planterplanter
isis
--andand atat worst,worst, bebe severelyseverely punishedpunished --
asas
OnahalOnahal is.is.
TheThe slaveslave couplecouple isis movedmoved toto rebel1ion,rebel1ion, final1y,final1y, becausebecause ImoindaImoinda becomesbecomes
pregnant,pregnant, andand OroonokoOroonoko fearsfears thatthat thethe colonistscolonists wouldwould 'delay'delay himhim tilltill thethe timetime
ofof
hishis WivesWives delivery,delivery, andand makemake aa SlaveSlave
ofof
thatthat too,too, ForFor
al1al1
thethe BreedBreed
isis
theirstheirs toto
whomwhom thethe ParentsParents belong'belong' (74).(74). OroonokoOroonoko andand ImoindaImoinda understandunderstand rightlyrightly thatthat
theirtheir valuevalue toto theirtheir colonialcolonial mastersmasters increasesincreases asas theythey produceproduce children.children. AndAnd so,so,
whilewhile OroonokoOroonoko al10wedal10wed himselfhimself toto bebe diverteddiverted byby thethe narratornarrator fromfrom hishis
unhappinessunhappiness forfor aa time,time, hishis forbearanceforbearance endsends whenwhen 'lmoinda'lmoinda beganbegan toto showshow sheshe waswas
withwith ChildChild
......
andand [he][he] believ'd,believ'd,
ifif
itit werewere soso hardhard toto gaingain thethe LibertyLiberty
ofof
Two,Two,
'twou'd'twou'd bebe moremore difficultdifficult toto getget thatthat forfor Three'Three' (85).(85). HeHe determinesdetermines toto escape,escape, andand
convincesconvinces thethe otherother slavesslaves
ofof
thethe colonycolony toto gogo withwith him.him. AtAt thisthis point,point, thethe narratornarrator
removesremoves herselfherself fromfrom thethe mainmain actionaction
ofof
thethe plot.plot. DespiteDespite herher previousprevious friendshipfriendship
andand Oroonoko'sOroonoko's assuranceassurance
ofof
herher safety,safety,
WeWe werewere possess'dpossess'd withwith extreamextream Fear,Fear, whichwhich nono perswasionsperswasions cou'dcou'd
Dissipate,Dissipate, thatthat hehe wou'dwou'd securesecure himselfhimself tilltill Night;Night; andand then,then, thatthat hehe wou'dwou'd
comecome downdown andand CutCut allall ourour Throats.Throats. ThisThis apprehensionapprehension mademade allall thethe
FemalesFemales
ofof
usus flyfly downdown thethe River.River. (92)(92)
HereHere thethe previouslypreviously intrepidintrepid narratornarrator occupiesoccupies thethe rolerole
ofof
powerlesspowerless andand fearfulfearful
female.female. AndAnd onceonce sheshe fleesflees withwith thethe otherother women,women, OroonokoOroonoko isis capturedcaptured andand
'Whipt'Whipt likelike aa commoncommon Slave'Slave' (92).(92).
75
75
Cast-Cast-MistressesMistresses
Why
Why does
does the
the narrator
narrator have
have such
such an
an extreme
extreme reaction?
reaction? Until
Until this
this moment,
moment,
she
she had
had shown
shown no
no fear
fear
of
of
Oroonoko,
Oroonoko, and
and had
had touted
touted their
their mutual
mutual respect.
respect.
Additionally,Additionally, sheshe hadhad maintainedmaintained thatthat sheshe hadhad influenceinfluence overover Oroonoko,Oroonoko, andand sheshe
eveneven suggestssuggests thatthat sheshe mightmight havehave beenbeen ableable toto helphelp himhim hadhad sheshe remainedremained onon thethe
scene,
scene, but
but her
her suggestion
suggestion
is
is
hesitant,
hesitant, equivocal:
equivocal: 'For
'For I
I suppose
suppose I
I had
had Authority
Authority and
and
Interest
Interest enough
enough there,
there, had
had I
I suspected
suspected any
any such
such thing,
thing, to
to have
have prevented
prevented it'
it' (92).
(92).
SheShe merelymerely 'supposes''supposes' ratherrather thanthan affirmingaffirming absolutely,absolutely, perhapsperhaps becausebecause sheshe
remembers
remembers the
the lesson
lesson
of
of
Onahal.
Onahal. The
The reality
reality
is,
is,
of
of
course,
course, that
that because
because the
the male
male
slave
slave owners
owners were
were intent
intent on
on protecting
protecting the
the intertwined
intertwined sexual
sexual and
and slave
slave economies
economies
as
as embodied
embodied by
by the
the slave
slave couple
couple and
and their
their unborn
unborn
child,29child,29
thethe narrator'snarrator's statusstatus asas
womanwoman herehere trumpstrumps herher statusstatus asas white.white. SheShe
isis
renderedrendered powerlesspowerless
toto
assistassist othersothers
inin
thesethese economieseconomies byby herher gendergender andand notnot eveneven herher whitenesswhiteness cancan overcomeovercome thisthis
liability.liability. WhileWhile sheshe shouldshould havehave suspectedsuspected suchsuch treacherytreachery onon thethe partpart
of
of
thethe whitewhite
men,
men, any
any attempt
attempt to
to step
step in
in and
and save
save Oroonoko
Oroonoko and
and Imoinda
Imoinda would
would be
be futile,
futile,
perhaps
perhaps even
even fatal,
fatal, or
or so
so Onahal's
Onahal's story
story suggests
suggests to
to the
the attentive
attentive reader.
reader. And
And given
given
how
how precisely
precisely she
she retells
retells that
that story
story years
years later,
later,
it
it seems
seems the
the narrator
narrator learned
learned her
her
lessons
lessons well.
well. Whatever
Whatever the
the emotions
emotions or
or reasons
reasons that
that lie
lie beneath
beneath her
her decision
decision not
not to
to
intervene,
intervene, as
as a
a woman,
woman, Behn's
Behn's narrator
narrator cannot
cannot form
form a
a successful
successful alliance
alliance with
with
Imoinda
Imoinda or
or with
with Oroonoko
Oroonoko because
because her
her power,
power, though
though more
more than
than that
that
of
of
the
the
average
average woman
woman in
in
thethe colony,colony,
isis
neverthelessnevertheless circumscribedcircumscribed byby herher situationsituation
inin
patriarchal,patriarchal, imperialistimperialist Surinam,Surinam, aa situationsituation emphasizedemphasized byby herher secondsecond withdrawalwithdrawal
justjust beforebefore Oroonoko'sOroonoko's execution,execution, andand thethe inabilityinability
ofof
thethe sympatheticsympathetic womenwomen whowho
do
do witness
witness his
his murder
murder to
to intervene.
intervene.
3o
3o
In
In
all
all these
these twists
twists and
and turns
turns
of
of
fate,
fate, Imoinda
Imoinda
is
is
the
the character
character who
who
is
is
the
the most
most
abused,
abused, and
and her
her death
death brings
brings together
together the
the two
two halves
halves
ofof
Behn'sBehn's plot,plot, connectingconnecting thethe
sexual
sexual economy
economy
of
of
the
the royal
royal Otan
Otan with
with that
that
of
of
the
the colonial
colonial slave
slave cabin.
cabin. Oroonoko
Oroonoko
decides
decides to
to sacrifice
sacrifice Imoinda
Imoinda primarily
primarily because
because he
he can't
can't bear
bear to
to think
think
ofof
herher beingbeing
rapedraped byby thethe planters.planters. HisHis objectionobjection
isis
notnot aa moralmoral absolute;absolute; earlierearlier
inin
thethe texttext hehe
seems
seems fairly
fairly sanguine
sanguine about
about the
the planters'
planters' ability
ability to
to sexually
sexually abuse
abuse their
their female
female
slaves.
slaves. Before
Before he
he realizes
realizes that
that the
the slave
slave girl
girl 'Clemene'
'Clemene'
is
is
actually
actually Imoinda,
Imoinda, he
he
questions
questions why
why his
his friend
friend and
and planter
planter Trefry
Trefry does
does not
not take
take by
by force
force what
what she
she refuses
refuses
to
to grant
grant him:
him:
I
I do
do not
not wonder
wonder
...
...
that
that Clemene
Clemene shou'd
shou'd refuse
refuse Slaves,
Slaves, being
being as
as you
you say
say so
so
Beautiful,
Beautiful, but
but wonder
wonder how
how she
she escapes
escapes thos
thos who
who can
can entertain
entertain her
her as
as you
you
cancan
do;do;
oror why,why, beingbeing
youryour
Slave,Slave,
you
you dodo notnot obligeoblige herher toto yield.yield. (71)(71)
des,ire
At
At issue
issue
in
in Oroonoko's
Oroonoko's decision
decision
is
is
not
not Imoinda's
Imoinda's
des.ire
or
or even
even her
her chastity,
chastity, but
but
rather
rather that
that Imoinda's
Imoinda's physical
physical vulnerability
vulnerability weakens
weakens his
his resolve
resolve to
to wreak
wreak revenge
revenge
upon
upon the
the English
English colonists
colonists who
who whipped
whipped him,
him, a
a reminder
reminder once
once again
again
ofof
Imoinda'sImoinda's
doubly
doubly subjected
subjected status
status as
as slave
slave and
and wife.
wife.
ThatThat thethe narratornarrator regretsregrets herher complicity,complicity, whetherwhether activeactive oror passive,passive, withwith thethe
colonialcolonial authoritiesauthorities
isis
illustratedillustrated byby thethe lastlast lineslines
ofof
thethe narrative,narrative, whichwhich emphasizeemphasize
herher lingeringlingering attachmentattachment
to
to OroonokoOroonoko andand herher guiltguilt overover thethe couple'scouple's fate:fate: 'Thus'Thus
Dy'd
Dy'd this
this Great
Great Man;
Man; worthy
worthy
of
of
a
a better
better Fate,
Fate, and
and a
a more
more sublime
sublime Wit
Wit than
than
mi~
mi~
to
to
76 76 TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
,,
writewrite hishis Praise'Praise'
(lOO).(lOO).
AndAnd despitedespite herher greatgreat admirationadmiration forfor andand deepdeep attachmentattachment
toto Oroonoko,Oroonoko, thethe nan-atornan-ator reservesreserves thethe lastlast wordword
ofof
thethe texttext notnot forfor thethe husband,husband, butbut
forfor thethe wifewife
hehe
killedkilled
inin
obedienceobedience toto thethe OtanOtan rulesrules thatthat hadhad forcedforced herher intointo slaveryslavery
inin
thethe firstfirst place:place:
II
hope,hope,
thethe
ReputationReputation
ofof
mymy
PenPen
isis
considerableconsiderable
enoughenough
toto
makemake
hishis
GloriousGlorious
NameName
toto
survivesurvive
toto
allall
ages;ages;
withwith
thatthat
ofof
thethe
Brave,Brave,
thethe
Beautiful,Beautiful,
andand
thethe
ConstantConstant Imoinda.Imoinda. (100)(100)
ByBy thethe endend
ofof
thethe nan-ative,nan-ative, thethe nan-atornan-ator hashas realizedrealized thatthat thoughthough sheshe cannotcannot
physicallyphysically rescuerescue OroonokoOroonoko andand Imoinda,Imoinda, sheshe cancan addadd theirtheir storiesstories toto thosethose
ofof
thethe
'Romans,'Romans, andand greatgreat Men'Men' (74)(74) thatthat soso fascinatedfascinated herher royalroyal friend.friend. SheShe hashas
attemptedattempted toto formform aa rhetoricalrhetorical alliancealliance withwith bothboth OroonokoOroonoko andand ImoindaImoinda (and(and eveneven
Onahal)Onahal) byby retellingretelling theirtheir stories,stories, ensuringensuring themthem longlong literaryliterary liveslives
ifif
shortshort actualactual
ones.ones.
ItIt
isis
atat thisthis pointpoint
inin
thethe nan-ativenan-ative thatthat thethe lineline betweenbetween Behn'sBehn's nan-atornan-ator andand
BehnBehn herselfherself
isis
mostmost blurred.blurred.
IfIf
therethere areare parallelsparallels betweenbetween OnahalOnahal andand BehnBehn
inin
thethe
firstfirst partpart
ofof
thethe narrative,narrative, thesethese areare carriedcarried overover andand transformedtransformed intointo closercloser tiesties
betweenbetween thethe narratornarrator andand author,author,
soso
muchmuch so,so, thatthat thethe questionquestion
ofof
thethe narrative'snarrative's
autobiographicalautobiographical contentcontent
isis
perenniallyperennially debated.debated.
3131
Thus,Thus, wewe cancan understandunderstand thethe
hintshints
ofof
thethe narrator'snarrator's eroticerotic interestinterest inin Oroonoko,Oroonoko, transformedtransformed intointo anan intellectualintellectual
connectionconnection andand friendship,friendship, asas Behn'sBehn's representationrepresentation
ofof
herher ownown personalpersonal andand
professionalprofessional reputation,reputation, whichwhich vacillatedvacillated betweenbetween sexualsexual scandalscandal andand authorialauthorial
recognition.recognition. TheThe 'reputation''reputation'
ofof
thethe narrator'snarrator's penpen
isis
thatthat
ofof
Behn'sBehn's ownown andand
cementscements herher famefame eveneven asas
itit
assuresassures OroonokoOroonoko andand hishis bridebride aa discursivediscursive afterlife.afterlife.
WeWe
seesee thisthis attemptattempt toto writewrite thethe lifelife
ofof
thethe 'royal'royal slave,'slave,' however,however, notnot asas aa
triumphanttriumphant victoryvictory overover thethe patriarchy,patriarchy, butbut insteadinstead asas aa compensatory,compensatory, partialpartial
resolutionresolution toto thethe problemsproblems
ofof
gender,gender, racerace andand powerpower thatthat drivedrive thethe narrative'snarrative's plot;plot;
thethe narratornarrator writeswrites theirtheir storiesstories onlyonly becausebecause sheshe waswas unableunable toto savesave theirtheir lives.lives.
HerHer narrativenarrative power,power, then,then, servesserves toto drawdraw attentionattention toto thethe lacklack
ofof
politicalpolitical powerpower
womenwomen wieldwield --nono mattermatter theirtheir racialracial
oror
politicalpolitical statusstatus --whetherwhether
inin
Coramantien,Coramantien,
Surinam,Surinam, oror RestorationRestoration London.London.3232
OroonokoOroonoko andand ImoindaImoinda die,die,
ofof
course,course, inin Southeme'sSoutheme's playplay too,too, and,and,
asas
inin
Behn'sBehn's narrative,narrative, Southeme'sSoutheme's sympatheticsympathetic womenwomen characterscharacters areare unableunable toto helphelp
them.them. ButBut therethere
isis
aa crucialcrucial differencedifference betweenbetween Behn'sBehn's OnahalOnahal andand narratornarrator andand
Southeme'sSoutheme's interpolatedinterpolated characters.characters. Behn'sBehn's womenwomen areare fromfrom thethe firstfirst fullyfully
implicatedimplicated inin thethe tragedytragedy
ofof
thethe slaveslave couple,couple, whereas,whereas,
asas
wewe
havehave discussed,discussed,
Southeme'sSoutheme's CharlotteCharlotte WelldonWelldon --aa masculinizedmasculinized spinnerspinner
ofof
plots,plots, hishis 'mock'mock Behn'Behn'
(Vermillion(Vermillion 33)33) andand hishis oversexedoversexed WidowWidow Lackitt,Lackitt, thethe pettypetty buttbutt
ofof
jokesjokes --areare
isolatedisolated
inin
theirtheir separate,separate, comiccomic plot.plot.
InIn
thisthis way,way, SouthemeSoutheme reducesreduces Behn'sBehn's
innovativeinnovative andand complicatedcomplicated experimentexperiment
inin
proseprose fictionfiction toto aa standardstandard reciperecipe forfor aa
successfulsuccessful split-plotsplit-plot drama.drama. HisHis domesticdomestic metaphormetaphor forfor femalefemale narrativenarrative controlcontrol
(women(women spinningspinning plots)plots) functionsfunctions onlyonly soso longlong
asas
theythey dodo soso inin orderorder toto avoidavoid
becomingbecoming spinsters.spinsters. HeHe allowsallows themthem toto controlcontrol theirtheir stories,stories, butbut onlyonly
soso
longlong
asas
Cast-MistressesCast-Mistresses 77
77
women
women (and
(and women
women authors)
authors) use
use their
their storytelling
storytelling
to
to
negotiate
negotiate the
the marriage
marriage market
market
and
and gain
gain a
a husband,
husband, not
not
toto
enterenter thethe literaryliterary marketmarket andand gaingain famefame oror fortune.fortune.
ThisThis contrastcontrast betweenbetween SoutherneSoutherne andand BehnBehn enablesenables
usus
toto seesee moremore clearlyclearly
thethe radicalradical naturenature
ofof
Behn'sBehn's workwork andand herher difficultdifficult positionposition asas aa femalefemale authorauthor inin
RestorationRestoration London.London.
In
In bothboth CoramantienCoramantien andand Surinam,Surinam, sheshe createscreates thethe samesame
patriarchalpatriarchal societysociety thatthat SoutherneSoutherne representsrepresents inin hishis Surinam.Surinam.
In
In bothboth works,works, femalefemale
alliancesalliances areare ultimatelyultimately containedcontained byby thethe masculinemasculine powerpower structure.structure. ForFor
Southeme,Southeme, though,though, challengeschallenges toto thethe sexualsexual economyeconomy thatthat makemake suchsuch alliancesalliances
dangerous
dangerous constitute
constitute a
a joke,
joke, and
and critics
critics have
have misread
misread the
the joke
joke as
as masking
masking an
an
argumentargument forfor femalefemale agencyagency inin CharlottelWelldon'sCharlottelWelldon's actions.actions. But,But, asas anotheranother looklook atat
Behn's
Behn's story
story as
as well
well as
as her
her biography
biography tell
tell us,
us, such
such challenges
challenges can
can lead
lead to
to tragedy
tragedy
(as(as forfor Onahal),Onahal),
toto
guilt-riddenguilt-ridden survivalsurvival (as(as forfor thethe narrator),narrator), oror toto marginalizationmarginalization
in
in the
the literary
literary world
world (as
(as for
for Behn).
Behn). Indeed,
Indeed, as
as we
we have
have seen,
seen, Behn
Behn was
was constantly
constantly
beingbeing punishedpunished forfor writingwriting andand narrating;narrating; herher successsuccess was
was
alwaysalways qualifiedqualified byby thethe
knowledge
knowledge that
that she
she was
was never
never truly
truly accepted
accepted as
as an
an equal
equal in
in the
the male-dominated
male-dominated
literary
literary world.
world. The
The transformation
transformation
ofof
Behn'sBehn's narratornarrator fromfrom anan active,active, intrepidintrepid
participantparticipant
toto
aa passive,passive, powerlesspowerless observerobserver becomesbecomes moremore understandableunderstandable then,then,
givengiven thethe lessonslessons BehnBehn teachesteaches aboutabout sexualitysexuality andand powerpower inin thethe WestWest AfricanAfrican
sequence.
sequence. The
The narrator's
narrator's refusal
refusal to
to help
help Oroonoko
Oroonoko and
and Imoinda
Imoinda
in
in
the
the final
final scenes
scenes
leads
leads to
to their
their tragedy
tragedy but
but avoids
avoids hers.
hers. Her
Her decision
decision
isis
anan actact
ofof
self-preservationself-preservation
that,that, howeverhowever unforgivableunforgivable aa betrayal,betrayal, is,is, atat leastleast understandableunderstandable inin aa worldworld thatthat
punishespunishes womenwomen forfor followingfollowing theirtheir ownown desires,desires, forfor spinningspinning theirtheir ownown plots.plots.
Notes:Notes:
ForFor thethe fonner,former, seesee especiallyespecially MaryMary Vermillion,Vermillion, 'Buried'Buried Heroism:Heroism: CritiquesCritiques
ofof
Southeme'sFemaleFemale AuthorshipAuthorship
inin
Southerne's AdaptationAdaptation
ofof
Behn'sBehn's Oroonoko.'Oroonoko.' ForFor thethe latter,latter, seesee JoyceJoyce
GreenGreen MacDonald,MacDonald, 'The'The DisappearingDisappearing AfricanAfrican Woman:Woman: ImoindaImoinda inin OroonokoOroonoko afterafter Behn.'Behn.'
2
2 Lady
Lady Wishfort
Wishfort in
in
William
William Congreve's
Congreve's Way
Way
of
of
the
the World
World represents
represents one
one
of
of
the
the most
most
famousfamous
ofof
thesethese widows,widows, butbut stereotypicalstereotypical widowwidow figuresfigures crowdcrowd thethe RestorationRestoration stage.stage. ForFor
further
further information
infonnation on
on the
the stereotype
stereotype and
and its
its popularity,
popularity, see
see Barbara
Barbara
J.
J.
Todd's
Todd's 'The
'The
Remarrying
Remarrying Widow:
Widow: A
A Stereotype
Stereotype Reconsidered'
Reconsidered' and
and Jon
Jon Lance
Lance Bacon's
Bacon's 'Wives,
'Wives, Widows
Widows
and
and Writings
Writings in
in Restoration
Restoration Comedy.'
Comedy.'
33 Southeme'sAnnAnn MessengerMessenger arguesargues thatthat Southerne's comiccomic subplotsubplot --in
in
which,which,
asas
sheshe describesdescribes it,it,
thethe widowwidow hashas suchsuch aa prominentprominent rolerole --'has'has
nono
counterpartcounterpart inin Mrs.Mrs. Behn'sBehn's novel,novel, whichwhich
isis
devoted
devoted entirely
entirely
to
to
the
the tragic
tragic story
story
of
of
Oroonoko'
Oroonoko' (63).
(63). Southeme'sOne
One possible
possible source
source for
for Southerne's
Widow
Widow is,
is,
of
of
course,
course, Behn's
Behn's own
own Widow
Widow Ranter
Ranter from
from her
her posthumously-produced
posthumously-produced play
play
of
of
thethe samesame name.name. SouthemeLauraLaura
1.1.
RosenthalRosenthal andand JaneJane Spencer,Spencer, forfor example,example, argueargue thatthat Southerne
probablyprobably borrowedborrowed fromfrom Behn'sBehn's WidowWidow RanterRanter
in
in hishis creationcreation
ofof
bothboth WidowWidow LackittLackitt andand
thethe cross-dressingcross-dressing CharlotteCharlotte Welldon,Welldon, thoughthough hehe nevernever admitsadmits
toto
suchsuch borrowingsborrowings
Southeme(Rosenthal(Rosenthal
101;101;
SpencerSpencer 130).130). SpencerSpencer furtherfurther speculatesspeculates thatthat Southerne maymay havehave admittedadmitted
toto
borrowingborrowing fromfrom Behn'sBehn's proseprose fiction,fiction, butbut notnot fromfrom herher plays,plays, becausebecause hehe wantedwanted
toto
avoidavoid
""
78 78
TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
beingbeing labeledlabeled aa playwrightplaywright 'in'in thethe traditiontradition
ofof
Behn'Behn' (134).(134). RegardlessRegardless
ofof
Southerne'sSoutherne's
motivation,motivation, thethe WidowWidow LackittLackitt doesdoes resembleresemble Behn'sBehn's RanterRanter inin herher outspokenness,outspokenness, sexualsexual
desire,desire, andand statusstatus
asas
wealthywealthy widow.widow.
44 WhileWhile OnahalOnahal
isis
notnot technicallytechnically aa 'widow,''widow,' asas LackittLackitt
is,is,
herher situationsituation nonethelessnonetheless
resemblesresembles aa widow's.widow's. SheShe
isis
'married''married' toto thethe king,king, butbut herher placeplace asas favoredfavored wifewife
isis
supercededsuperceded byby eacheach newnew wife.wife. LikeLike aa widow'swidow's inin RestorationRestoration England,England, Onahal'sOnahal's statusstatus inin thethe
OtanOtan
isis
complicated.complicated. SheShe enjoysenjoys somesome autonomy,autonomy, butbut ultimatelyultimately sheshe
isis
restrainedrestrained
byby
thethe
patriarchalpatriarchal powerpower
ofof
thethe king.king.
WeWe
useuse
thethe termterm 'widow,''widow,' then,then,
toto
suggestsuggest thatthat Onahal'sOnahal's
positionposition inin CoramantienCoramantien
inin
manymany waysways correspondscorresponds toto aa widow'swidow's positionposition
inin
England.England.
55 SeeSee GeorgeGeorge GuffeyGuffey forfor aa discussiondiscussion
ofof
Behn'sBehn's mirroringmirroring
ofof
CoramantienCoramantien andand
RestorationRestoration politicspolitics andand societies.societies.
66 See,See, forfor instance,instance, MaximillianMaximillian
E.E.
NovakNovak andand DavidDavid StuartStuart Rodes'sRodes's IntroductionIntroduction
toto
ThomasThomas SouthSoutherne'serne's Oroonoko.Oroonoko.
77 OneOne couldcould certainlycertainly argueargue thatthat SoutherneSoutherne addedadded hishis comiccomic plotplot simplysimply outout
ofof
genericgeneric
considerations.considerations. Multi-plotMulti-plot playsplays havehave enjoyedenjoyed aa longlong historyhistory onon thethe EnglishEnglish stage,stage, andand werewere
popularizedpopularized byby Shakespeare,Shakespeare, JohnJohn Fletcher,Fletcher, andand BenBen Jonson,Jonson, amongamong others.others. RestorationRestoration
playwrightsplaywrights capitalizedcapitalized onon thethe voguevogue
ofof
thethe split-plotsplit-plot tragicomedy,tragicomedy, asas evidencedevidenced
byby
JohnJohn
Dryden'sDryden's andand Southerne'sSoutherne's successessuccesses withwith
it;it;
seesee RobertRobert
D.D.
Hume,Hume, TheThe DevelopmentDevelopment
ofof
EnglishEnglish DramaDrama
inin
thethe LateLate SeventeenthSeventeenth CenturyCentury (209-213).(209-213). BehnBehn herselfherself reliedrelied onon thisthis
structurestructure forfor aa fewfew
ofof
herher plays,plays, includingincluding herher first,first,
TheThe
ForcedForced Marriage,Marriage, andand herher last,last,
posthumously-performedposthumously-performed play,play, TheThe WidowWidow Ranter:Ranter:
or,or,
thethe HistoryHistory
ofof
BaconBacon
inin
VirginiaVirginia
(1689).(1689).
InIn
termsterms
ofof
genre,genre, then,then, SouthSoutherne'serne's choicechoice seemsseems logicallogical --hehe waswas satisfyingsatisfying thethe
tastetaste
ofof
hishis market.market. OneOne couldcould argue,argue, too,too, thatthat BehnBehn waswas satisfYingsatisfYing thethe tastetaste
ofof
aa newnew marketmarket
ofof
readersreaders --thethe risingrising novel-readingnovel-reading public.public. WilliamWilliam SpengemannSpengemann writeswrites thatthat withwith thethe
mergingmerging
ofof
thethe 'True'True Relation'Relation' andand romanceromance genres,genres, BehnBehn waswas ableable toto 'bridge'bridge thethe gulfgulf
betweenbetween herher feudalfeudal paradiseparadise andand thethe progressiveprogressive "new"new England"England"
ofof
herher intendedintended audience'audience'
(389).(389). CapitalizingCapitalizing onon audienceaudience demand,demand, then,then, probablyprobably playedplayed aa rolerole inin bothboth authors'authors' genregenre
choices.choices.
88 ThomasThomas SouthSoutherne,erne, Oroonoko,Oroonoko,
Ed.Ed.
MaximillianMaximillian
E.E.
NovakNovak andand DavidDavid StuartStuart Rodes,Rodes,
4.4.
AllAll referencesreferences toto SouthSoutherne'serne's playplay comecome fromfrom thisthis edition.edition. ReadersReaders whowho havehave
concentratedconcentrated onon Behn'sBehn's andand Southeme'sSoutheme's genericgeneric choiceschoices havehave arguedargued thatthat thethe decisionsdecisions tumtum
onon theirtheir critiquescritiques
ofof
socialsocial norms.norms. SeeSee RachelRachel K.K. Carnell'sCarnell's 'Subverting'Subverting TragicTragic Conventions:Conventions:
AphraAphra Behn'sBehn's TumTum toto thethe Novel,'Novel,' PaulaPaula Backscheider'sBackscheider's SpectacularSpectacular Politics,Politics, andand RoseRose
Zimbardo'sZimbardo's 'Aphra'Aphra Behn:Behn: AA DramatistDramatist inin SearchSearch
ofof
thethe Novel.'Novel.'
99 ForFor thethe formerformer view,view, seesee JuliaJulia Rich,Rich, 'Heroic'Heroic TragedyTragedy inin Southerne'sSoutherne's Oroonoko';Oroonoko'; forfor
thethe latter,latter, Vermillion.Vermillion.
\0\0
Throughout,Throughout,
wewe
willwill useuse thethe namename 'Charlotte''Charlotte' toto referrefer toto thethe charactercharacter actingacting asas
herselfherselfandand 'Well'Welldon'don' toto indicateindicate speechesspeeches andand actionsactions performedperformed whenwhen inin men'smen's clothing.clothing.
IIII
MichaelMichael CohenCohen arguesargues thatthat 'Congreve's'Congreve's wrywry epilogueepilogue toto OroonokoOroonoko remindsreminds usus
ofof
hishis
ownown practice:practice:
itit
isis perhapsperhaps betterbetter toto trytry toto influenceinfluence thisthis societysociety
byby
depictingdepicting itsits folliesfollies fromfrom
withinwithin ratherrather thanthan byby presentingpresenting itit withwith anan inimitableinimitable heroicheroic modelmodel forfor admiration'admiration' (17).(17).
PerhapsPerhaps SouthemeSoutheme
isis
attemptingattempting somesome suchsuch strategy,strategy, butbut again,again, thethe endend resultresult forfor thethe widowwidow
isis
toto
implyimply thatthat 'she'she likedliked it,'it,' likedliked thethe duplicityduplicity andand sexualsexual trickerytrickery oror atat leastleast thethe resultsresults
ofof
suchsuch trickery.trickery. SinceSince allall thethe womenwomen inin thethe subplotsubplot areare soso muchmuch betterbetter
offoff
inin
thethe end,end, thethe
conclusionconclusion undercutsundercuts thethe possiblepossible critique.critique.
1212
RosenthalRosenthal alsoalso connectsconnects thethe Widow'sWidow's rolerole inin thethe comiccomic plotplot toto herher attemptattempt 'to'to inhabitinhabit
thethe masculinemasculine positionposition
ofof
ownerowner andand sexualsexual subjectsubject withoutwithout thethe excuseexcuse
ofof
aa temporarytemporary dragdrag
role'role' (97).(97).
79
79
13
13
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
Kristiaan
Kristiaan
P.
P.
Aercke
Aercke contends
contends that
that much
much
17
17
th
th-century
-century prose
prose fiction
fiction borrowed
borrowed theater
theater
techniques
techniques
in
in
her
her 'Theatrical
'Theatrical Background
Background
in
in
English
English Novels
Novels
of
of
the
the Seventeenth
Seventeenth Century.'
Century.'
Concentrating
Concentrating primarily
primarily on
on Behn's
Behn's Oroonoko,
Oroonoko, Aercke
Aercke argues
argues that
that the
the introduction
introduction
of
of
perspective
perspective on
on the
the stage
stage
is
is
mirrored
mirrored in
in the
the prose
prose fiction
fiction
of
of
the
the day.
day.
In
In Oroonoko,
Oroonoko, for
for
example,
example, the
the reader
reader witnesses
witnesses concurrent
concurrent actions
actions in
in
the
the foreground
foreground and
and
background
background during
during
the
the Otan
Otan scene
scene (126).
(126). Further
Further evidence
evidence that
that early
early modem
modem prose
prose writers
writers were
were drawing
drawing from
from
stage
stage techniques
techniques comes
comes from
from Congreve's
Congreve's Incognita.
Incognita.
In
In
it,
it, Congreve
Congreve explains
explains that
that he
he
'resolved
'resolved
...
...
to
to imitate
imitate dramatick
dramatick writing,
writing, namely
namely
in
in the
the design,
design, contexture
contexture and
and result
result
of
of
the
the
(I21).plot'
plot' (121).
14
14
Aphra
Aphra Behn,
Behn, Oroonoko,
Oroonoko, Ed.
Ed. Catherine
Catherine Gallagher,
Gallagher, 52.
52. All
All
references
references to
to Behn's
Behn's
Oroonoko
Oroonoko come
come from
from this
this edition.
edition.
IS
The
The one
one possible
possible exception
exception to
to Aboan's
Aboan's inferior
inferior status
status comes
comes on
on the
the battlefield,
battlefield, when
when
15
a
a lovesick
lovesick Oroonoko
Oroonoko refuses
refuses to
to take
take command
command and
and Aboan
Aboan serves
serves as
as General
General for
for the
the day.
day.
However,
However, despite
despite Aboan's
Aboan's 'Courage,
'Courage, which
which the
the Day
Day gain'd
gain'd him
him immortal
immortal Glory,'
Glory,' he
he fails
fails to
to
rally
rally the
the troops,
troops, and
and Oroonoko
Oroonoko eventually
eventually steps
steps in
in to
to '[inspire]
'[inspire] all
all the
the rest
rest with
with new
new Courage,
Courage,
and
and new
new Order'
Order' (60,
(60, 61).
61).
16
16
The
The connections
connections between
between this
this scene
scene and
and the
the Restoration
Restoration stage,
stage, along
along with
with its
its more
more
unsavory
unsavory aspects,
aspects, are
are reinforced
reinforced by
by
Moira
Moira Ferguson's
Ferguson's discussion
discussion
of
of
Oroonoko's
Oroonoko's 'ravishment'
'ravishment'
of
of
Imoinda,
Imoinda, which
which Aboan's
Aboan's 'complaisance'
'complaisance' brings
brings about.
about. As
As Ferguson
Ferguson notes,
notes, Oroonoko,
Oroonoko,
in
in
his
his scene
scene with
with Imoinda,
Imoinda, has
has 'a
'a hint
hint
of
of
a
a Restoration
Restoration rake
rake about
about him'
him' (8).
(8).
17
17
The
The identity
identity
of
of
Behn's
Behn's husband
husband remains
remains
an
an
historical
historical mystery,
mystery, but
but Janet
Janet Todd
Todd settles
settles
on
on one
one Johan
Johan Behn,
Behn, a
a sea-faring
sea-faring merchant
merchant Behn
Behn possibly
possibly met
met on
on her
her return
return from
from Surinam.
Surinam.
Their
Their marriage
marriage was
was short
short (Johan
(Johan disappears
disappears by
by
1666),
1666), though
though historical
historical records
records do
do not
not
indicate
indicate
if
if
he
he died
died (possibly
(possibly from
from the
the plague
plague outbreak
outbreak
in
in
1666)
1666) or
or merely
merely abandoned
abandoned Behn.
Behn.
For
For more
more information,
information, see
see Todd's
Todd's The
The Secret
Secret Life
Life
of
of
Aphra
Aphra Behn,
Behn, esp.
esp. 67-75.
67-75.
18
18
Todd's
Todd's Secret
Secret Life
Life explores
explores this
this relationship
relationship
in
in
greater
greater detail,
detail, esp.
esp.
174-84.
174-84.
19
19
Behn's
Behn's motivation
motivation for
for such
such a
a parallel
parallel
is
is
ambiguous,
ambiguous, however.
however.
In
In
her
her postscript
postscript to
to
The
The Rover,
Rover, Behn
Behn explicitly
explicitly links
links playwright
playwright to
to
prostitute:
prostitute: ''
...
...
I,
I,
vainly
vainly proud
proud
of
of
my
my
judgment,
judgment, hang
hang out
out the
the sign
sign
of
of
Angellica
Angellica
...
...
to
to give
give notice
notice where
where a
a great
great part
part
of
of
the
the wit
wit
dwelt'
dwelt' (The
(The Rover,
Rover, 248).
248). While
While she
she may
may be
be asserting
asserting that
that prostitutes
prostitutes and
and women
women
playwrights
playwrights share
share a
a certain
certain amount
amount
of
of
wit
wit and
and power
power that
that threatens
threatens the
the male
male hierarchy,
hierarchy, she
she
simultaneously
simultaneously leaves
leaves herself
herself open
open to
to criticism
criticism that
that could
could damn
damn her
her personally
personally and
and
professionally.
professionally. Catherine
Catherine Gallagher,
Gallagher, however,
however, maintains
maintains that
that Behn
Behn consciously
consciously capitalizes
capitalizes
on
on this
this poetess-whore
poetess-whore analogy,
analogy, merely
merely exaggerating
exaggerating the
the current
current idea
idea that
that writers
writers become
become
authors
authors by
by virtue
virtue
of
of
being
being sold
sold (Nobody's
(Nobody's Story
Story 14).
14).
20
20
WishfortLady
Lady Wishfort once
once again
again comes
comes to
to
mind.
mind.
2\
21
Pearson
Pearson disagrees.
disagrees. She
She argues
argues that,
that, despite
despite the
the betrayal
betrayal
of
of
other
other women,
women, Charlotte
Charlotte
at
at least
least overcomes
overcomes the
the cycle
cycle
of
of
trickery
trickery and
and betrayal
betrayal
in
in
her
her marriage
marriage to
to Stanmore,
Stanmore, which
which
Pearson
Pearson characterizes
characterizes as
as 'transcend[ing]
'transcend[ing] the
the world's
world's ethic
ethic
of
of
barter
barter and
and
betrayal,
betrayal, and
and
[forming
[forming a
a union
union
of
of
equals]'
equals]' (Prostituted
(Prostituted Muse
Muse 115).
115). Given
Given the
the conservative
conservative social
social order
order
that
that
is
is
the
the setting
setting for
for this
this play,
play, though,
though, a
a union
union
of
of
equals
equals seems
seems quite
quite impossible.
impossible.
As
As
Robert
Robert Erickson
Erickson argues,
argues, the
the narrator
narrator (whom
(whom he'terms
he'terms 'Mistress
'Mistress Behn'
Behn'
in
in
order
order to
to
distinguish
distinguish her
her from
from the
the author
author Aphra
Aphra Behn)
Behn) 'is
'is now,
now, at
at the
the time
time
of
of
writing,
writing,
in
in
a
a position
position
somewhat
somewhat analogous
analogous to
to
that
that
of
of
Onahal,
Onahal, the
the 'decayed
'decayed Beauty'
Beauty' who
who instructed
instructed the
the
young
young
concubines
concubines
....
....
The
The decayed
decayed beauty
beauty Mistress
Mistress Behn
Behn now
now writes
writes the
the narrative
narrative
of
of
how
how as
as a
a
younger
younger woman
woman she
she helped
helped
to
to
determine
determine the
the outcome
outcome
of
of
[Oroonoko's
[Oroonoko's and
and
Imoinda's]
Imoinda's] lives'
lives'
(209).
(209).
23
23
Behn's
Behn's own
own reputation
reputation
as
as
a
a translator
translator
of
of
Latin
Latin (which
(which she
she did
did not
not read)
read) earned
earned her
her
'our part'tnthe
the dubious
dubious epithet
epithet
of
of
'our blind
blind Translatress
Translatress Behn'
Behn' for
for her
her part'm Dryden's
Dryden's edition
edition
of
of
Ovid's
Ovid's
.....
=::::-,,:'-:','.$>;;;;7/ ""'.'.;;;:
,,_.,)/g;,4:'~
~~c·ST;:t9,;;:,~.",~,ci,·,>.;,·.;~.~j~~
....
,;
-·'~;~;;;'~l'?"<';'.""'-'r:~~I·~t
""':'·)i·to:j·",·;J;:C·;,4'.~~·kt";'·;;":>'i!:'Yi=:t?h~\',~.'';;:i''';'~~,';';;,'-~"".'7;
22
22
80 80
TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn toto BandeleBandele
Heroides.Heroides.
InIn
fact,fact, despitedespite herher limitedlimited linguisticlinguistic knowledge,knowledge, BehnBehn apparentlyapparently hadhad nono troubletrouble
revisingrevising thethe mythmyth
ofof
ApolloApollo andand DaphneDaphne withwith aa feministfeminist twisttwist whenwhen NahumNahum TateTate askedasked herher
toto contributecontribute
toto
aa translationtranslation
ofof
Cowley'sCowley's LatinLatin poem,poem,
OfOf
PlantsPlants (Spencer(Spencer
6,6,
7).7).
2424
ForFor aa discussiondiscussion
ofof
thethe possiblepossible romanticromantic involvementinvolvement betweenbetween BehnBehn (or(or herher
narrator)narrator) andand Oroonoko,Oroonoko, seesee Spencer;Spencer; MargaretMargaret
W.W.
Ferguson.Ferguson.
2525 OthelloOthello recountsrecounts howhow hehe attractedattracted Desdemona'sDesdemona's attention:attention:
'I'I
spakespake
ofof
mostmost
disastrousdisastrous chances,chances, //
OfOf
movingmoving accidentsaccidents byby floodflood andand field;field; //
OfOf
hair-breadthhair-breadth scapesscapes
i'i'
thethe
imminentimminent deadlydeadly breach;breach; //
OfOf
beingbeing takentaken byby thethe insolentinsolent foe,foe, // AndAnd soldsold toto slavery;slavery;
ofof
mymy
redemptionredemption thence,thence, // AndAnd portanceportance
inin
mymy
travels'travels' history'history' (1.3.150-55).(1.3.150-55).
2626 CriticsCritics commentingcommenting onon thethe narrator'snarrator's seemingseeming abandonmentabandonment
ofof
thethe couplecouple includeinclude
SusanSusan Andrade,Andrade, StephanieStephanie AtheyAthey andand DanielDaniel CooperCooper Alarcon,Alarcon, MartineMartine WatsonWatson Brownley,Brownley,
MargaretMargaret
W.W.
Ferguson,Ferguson, andand JacquelineJacqueline PearsonPearson
inin
'Gender'Gender andand Narrative.'Narrative.' MoiraMoira FergusonFerguson
arguesargues thatthat thethe narratornarrator excusesexcuses herher withdrawalwithdrawal fromfrom thethe scenescene byby suggestingsuggesting thatthat OroonokoOroonoko
isis
taintedtainted byby hishis treatmenttreatment
ofof
lmoindalmoinda
asas
aa sitesite
ofof
sexualsexual
andand
economiceconomic exploitationexploitation (10).(10).
2727 TheThe questionquestion
ofof
Imoinda'sImoinda's sexualsexual desiredesire
isis
notnot completelycompletely straightforward.straightforward. TheThe
narratornarrator describesdescribes ImoindaImoinda asas beingbeing 'ravished''ravished' (56)(56) byby Oroonoko,Oroonoko, perhapsperhaps toto protectprotect thethe
'Black'Black Venus'Venus' (44)(44) fromfrom chargescharges
ofof
lasciviousness.lasciviousness. ImoindaImoinda throughoutthroughout thethe narrativenarrative
isis
describeddescribed
asas
'modest''modest' (45,(45, 71).71).
2828 Here,Here, too,too, wewe seesee parallelsparallels toto Onahal'sOnahal's situationsituation inin thethe Otan.Otan. BeforeBefore Imoinda'sImoinda's
flagrantflagrant disregarddisregard forfor OtanOtan law,law, OnahalOnahal enjoyedenjoyed relativerelative freedomfreedom fromfrom thethe king'sking's watchfulwatchful
eye.eye.
OnceOnce ImoindaImoinda rebelled,rebelled, however,however, Onahal'sOnahal's independenceindependence andand powerpower werewere strippedstripped
fromfrom her,her, muchmuch likelike thethe narrator's.narrator's.
2929
WhenWhen thethe plantersplanters whipwhip andand torturetorture Oroonoko,Oroonoko, forfor instance,instance, theythey 'did'did notnot letlet
[Imoinda][Imoinda] seesee thisthis BarbarityBarbarity committedcommitted towardstowards herher LordLord
......
whichwhich waswas notnot aa kindnesskindness toto
her,her, butbut forfor fearsfears sheshe shou'dshou'd DyeDye withwith thethe Sight,Sight, oror Miscarry;Miscarry; andand thenthen theythey shou'dshou'd looseloose aa
youngyoung Slave,Slave, andand perhapsperhaps thethe Mother'Mother' (91).(91).
3030 TheThe narratornarrator tellstells
usus
thatthat sheshe leftleft Oroonoko'sOroonoko's sideside becausebecause sheshe waswas sickenedsickened byby hishis
smell,smell, 'being'being
mymy
selfself butbut Sickly,Sickly, andand veryvery aptapt toto fallfall intointo FitsFits
ofof
dangerousdangerous IllnessIllness uponupon anyany
extraordinaryextraordinary Melancholy'Melancholy' (98).(98). HerHer mothermother andand sistersister remainremain withwith OroonokoOroonoko andand witnesswitness
hishis death,death, 'but'but notnot suffer'dsuffer'd toto savesave him;him; soso ruderude andand wildwild werewere thethe Rabble,Rabble, andand
soso
inhumaneinhumane
werewere thethe Justices'Justices' (99).(99). VermillionVermillion pointspoints outout thethe similaritiessimilarities betweenbetween thethe narrator'snarrator's
'melancholy''melancholy' andand Oroonoko'sOroonoko's earlierearlier 'Disease'Disease
ofof
MelancholyMelancholy andand Languishment'Languishment' inin orderorder toto
illustrateillustrate herher argumentargument thatthat thethe narratornarrator andand OroonokoOroonoko shareshare aa sensesense
ofof
bothboth powerpower andand
powerlessnesspowerlessness (61).(61). DrawingDrawing onon JohnJohn Mullan'sMullan's assertionassertion thatthat sentimentalsentimental novelistsnovelists investedinvested
characterscharacters withwith melancholymelancholy
asas
aa wayway toto indicateindicate 'their'their positionposition outsideoutside
ofof
aa corruptcorrupt
commercialcommercial world,'world,' sheshe arguesargues thatthat thethe 'melancholy''melancholy' parallelparallel herehere 'minimizes'minimizes [the[the narrator's]narrator's]
earlierearlier complicitycomplicity withwith thethe slaveholders'slaveholders' (31).(31).
3131
BehnBehn herselfherself encouragesencourages thisthis autobiographicalautobiographical readingreading mostmost likelylikely toto promotepromote thethe
authenticityauthenticity
ofof
thethe narrative.narrative. ForFor instance,instance, thethe narratornarrator praisespraises ColonelColonel Martin,Martin, whom,whom, sheshe
writes,writes,
'I'I
havehave celebratedcelebrated inin aa CharacterCharacter
ofof
mymy NewNew Comedy'Comedy' (92),(92), referringreferring toto GeorgeGeorge
MarteenMarteen inin Behn'sBehn's 'The'The YoungerYounger Brother,Brother, oror thethe AmorousAmorous Jilt.'Jilt.' ForFor recentrecent commentarycommentary onon
thethe connectionconnection betweenbetween authorauthor andand narrator,narrator, seesee Duffy,Duffy, Goreau,Goreau, Rogers,Rogers, SpencerSpencer andand ToddTodd
SecretSecret Life.Life.
3232 MoiraMoira FergusonFerguson providesprovides aa different,different, althoughalthough parallel,parallel, interpretationinterpretation
ofof
thethe
narrator'snarrator's disavowaldisavowal
ofof
OroonokoOroonoko atat keykey momentsmoments andand
ofof
thethe concludingconcluding gesturegesture towardtoward
ImoindaImoinda
inin
relationrelation toto power:power: 'Women'Women andand powerpower maymay seemseem toto bebe mutuallymutually exclusiveexclusive termsterms
butbut
inin
beingbeing enabledenabled toto contemplatecontemplate theirtheir ownown disempowermentdisempowerment womenwomen partiallypartially resistresist
itsits
effecteffect andand refuserefuse toto internalizeinternalize it'it' (11).(11).
81
81
Cast-Mistresses
Cast-Mistresses
References:
References:
Aercke,
Aercke, Kristiaan
Kristiaan P.
P. 'Theatrical
'Theatrical Background
Background
in
in
English
English Novels
Novels
of
of
the
the Seventeenth
Seventeenth Century.'
Century.'
The
The Journal
Journal
of
of
Narrative
Narrative Technique
Technique 18.2
18.2 (1988):
(1988): 120-136.
120-136.
Andrade,
Andrade, Susan.
Susan. 'White
'White Skin,
Skin, Black
Black Masks:
Masks: Colonialism
Colonialism and
and the
the Sexual
Sexual Politics
Politics
of
of
Oroonoko.'
Oroonoko.' Cultural
Cultural Critique
Critique 27
27 (1994):
(1994): 189-214.
189-214.
Athey,
Athey, Stephanie
Stephanie and
and Daniel
Daniel Cooper
Cooper Alarcon.
Alarcon. 'Oroonoko's
'Oroonoko's Gendered
Gendered Economies
Economies
of
of
Honor/
Honor/
Horror:
Horror: Reframing
Reframing Colonial
Colonial Discourse
Discourse Studies
Studies
in
in
the
the Americas.'
Americas.' American
American Literature
Literature
65.3
65.3 (1993):
(1993): 415-443.
415-443.
Backscheider,
Backscheider, Paula.
Paula. Spectacular
Spectacular Politics:
Politics: Theatrical
Theatrical Power
Power and
and Mass
Mass Culture
Culture
in
in Early
Early
Modern
Modern Europe.
Europe. Baltimore:
Baltimore: Johns
Johns Hopkins
Hopkins University
University Press,
Press, 1993.
1993.
Bacon,
Bacon, Jon
Jon Lance.
Lance. 'Wives,
'Wives, Widows
Widows and
and Writings
Writings
in
in
Restoration
Restoration Comedy.'
Comedy.' Studies
Studies
in
in
English
English
Literature
Literature
31
31
(1991):
(1991): 427-443.
427-443.
Behn,
Behn, Aphra.
Aphra. Oroonoko.
Oroonoko.
Ed.
Ed.
Catherine
Catherine Gallagher.
Gallagher. Bedford
Bedford Cultural
Cultural Edition.
Edition. Boston:
Boston:
Bedford/St.
Bedford/St. Martin's,
Martin's, 2000.
2000.
---.
---. The
The Rover.
Rover. Oroonoko,
Oroonoko,
The
The
Rover,
Rover,
and
and
Other
Other Works.
Works. Ed.
Ed. Janet
Janet Todd.
Todd. New
New York:
York:
Penguin
Penguin Books,
Books, 1992.
1992.
Brown,
Brown, Kathleen
Kathleen M.
M. Good
Good
Wives,
Wives,
Nasty
Nasty Wenches,
Wenches,
and
and
Anxious
Anxious Patriarchs.
Patriarchs. Chapel
Chapel Hill:
Hill:
University
University
of
of
North
North Carolina
Carolina Press,
Press, 1996.
1996.
Brownley,
Brownley, Martine
Martine Watson.
Watson. 'The
'The Narrator
Narrator in
in Oroonoko.'
Oroonoko.' Essays
Essays
in
in
Literature
Literature 4
4 (1977):
(1977): 174-
174-
81.
81.
Carnell,
Carnell, Rachel
Rachel K.
K. 'Subverting
'Subverting Tragic
Tragic Conventions:
Conventions: Aphra
Aphra Behn's
Behn's Tum
Tum to
to the
the Novel.'
Novel.'
Studies
Studies in
in the
the Novel
Novel 31.2
31.2 (1999):
(1999): 133-51.
133-51.
Cohen,
Cohen, Michael.
Michael. '''Mirth
'''Mirth and
and Grief
Grief Together":
Together": Plot
Plot Unity
Unity
in
in
South
Southerne's
erne's Oroonoko.'
Oroonoko.' Xavier
Xavier
University
University Studies
Studies 11.3
11.3 (1972):
(1972): 13-17.
13-17.
Duffy,
Duffy, Maureen.
Maureen. The
The Passionate
Passionate Shepherdess.
Shepherdess. London:
London: Jonathan
Jonathan Cape,
Cape, 1977.
1977.
Erickson,
Erickson, Robert.
Robert. 'Mrs.
'Mrs. A.
A. Behn
Behn and
and the
the Myth
Myth
of
of
Oroonoko-lmoinda.'
Oroonoko-lmoinda.' Eighteenth-Century
Eighteenth-Century
Fiction
Fiction 5.3
5.3
(1993):
(1993): 201-16.
201-16.
Ferguson,
Ferguson, Margaret
Margaret
W.
W.
'Juggling
'Juggling the
the Categories
Categories
of
of
Race,
Race, Class
Class and
and Gender:
Gender: Aphra
Aphra Behn's
Behn's
Oroonoko'
Oroonoko'
in
in
this
this volume,
volume, 16-34.
16-34.
Ferguson,
Ferguson, Moira.
Moira. 'Oroonoko:
'Oroonoko: Birth
Birth
of
of
a
a Paradigm'
Paradigm'
in
in
this
this volume,
volume, 1-15.
1-15.
Gallagher,
Gallagher, Catherine.
Catherine. Nobody's
Nobody's Story.
Story. Berkeley:
Berkeley: University
University
of
of
California
California Press,
Press, 1994.
1994.
Goreau,
Goreau, Angeline.
Angeline. Reconstructing
Reconstructing Aphra:
Aphra: A
A Social
Social Biography
Biography
of
of
Aphra
Aphra Behn.
Behn. NY:
NY: Dial
Dial
Press,
Press, 1980.
1980.
Guffey,
Guffey, George.
George. 'Aphra
'Aphra Behn's
Behn's Oroonoko:
Oroonoko: Occasion
Occasion and
and Accomplishment.'
Accomplishment.' Two
Two English
English
Novelists:
Novelists: Aphra
Aphra Behn
Behn and
and
Anthony
Anthony Trollope.
Trollope. Papers
Papers Read
Read at
at a
a Clark
Clark Library
Library Seminar,
Seminar,
May
May
II,
II,
1974.
1974. Los
Los Angeles:
Angeles: University
University
of
of
California
California Press,
Press, 1975.3-41.
1975.3-41.
Hume,
Hume, Robert
Robert
D.
D.
The
The Development
Development
of
of
English
English Drama
Drama
in
in
the
the Late
Late Seventeenth
Seventeenth Century.
Century.
Oxford:
Oxford: Clarendon
Clarendon Press,
Press, 1976.
1976.
MacDonald,
MacDonald, Joyce
Joyce Green.
Green. 'The
'The Disappearing
Disappearing African
African Woman:
Woman: Imoinda
Imoinda
in
in
Oroonoko
Oroonoko after
after
Behn.'
Behn.'
ELH
ELH
66
66 (1999):
(1999): 71-86.
71-86.
Messenger,
Messenger, Ann.
Ann. 'Novel
'Novel into
into Play:
Play: Aphra
Aphra Behn
Behn and
and Thomas
Thomas Southerne.'
Southerne.' His
His and
and Hers:
Hers:
Essays
Essays in
in Restoration
Restoration
and
and
Eighteenth-Century
Eighteenth-Century Literature.
Literature. Lexington:
Lexington: The
The University
University
Press
Press
of
of
Kentucky,
Kentucky, 1986.
1986. 41-70.
41-70.
Novak,
Novak, Maximillian
Maximillian
E.
E.
and
and David
David Stuart
Stuart Rodes,
Rodes, ed.
ed. 'Introduction.'
'Introduction.' Thomas
Thomas Southerne's
Southerne's
Oroonoko.
Oroonoko. Lincoln:
Lincoln: University
University
of
of
Nebraska
Nebraska Press,
Press, 1976.
1976. xiii-xlii.
xiii-xlii.
Pearson,
Pearson, Jacqueline.
Jacqueline. 'Gender
'Gender and
and Narrative
Narrative
in
in
the
the Fiction
Fiction
of
of
Aphra
Aphra Behn.'
Behn.' Review
Review
of
of
English
English Studies
Studies 42.165;
42.165; 42.166
42.166 (1991):
(1991): 40-56;
40-56; 179-90.
179-90.
J
82 82 TropingTroping OroonokofromOroonokofrom BehnBehn
toto
BandeleBandele
---.---. TheThe ProstitutedProstituted Muse.Muse. NewNew York:York: St.St. Martin'sMartin's Press,Press, 1988.1988.
Pope,Pope, Alexander.Alexander. 'Imitations'Imitations
ofof
HoraceHorace EpistleEpistle II.L'II.L' TheThe PoemsPoems
ofof
AlexanderAlexander Pope.Pope.
Ed.Ed.
JohnJohn Butt.Butt. NewNew Haven:Haven: YaleYale UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1963.1963. 634-649.634-649.
Rich,Rich, Julia.Julia. 'Heroic'Heroic TragedyTragedy
inin
Southerne'sSoutherne's OroonokoOroonoko (1695):(1695): AnAn ApproachApproach
toto
aa Split-plotSplit-plot
Tragicomedy.'Tragicomedy.' PhilologicalPhilological QuarterlyQuarterly 62.262.2 (1983):(1983): 187-200.187-200.
Rogers,Rogers, Katharine.Katharine. 'Fact'Fact andand FictionFiction
inin
AphraAphra Behn'sBehn's Oroonoko.'Oroonoko.' StudiesStudies
inin
thethe NovelNovel 20.120.1
(1988):(1988): 1-15.1-15.
Rosenthal,Rosenthal, LauraLaura
J.J.
'Owning'Owning Oroonoko:Oroonoko: Behn,Behn, Southeme,Southeme, andand thethe ContingenciesContingencies
ofof
Property'Property' inin thisthis volume,volume, 83-107.83-107.
Southerne,Southerne, Thomas.Thomas. Oroonoko.Oroonoko.
Ed.Ed.
MaximillianMaximillian
E.E.
NovakNovak andand DavidDavid StuartStuart Rodes.Rodes. Lincoln:Lincoln:
UniversityUniversity
ofof
NebraskaNebraska Press,Press, 1976.1976.
Spencer,Spencer, Jane.Jane. AphraAphra Behn'sBehn's Afterlife.Afterlife. Oxford:Oxford: OxfordOxford UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 2000.2000.
Spengemann,Spengemann, WilliamWilliam
C.C.
'The'The EarliestEarliest AmericanAmerican Novel:Novel: AphraAphra Behn'sBehn's Oroonoko.'Oroonoko.'
Nineteenth-CenturyNineteenth-Century FictionFiction 3838 (1984):(1984): 384-414.384-414.
Todd,Todd, BarbaraBarbara
1.1.
'The'The RemarryingRemarrying Widow:Widow: AA StereotypeStereotype Reconsidered.'Reconsidered.' EnglishWomenWomen
inin
English
1985.54-92.�
SocietySociety 1500-1800.1500-1800. Ed.Ed. MaryMary Prior.Prior. LondonLondon andand NewNew York:York: Methuen,Methuen, 1985.54-92.
New�Todd,Todd, Janet,Janet, ed.ed. 'Introduction.''Introduction.' AphraAphra Behn'sBehn's Oroonoko,Oroonoko, TheThe Rover,Rover,
andand
OtherOther Works.Works. New
York:York: PenguinPenguin Books,Books, 1992.1992. 1-22.1-22.
---.---.
TheThe
SecretSecret LifeLife
ofof
AphraAphra Behn.Behn. NewNew Brunswick,Brunswick, NJ:NJ: RutgersRutgers UniversityUniversity Press,Press, 1997.1997.
Vermillion,Vermillion, Mary.Mary. 'Buried'Buried Heroism:Heroism: CritiquesCritiques
ofof
FemaleFemale AuthorshipAuthorship inin Southerne'sSoutherne's
AdaptationAdaptation ofBehn'sofBehn's Oroonoko.'Oroonoko.' RestorationRestoration
16.116.1
(1992):(1992): 28-37.28-37.
Zimbardo,Zimbardo, Rose.Rose. 'Aphra'Aphra Behn:Behn: AA DramatistDramatist
inin
SearchSearch
ofof
thethe Novel.'Novel.' StudiesStudies
inin
EighteenthEighteenth --
CenturyCentury CultureCulture
1919
(1989):(1989): 277-87.277-87.
