Reading the Book of Revelation as a Story: A Literary analysis of the Apocalypse of John PDF Free Download
1 / 48/48
100%
ReadingtheBookofRevelationasaStory:
ALiteraryanalysisoftheApocalypseofJohn
By
ShaneJ.Wood
©Shanejwood.com2008
[CopyrightPending]
i | Page
ii | Page
TableofContents
Introduction:TheImportanceofLiteraryAnalysisinBiblicalStudies............................................1
Chapter1:TheAuthorofRevelationasNarrator...........................................................................3
WhoistheNarratorofRevelation?–TheNarratorandCharacterization........................3
WhereistheNarrator?–TheNarratorandtheStory.......................................................4
WhataretheNarrator’sLimitations?
TheNarratorandTime............................................................................................5
TheNarratorandSpace..........................................................................................6
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?
TheNarratorandInterpretativeKeys.....................................................................7
TheNarratorandPrivilegedInformation................................................................9
TheNarratorandRecapitulation...........................................................................10
TheNarratorandOldTestamentAllusions...........................................................11
TheNarratorandNumerology..............................................................................13
TheNarratorandForeshadowing.........................................................................15
TheNarratorandDialogue....................................................................................16
TheNarratorandParody......................................................................................17
TheNarratorandParabolicNature.......................................................................17
Summary..........................................................................................................................18
Chapter2:TheSettingoftheBookofRevelation........................................................................20
TheSocio‐PoliticalSetting–CaughtinBetweenWorlds.................................................20
TheNarrativeSetting–InterplayBetweentheCosmicandtheMundane.....................23
Chapter3:ThePlotoftheBookofRevelation.............................................................................26
Plot:PlottingtheConflict.................................................................................................26
ConflictwithSupernatural....................................................................................26
ConflictwithNature..............................................................................................26
ConflictwithSociety..............................................................................................27
ConflictwithIndividuals........................................................................................27
ConflictwithOne’sSelf.........................................................................................28
Chapter4:TheCharactersoftheBookofRevelation...................................................................29
DifficultiesinCharacterization.........................................................................................29
TheTwoSetsofTrinities:SimplifyingCharacterIssues...................................................30
ExpandingtheIssue:CharactersinRevelation................................................................33
Chapter5:TheReaders/HearersoftheBookofRevelation.........................................................41
TheRoleoftheReaders...................................................................................................41
TacticsofInteractionwiththeIdealReader....................................................................41
Conclusion.....................................................................................................................................44
Bibliography..................................................................................................................................45
1 | Page
Introduction
TheImportanceofLiteraryAnalysisinBiblicalStudies
InournecessaryreverencefortheHolyScripturesandmeticulousstudyofGod’sword,thefact
thatistoooftenignoredisthattheBibleisanincrediblecontributiontothecorpusofliterature.Each
bookoftheBibleoffersauniqueadditiontothetapestryofliteraturewoventogetherintotheartistic
masterpiecelabeledtheOldandNewTestaments.Withmultiplegenres,1amultitudeofcharacters,the
ebbandflowofplotandsetting,combinedwiththenarrativeselectionsbytheauthor,theBiblehas
onebookthatwouldfall,virtually,undereverycategoryfoundinBarnesandNoble–withafewother
categoriescreated.Asaresult,itwouldbehooveseriousbiblicalstudentstoanalyzebiblicalworksas
piecesofliterature,alongwiththeotherperspectivesofhermeneuticalanalysis,toseeiffurther
enlightenmentcancometotheirinterpretationsusingthevariousinvestigativemethodsprominentin
theworldofliterarystudy.2
Inessence,studyingabookoftheBibleasliteratureistheartandscienceofexaminingthe
variouselementspresentinastorythatcomposeaneffectivepieceofliterature.Thisincludesthe
analysisof:thenarrator–histactics,identity,abilities,etc.;thesetting–ofboththepieceofliterature
andthetimeinwhichitwaswritten;theplot–thestorylineofthepieceofliterature;thecharacters–
1GenreisaFrenchwordthatmeans“kind”or“type”.Thegeneraldefinitionof“genre”isthetypeor
styleofwritingforaparticularpieceofliterature.Whilethismaysoundesoteric,genreissomethingthat
everyoneinteractswithanddeciphersonadailybasis.Forexample,apersonwillnotreadtheheadline“Tigers
SlayIndians”thesamewayintheinternationalsectionofthenewspaperastheywouldinthesportssectionorthe
communitysection.Theinternationalsectionwouldleadthereadertointerpretthetitletoindicatean
unfortunateoccurrenceinacontinentacrosstheworld[India].Thesportssectionwouldleadthereaderto
interpretthetitleasamajordefeatbytheDetroitbaseballteamwhentheyplayedagainsttheteamfrom
Cleveland.Thecommunitysectionwouldcausethereadertopossiblygointofrenzyofconcernaboutwhetheror
notthefelineperpetratorsarestillatlarge–especiallyifthereaderlivesclosetothereservation.Thedifferent
reactionsbythereaderistheirsubconsciousinterpretationofthegenre,or“sectionofthenewspaper”,inwhich
theheadlineappears.
2TheprimaryadvocateforthistypeofstudyisLelandRyken.Hisworksinclude:HowtoReadtheBibleas
Literature(GrandRapids:Zondervan,1985);WordsofDelight:ALiteraryIntroductiontotheBible(GrandRapids:
BakerAcademic,1993);andTheCompleteLiteraryGuidetotheBible–withTremperLongmanIII(GrandRapids:
Zondervan,1993).Thereareotherworkslikethis[i.e.,DavidM.Rhoads,JoannaDewey,andDonaldM.Michie,
MarkasStory:AnIntroductiontotheNarrativeofaGospel(AugsbergFortressPublishing,1999)],butRykenisthe
mostinfluentialatthispointinthedevelopmentofthistypeofbiblicalstudy.
2 | Page
theantagonistandprotagonist’sactionsandidentities;andthereader–howtheauthorintendsthe
audiencetointeractwiththetextthroughtheuseofvariousmethodologies.Whilethistypeofanalysis
wouldnotbefruitfulforsomebooksoftheBible,3forotherbooks,thiscommitmenttoreadingthe
Bibleasliteraturecanopenupavenuesofinterpretationsimplyoverlooked.ForthebookofRevelation,
thistypeofstudybearsgreatfruit.
3Forexample,thistypeofstudywouldnotbeasfruitfulformostofthebookofProverbs(althoughthere
aresectionswhereliteraryanalysisispertinenttotheunderstandingofthetext–cf.Prov.7).
3 | Page
Chapter1:
TheAuthorofRevelationasNarrator
Oneofthekeydecisionsallgreatliteraryauthorsmustestablishisnotonlywhotheirnarrator
willbebutalsohowtheirnarratorwillfunction.Isthenarratoromniscientaboutallevents–eventhe
internalinquiriesofthecharacters?Isthenarratorboundbyspaceand/ortime?Isthenarratora
characterofthestoryoradetached,objectiveguidethroughoutthestory?Eachofthesedecisions
helpstomoldtheshapeofthestorybeingcommunicated.Consequently,thebiblicalliteraturemust
startwiththeinquiryofthenarrator.
WhoistheNarratorofRevelation?–TheNarratorandCharacterization
ThenarratorofRevelation,referredtoasJohn,4isnotomniscientinhisknowledgeofthestory
likenarratorsinotherstories(i.e.,Matthew,Mark,etc.).Instead,Johnisakeycharacterinthenarrative
itself.5Thisresultsinthenarrativebeingtoldfromthefirstpersonperspectivethroughoutthe
revelationbecausethenarratorisexperiencingallofthehappeningsinthenarrativeastheyoccur.He
isseeing,hearing,andencounteringallofthevisionsandrevelationsthatheisdeliveringthroughhis
writings.Forthisreasonthereaderencountersmanydescriptionsaboutwhatthenarrator(whoisthe
author)“sees”6and“hears”7inthefirstpersonsingular8.Johnisexperiencing(orhasexperienced)allof
4WhileIdoaffirmthetraditionalstanceofthechurchthattheidentityoftheauthorofRevelationisthe
apostleJohnalsoknownasoneofthesonsofZebedee,itisnotthepurposeoftheliterarycritictoquestionthe
identityoftheauthorornarrator–fortheidentityofthenarratoriswhoevertheauthormakeshimtobeandthe
identityoftheauthoristheconcernmoreofhistorians(althoughsomeimpactwillbefeltintheanalysisofthe
settingand/ortimeperiodofthewritingwithoutaclearidentityoftheauthor—seepp.20‐25below).
5ItisimportanttorememberthatsimplybecauseJohnisreferredtoasakeycharacterinthebookof
Revelationdoesnotmeanthatheisfictitious.TheapostleJohnwasarealmanlivinginthefirstcenturyA.D.who
wasafollowerofJesus,andforthisbelief,hehasbeenbanishedbytheemperorDomitiantotheislandofPatmos
(arealislandoffthecoastofAsiaMinor).
6Rev.1:2,11,12(2x),17,20;4:1;5:1,2,5,6,11;6:2,5,8,9;7:1,2,9;8:2,13;9:1,7,17(2x);10:1,5;13:1,
2,11;14:1,6,14;15:1,2(2x),5;16:13(2x);17:3,6,8,12,15,16,18;18:1;19:11,17,19;20:1,4(2x),11,12;21:1,
2,22;22:8.
7Rev.1:10;4:1;5:11,13;6:1,3,5,6,7;7:4;8:13;9:13,16;10:4,8;12:10;14:2,13;16:1,5,7;18:4;19:1,
6;21:3;22:8.
4 | Page
thesevisionsthatarerecordedwithhisownsenses.Indeed,Revelation22:8amakesthispointclear,“I,
John,amtheonewhoheardandsawthesethings.”9
Inasense,then,theauthorislimitedinhisperspective.Heisonlyabletotelltheaudiencethe
messagethatisbeingrevealedtohimthroughhissensesandcommandsasheiswritingthenarrative.10
Inthisrespect,Godistheomniscientnarrator(revelator)ofJohn’svisions.ThisisevidentinRevelation
10:3b‐4,“When[themightyangel]shouted,thevoicesoftheseventhundersspoke.Andwhenthe
seventhundersspoke,Iwasabouttowrite;butIheardavoicefromheavensay,‘Sealupwhatthe
seventhundershavesaidanddonotwriteitdown.’”Godhastheultimateauthorityofhowthis
narrativewillprogress–eveninitswrittenform.
WhereistheNarrator?–TheNarratorandtheStory
Asaresult,Johniscommunicatingthevisionshehasreceivedfromtheomniscientrevelator
[God]throughhisdescriptionofwhathe“saw”and“heard.”Inessence,Johnasthenarratoris
speakingfrominsideofthestoryitself.Thisleadstheauthortoshowhisconnectionwiththestory
throughhiscommunicationofvariousemotionsheexperiencesasapartoftheunfoldingstory.For
example,afterdescribingthemagnificentappearanceoftheglorifiedChristinRevelation1:10‐16,John
communicateshisemotionalreactioninRevelation1:17whenhewrites,“WhenIsawhim,Ifellathis
8Rev.1:10,12(3x),1:17;4:1;5:1,2,6,11,13;6:1,2,3,5,6,7,8,9,12;7:1,2,4,9;8:2,13(2x);9:1,13,
16,17;10:1,4,5,8;12:10;13:1,2,11;14:1,2,6,13,14;15:1,2,5;16:1,5,7,13;17:3,6(2x);18:1,4;19:1,6,11,
17,19;20:1,4(2x),11,12;21:1,2,3;21:22;22:8(2x).
9AllbiblicalquotationswillbetakenfromTheNewInternationalVersion,unlessotherwisenoted.
10ThisisnottosaythatJohndidnothavetheoptionorabilitytoedit,revise,orevenexpoundonnotes
(bothmentalandphysical)thathemayhavecompiledthroughouthisvisionaryexperiencesatalatertime.Inthe
narrativeitself,however,Johnpresentsthematerialasifheisexperiencingthenarrativeattheexactmomentthe
readerisexperiencingit(oratleastatthemomentofwritingit).
5 | Page
feetasthoughdead.”JohncommunicatesthestateofecstasythattheappearanceofChristcaused.11
Elsewhere,Johncommunicatestheheartwrenchingemotionofhopelessnessanddespairwhenhe
realizesthatnoonewasworthyofopeningthescrollheldintherighthandofGodonthethrone.John
writesinRevelation5:4,“Iweptandweptbecausenoonewasfoundwhowasworthytoopenthescroll
orlookinside.”12Frominsidethestory,thenarratorrevealshisinteractionwiththevisionsrecorded.
Thekeypointinthistacticofnarrativewritingistodrawupontheemotionsexperiencedbythe
authorinordertostirsimilaremotionsinthereader.AsJohnexperiencestherevelatoryvisionsinhis
writings,soalsothereaderexperiencesthevisionsaswell.Thisisapowerfulnarratingtacticthat,in
essence,guidesthereader’semotionstowardtheauthor’sintendedend.
WhataretheNarrator’sLimitations?–TheNarratorandTime
Revelationisironicinitsrelationshipwithtime.Whilethepreviousanalysishasshownthatthe
narratoriscommunicatingwhathehasexperienced,themomentinwhichJohnexperiencesthevision
cannotalwaysbeidentifiedonatimeline.EventhoughitmaybeapresentmomentforJohn,itmaynot
beapresentmomentforhistory,butrather,itmaybeamomentinthepast,presentorfuturehistory
thatJohnisexperiencingvia“beingintheSpirit.”13Forexample,inJohn’spresentmoment,he
experiencedthevisioninRevelation12.ThisvisioniswidelyacceptedtobecommunicatingtheChrist‐
event14withtheproverbial“veil”pulledbackfortheaudiencetoseewhatwasgoingonbehindthe
11ItisintriguingtoparalleltheexperiencethatJohnhadontheMountofTransfigurationwiththis
experienceinRevelation1:9ff.ThelanguageinMatthew17:1‐8,Mark9:2‐8,andLuke9:28‐36havestriking
parallelstothisexperienceinRevelation1.
12SeealsoJohn’semotionsofconfusionandawewhenherecordshistwo“lapses”describedwithhis
attemptstoworshiptherevelatoryangelsinRevelation19:9‐10and22:8‐9.
13Rev.1:10;4:2;17:3;21:10.
14The“Christ‐event”isdefinedasthetotalityoftheministryofJesusonearth.Inotherwords,itisabrief
waytorefertoJesus’birth,life,death,resurrection,andascension.
6 | Page
scenes.15WhilethisisapresentmomentforJohn,itisaneventthatoccurredinthepastthatheis
experiencinganew–John,thenarrator,isnotboundbytimeinthenarrative.
Anotherexampleofthispresentmomentexperienceofvisionsfromadifferentpointonthe
timelineisthemultipletimesinwhichthenarratordescribeshispresentexperienceoftheendofthe
world.16Ineachofthesevisions,Johnisseeingtheendoftheworld,whichisclearlyinthefuture,asa
presentexperience.Whileeachoftherecordedeventsisdonewithadifferentintentandpurpose
dependingontheangle,eachoftherecapitulations17isaclearindicatorthattheauthorisnotboundby
time.Instead,hispresentvisionsaregivingacommentaryonallmomentsoftime,past,presentand
future.
WhataretheNarrator’sLimitations?–TheNarratorandSpace
AkeycharacteristicofJohn’srevelationisthecontinuousprogressionfromvariouslocalesand
realms.Thisdoesnotmeanthattheauthorisomnipresentinthenarrative;instead,itpointstothefact
thatallspacehasthepossibilityofbeingvisitedatamoment’snoticewithoutany“real‐time”travel.In
Revelation4:1‐2,JohnistransportedfromtheislandofPatmosintothethroneroomofGodinheaven
intheblinkofaneye.Fromthisheavenlyperspective,thenarratorisabletodescribetheeventsin
heavenreferringtothethroneroomofGod,therevelationoftheLamb,andthejudgments
implementedbythescrolls–inheaven,Johnisnotlimitedbyspace.Similarly,Revelation10‐11:14
showsthatJohnisnotlimitedbyspaceonearth.Revelation10seemstooccurfromtheislandof
Patmosinanetherealencounterwithamagnificentangel,butRevelation11appearstobetakingplace,
15SeeR.Lowery,“ChristmasonPatmos,”TheChristianStandard(19December2004):14‐15.
16Rev.6:12‐17;11:15‐19;16:17‐21;19:11‐21;20:7‐10,11‐15.
17Recapitulationisdefinedastherepetitionofthesameeventfromadifferentperspectivewitha
differentpurposeoftentimesinvolvingintensification.Thecolloquialtermfor“recapitulation”istheabbreviated
“recap”thatisoftentimesassociatedwithanewsorsportscastinwhichtheanchorretellsthestoriesalreadytold
withadifferentperspective(brevityvs.detailed)withadifferentpurpose(explanationvs.reminder).Seepp.10‐
11belowformorediscussionon“recapitulation.”
7 | Page
atleastatpoints,inthecityofJerusalem18withthenarratormysticallyinthemidstofthetwo
witnesses.Thisdoesnotprevent,however,thenarratorfromimmediatelybeingtakentoheavento
communicateanothervisioninRevelation11:15‐19.Spacedoesnotbindthenarratorinthestory.
Furthermore,itisimportanttonotethatthisblurringof“space”boundariesisnotconfinedtoa
particularrealm(heavenorearth).Asseenintheexamplesabove,Johnalsoexperiencestranslation
fromheaventoearththroughoutthenarrative.Inthesequenceofvisionsinchapters15‐18,Revelation
15and16arevisionsthatseemtohavetheauthorlocatedintheheavenlyrealmobservingtheangels
pouringouttheirbowlsinjudgmentontheearth.19Revelation17,however,immediatelytranslates
Johntotheearthinordertoseeandhaveinterpretedthevisionofthewhoreridingonthebeastand
sittingonthesevenhillsfollowedbythelamentationsofthefuneraldirgeforBabylonbytheorphaned
merchantsuponitsdestruction.Thepointinallofthisanalysisistoshowthattheauthorisnotbound
bythenormalconstraintsofspace–onearth,inheaven,oranywhereinbetween.Johnisableto
transferfromlocationtolocationandrealmtorealmwithrelativelynodifficulty.Therefore,the
narratorisnotboundbyspaceinhiscommunicationofthenarrative.Hislimitationsasahumanare
supersededbythenecessitiesofthenarrativetocommunicateitsmeaning.
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandInterpretativeKeys
UnderstandingthatJohn’sapocalypseisheavilyladenwithsymboliclanguage,20itisimportant
tonotethatthenarratorwilloccasionallybreakoutofthenarrativeinamomentofsymbol
18SeeRev.11:8foraveiledreference,albeitnegative,tothecityofJerusalem.
19Thisisprobablytoemphasizethejudgmentonthecorruptionofthehumansystemofcommerce,
sexualindulgences,etc.
20Whilethisisdebatedbysometheologians,aliterarycritichasnoproblemadmittingJohn’suseof
symbolsinhisrevelation.Thegenreofapocalypticliterature,acommongenreofliteratureinthefirsttwo
centuriesB.C.andA.D.,hasasoneofitsprimarycomponentstheuseofsymbolismtocommunicatemessagesthat
exceedtheabilityofhumanlanguage.Infact,Revelation1:1(contratheNIV)states,“and[God]sentandsignified
[theRevelationofJesusChrist]byhisangeluntohisservantJohn.”(KJV)Theword“signified”isagoodtranslation
oftheGreekword(ἐσήμανεν)meaning“tomakeknownthroughsymbols.”Forathoroughdiscussionofthisissue
8 | Page
interpretationtotheaudienceofthestory.Forexample,afterthedescriptionofthedestructionof
BabyloninRevelation18,JohnbeginsRevelation19withheavenlypsalmspraisingGodforhisjudgment.
ThepraiseisbuildingbecausethisjudgmenthascommencedtheweddingfeastoftheLamb.Theseer
writesinRevelation19:6‐8:
ThenIheardwhatsoundedlikeagreatmultitude,liketheroarofrushingwatersand
likepealsofthunder,shouting:‘Hallelujah!ForourLordGodAlmightyreigns.Letus
rejoiceandbegladandgivehimglory!FortheweddingoftheLambhascome,andhis
bridehasmadeherselfready.Finelinen,brightandclean,wasgivenhertowear.’
Attheveryendofthishymn,Johnprovidesanasidetohisaudiencetointerpretthekeysymbolinthe
endofthepsalmthatmaynothavebeenclear.Hewrites,“Finelinenstandsfortherighteousactsof
thesaints.”Thisfunctionsasaclearinterpretationofthesymbolcommunicatedsothattheaudience
willnotmissthefunctionofthelanguageused.21
Similarly,Johnusesaninterpretativeasideinthenarrativetodefinetheidentityofthedragon
inRevelation12.Thepassagestartsoffwiththedescriptionofanother“sign”22inheaven,whichthis
timeappearstobeamajesticwomanclothedinthesunwhoisabouttogivebirthtotheChristchild.23
Immediatelyafterherintroduction,Johndescribestheappearanceofagrotesquereddragonwhois
bentondevouringthechildatbirth.Instead,Goddeliversthechildandthewomantoplacesof
protection,whichpromptsthedragontowagewarinheaven.Duringthisbattlewiththedragon,
Michael,andtheirangels,thenarratorreports,“Thegreatdragonwashurleddown—thatancient
seeRobertLowery,Revelation’sRhapsody:ListeningtotheLyricsoftheLamb–HowtoReadtheBookof
Revelation(Joplin,MO:CollegePress,2006):67‐81.
21Cf.Rev.1:20whereavariationofthis“aside”techniqueisusedbyJesus.HereJesusinterpretsthe
symbolsofthestarsandthelampstandsforJohn’saudiencelikeJohninterpretssymbolselsewhere.
22SamewordusedinRevelation1:1for“signified.”
23Theidentityofthechildbecomesapparentinverse5whenJohndescribesthechildasone“whowill
rulethenationswithanironscepter.”ThisreferenceisanallusiontotheOldTestamentpassageinPsalm2:9.
ThispsalmhasbeenconsideredbybothJewishandChristianscholarsaliketobereferringtotheMessiah’s
exaltationtopower.Asaresult,the“rulerwiththeironscepter”isidentifiedastheMessiah–whomthe
ChristiansidentifyasJesus.
9 | Page
serpentcalledthedevil,orSatan…”(v.9).ThisshortasidemakescleartoJohn’saudiencethemessage
beingcommunicatedinthetextbyspecificallyidentifyingthekeycharactersymbolizedbythedragon–
Satan.Thisuseofinterpretativeexplanationsallowstheauthorthroughthenarratortoinsurethathis
audienceunderstandsthemessagebeingcommunicatedinthenarrative.Whileitdoes,attimes,break
theflowoftheliterature,theimportanceoftheclearcommunicationbetweentheauthorandreader
(viathenarrator)isofparamountimportance.24
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandPrivilegedInformation
Oneauthorwrites,“Thedivulgingandwithholdingofknowledgeenable[s]the…narratorto
guidewhatthereadersknowandwhentheylearnit.Bysodoing,thenarratorshapesthereaders’
readinesstoembracethisstory.”25Johnutilizesthistacticthroughouttheentirenarrative.Revelation
10,withtheseventhunders,hasalreadybeenmentionedregardingtheobviousconcealingof
informationbythenarrator,butamoresubtleformofthisdivulgenceofinformationcomesinchapters
12‐20.Inchapter12,Johnintroducesthekeyantagonistinthestory,Satan.Whilethischaracterhas
alreadybeenalludedtointheopeningchapters(Rev.2:9,13,24;3:9),thiskeyadversaryisnotformally
introducedtotheaudienceuntilthetwelfthchapter,whereheappearsasadragontryingtodestroythe
workingsofGodthroughouthistory.ThisleadstotheappearanceofthetwobeastsofRevelation13
andBabylonitselfinRevelation14:8.Thisprogressionofrevelationisthenarrator’swayofdivulging
theintendedinformationtotheaudienceinamannerthatpreparestheaudienceforaclimactic
momentofinteractionbetweenthekeyantagonistsandthekeyprotagonists.
24Infact,theGospelofJohnutilizesthisspecificnarrativetactictoexplaincertainelementstothereader
thatmaynotbeknownduetoculturaldifferencesorlackofinformation.IntheGospelofJohn,however,the
narratorisnotacharacterinthestory(althoughheisseenasthe“beloveddisciple”),butinsteadheisthe
omniscientnarratingforcethatdescribesalleventspertinenttothestory(eventhethoughtsofsome)–often
timesutilizingtheinterpretativeaside.SeeJohn1:38,41,42;3:24;4:8,9,25,44;6:1,71;11:16;14:22;18:10;
19:13,17;20:9,16,24;21:2,20.
25DavidRhoads,JoannaDewey,andDonaldMichie,MarkasStory:AnIntroductiontotheNarrativeofa
Gospel(Minneapolis:FortressPress,1999):43.
10 | Page
Asaresult,weseeinachiasticstructure26thesekeyantagonists(Satan,Beasts,Babylon)
destroyedbythekeyprotagonists(theTrinity)beginningwithBabyloninchapter18.Followingthis,the
twobeastsaredestroyedattheendofchapter19bytherideronthewhitehorse,Christ.Finally,the
climacticmomentofthedestructionofSatanoccursinRevelation20:7‐10byGod.27Thisintroduction
anddestructionofthekeyantagonistsisasubtlewayforthenarratortorevealtheenemiesofGod
(whichwouldbetheenemiesoftheaudienceaswell)andthendramaticallyshowhowGodwill
eliminateeachoftheminhisowntime.Thisstrategyofrevealingprivilegedinformationcreatesadeep
relationshipoftrustbetweentheaudienceandthenarrator.
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandRecapitulation
Thekeystructuraltacticusedbytheauthortocommunicatehismessagethroughthenarratoris
recapitulation.Thisistheartofrepetitionthatfocusesonretellingthesameeventfromadifferent
perspectivewithadifferentpurposeoftentimesinvolvingintensification.Themostblatantexampleof
thistacticinthebookofRevelationisfoundintheseals,trumpets,andbowls.Whileitistruethateach
ofthesevenactsofjudgmenttakesthereadertotheendoftheworld(cf.Rev.6:12‐17;11:15‐19;
16:17‐21),thereisadifferentperspectiveandpurposecommunicatedineachrevolution—aswellas
intensificationinthedestructionimplemented.28
26A“chiasticstructure”isaliterarydevice,commonlyfoundinJewishliterature,whereacomplex
parallelismisconstructedtoemphasisthecentralpoint–likethetipofanarrow.Atypicalchiasticstructurecan
bediagrammedasfollows:A–B–C–C`–B`–A`.Inthisdiagram,thefirstpointorphrase(symbolizedbyA)
parallelsthelastpointorphrase(symbolizedbyA`),thesecondpointorphrase(symbolizedbyB)parallelsthe
secondtolastpointorphrase(symbolizedbyB`)—andsoon.Thecentralpointorphraseisthekeyemphasis
intendedbythis“chiasticstructure”.Intheaboveexample,thereisemphasisbeingputonthedestructionof
Babylon,whichwouldhavebeenthemorevisiblethreattotheChristiansinfirstcenturyAsiaMinor.
27 Ironically,abattleisanticipatedbythereaderbetweenthekeyantagonistsandthekeyprotagonists,
butsuchabattleneveroccurs(cf.Rev.16:16ff.;19:19‐21;20:7‐10).Thepurposeofthisprogressionistocreate
dramatictensionandengagetheaudienceonadeeperlevelthanmerecommunicationofaparticulartruth.
Instead,theauthorallowstheaudiencetoexperiencethedemiseoftheantagoniststhathavewreakedhavocon
God’splanthroughoutthelasthalfofthebook,onlytorealizethattheywerefulfillingGod’splanthewholetime.
Seepp.41‐43belowformoreinformation.
28Sealsdestroy1/4,thetrumpetsdestroy1/3,andthebowlsdestroy100%.
11 | Page
AnotherexampleofrecapitulationinthebookofRevelationisfoundinthebattleattheendof
timedescribedinchapters16,19,and20.29Allthreeofthesedescriptionscomeinthecontextofthe
finaljudgment,butthejudgmentitselfisfocusedonthreedifferentkeyelements.Whilechapter16
focusesonthejudgmentofcorrupthumanityandchapter19focusesonthedestructionofthetwo
beasts,chapter20describesthejudgmentofSatan.Afewreasonsforseeingthesebattlesas
recapitulatedwillhelpclarifythisconnection.Asalreadymentioned,allthreeeventsareinthecontext
ofthefinaljudgmentoftheworld.Furthermore,inallthreechapters,anevilarmyisgatheredinorder
tomakewaragainstGod.Likewise,inallthreechapters,theevilarmynevertouchesthearmyofGod
becauseGoddestroysallofthembeforeabattleevencommences.Asaresult,inallthreechapters,the
battleturnsintoanexecution.
Understandingthatrepetitionisthemasterteacher,theauthorthroughthenarrator,
recapitulatescertaineventsfromdifferentperspectiveswithintensificationinordertoestablishthekey
elementofhisrevelation:God’ssovereigntythroughouttheeventsofhistory—past,presentandfuture.
Thisliterarystyleofrecapitulationwouldallowtheaudienceshearingthismessagereadaloud(Rev.1:3;
22:18)toengageinthevividpicturesthatJohnreveals,andtoembracerepeatedlythetruthsthatheis
communicatingtothem.30
29 TheemphasisonthedefinitearticleinthebattleisduetothefactthatRev.16:14;19:19;and20:8,this
battleisreferredtoas τὸν πόλεμον,or“THEbattle.”
30ManywillobjecttorecapitulationinthebookofRevelation,butacommonlyoverlookedfactisthat
recapitulationisusedrepeatedlythroughouttheScriptures.Genesis2isarecapitulationofthecreationaccount
inGenesis1.InGenesis41,Pharaoh’sseconddreamisarecapitulationofthefirstdream(esp.vs.26).Daniel2
recordsNebuchadnezzar’sdreamofthefourkingdomsinthegiantstatueofmetal,whichisrecapitulatedina
dreamtoDanielinhisdreamoffourkingdomsintheformoffourbeasts.Thefourgospelsthemselvesare
examplesofrecapitulationofthelifeofJesusfromfourdifferentperspectives(Matthew,Mark,LukeandJohn)
withfourdifferentpurposes(Matthew=toshowJesusasking;Mark=toshowJesusasslave;Luke=toshowJesus
asman;John=toshowJesusasGod).
12 | Page
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandOldTestamentAllusions
Inthe404versesofthebookofRevelation,ithasbeenestimatedthattheauthorusesover500
allusionstotheOldTestament.31WhiletheauthorneverformulaicallyintroducesanOldTestament
quotation(i.e.,“Asitiswritten…”),JohnclearlyreferstotheOldTestamentconsistentlythroughoutthe
apocalypse.Usingtheseallusions,Johncommunicatesdeeperrealitiesthatarepresentthroughout
salvationhistorythatGodhasrevealedtohispeople.Forexample,inRevelation1,Johnseesavisionof
theglorifiedChristontheislandofPatmos.Inthenarrator’sdescriptionofthisevent,hedescribes
seeingJesusas“someonelikeasonofman,dressedinarobereachingdowntohisfeetandwitha
goldensasharoundhischest.Hisheadandhairwerewhitelikewool,aswhiteassnow,andhiseyes
likeblazingfire.”32WhilethereareseveralpossibleallusionstotheOldTestamentinthesetwoverses,a
clearallusionistothevisionseenbytheprophetDanielinDaniel7.
InDaniel7:9and13,theprophetdescribeshisheavenlyvisionwhenhewrites,“AsIlooked,
thronesweresetinplace,andtheAncientofDaystookhisseat.Hisclothingwasaswhiteassnow;the
haironhisheadwaswhitelikewool…andtherebeforemewasonelikeasonofman.”Immediately,
oneisabletoseethelinguisticparallelsbetweenthepassageinRevelation1andDaniel7.Specifically,
thedistinctionof“onelikethesonofman”isfoundinbothpassages,whichisnotaverycommon
phrasethroughoutantiquity.Furthermore,thedescriptionofsomeonewithwhiteclothesandhairas
whiteaswoolisfoundinbothpassages,therebystrengtheningtheconnection.Nevertheless,thereis
atleastonekeydifferencebetweenthepassages.InDaniel7,theonewithhairwhitelikewoolisthe
“AncientofDays”whoissittingonthethrone.The“AncientofDays”ismerelyacircumlocution,or
roundaboutreference,for“God”or“Yahweh.”InRevelation1,however,Jesusistheonewhohashair
31SeeLowery,Revelation’s,pp.175‐197foraverse‐by‐verseparallelbetweenRevelationandnumerous
OldTestamentpassages.
32Revelation1:13‐14.
13 | Page
whitelikewool.JohnissayingthatJesusis,infact,God,whichisnothingshortofblasphemousifitis
nottrue.
OldTestamentallusionsareconstantlyscatteredthroughoutthetextandfunctiontoelicit
powerfulimagesofGod’sactivitythroughouthistoryand,mostrecently,throughJesusChrist.33
UnderstandingtheOldTestamentpassagesbehindtherevelationwillprovetobethekeyto
understandingthemeaningandpurposeformanyofJohn’ssymbolsandmessagesintheapocalypse.
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandNumerology
Apervasiveliterarydeviceusedbythenarratorisknownasnumerology.Numerologyisthe
practiceofusingnumbersassymbolsinsteadofmereunitsofmeasurement.Withaplethoraof
numbersappearingthroughoutRevelation,34John’sgenre(loadedwithsymboliclanguage)cautionsthe
readertoweighthenumbersinsteadofmeasuringthem.
Whatdoesthismean?Whenwecomeacrossnumbersinourwestern,post‐Enlightmentworld,
weimmediatelymeasurethenumbers.Forexample,9/11arenumbersthatareusedtoidentifya
specificmonthanddayforagivenyear.Thesenumbers,however,havetransformedinAmericato
somethingthatgoesbeyondmeasurementandintotherealmof“weighing”thenumbersduetothe
eventsattheWorldTradeCenterin2001.Nowtosuggestthat9/11merelymeasuresadateanddoes
notgiveaweighttosociologicaleventsasasymbolofsufferingistodenigratethemeaningofthe
numbersaltogether.Likewise,theaudienceofRevelation,duetothegenreandthecommonpractice
ofnumerology,wouldfirstweighthenumbersbeforeeverthinkingofmeasuringthem.Evenwiththe
mostpopularnumbersquotedfromthebookofRevelation(7,144,000,666,1,000,etc.),thereisnota
33SeeHebrews1:1ff.
34RevelationhasthemostoccurrencesintheBibleoftheuseofnumbersoutsideofthebookof
Numbers.
14 | Page
singlenumberinthebookofRevelationthatdoesnottakeonasymbolicmeaningonsomelevelof
communication.35
AgoodexampleofthemistakeintakingthenumbersusedinRevelationliterallyisfoundinthe
interpretationofRevelation7bytheJehovah’sWitnesses.Fromthistext,theJehovah’sWitnesses
claimthattheBibleteachesthattherewillonlybe144,000peopleallowedintherealmofheavenwith
God.36Aninterpretativefauxpasoccurswhenthisnumberismeasuredinsteadofweighed.Whenthe
OldTestamentbackgroundisallowedtointerpretthetext,thenumber12isseentosymbolize
completeness.37When12(completeness)ismultipliedby12(completeness),wereceive144,whichin
numerologywouldsymbolize“completecompleteness”.Inordertoget144,000,Johnmultipliesthe
completecompletenessby1,000,whichissymbolizedofavastnumberofcompletenessandis
commonlyassociatedwithGod’svastsovereignty.38Fromthisperspectivethen,thenumber144,000
symbolizesthecompletecompletenessofGod’speopleunderthedirectionandsovereigntyofGodin
historythatwillultimatelyenjoyGodintheconsummationofhistorybutalsoalreadyenjoysGod’sreign
onearthpresently.
Numbers,then,areusedbytheauthortocommunicaterealitiesandtruthsonanemotionaland
symboliclevel,whichallowshismessagetotranscendourlanguage.Furthermore,thisaddstothe
35OftentimespeoplewillobjecttothisassertionbysayingthatthesevenchurchesinRevelationareonly
aliteralnumberofchurchesthattheletterwaswrittentoo(cf.Dispensationalistswhotakethesesevenchurches
assevendispensationsinthechurch).However,fromthemessagescommunicatedandtheusageofthenumber7
throughouttheOldTestament,Jewishliterature,andtheapocalypseitself,itwouldbesafetoconcludethata
symbolicmessageispresentinthisliteralnumber7ofthesevenchurchesaswell.Itcanbesaidthatthenumber7
forthechurchespointstothefactthatthemessages,warnings,andimperativesareforthe7individualchurches
aswellastotheuniversalchurchasawhole.
36SeeTowerWatchMinistries,“TheJehovah’sWitnessVersionofthe144,000,”The144,000(September
28,2008)http://www.towerwatch.com/Witnesses/statistics/partakers.htm.Inadditiontoignoringthe
numerologyofthepassage,theJehovah’sWitnessesalsomakethemistakeofassertingthatthe144,000people
areinheaven,whilethetextclearlyportraysthemasbeingonearth.
37EspeciallyinregardstoGod’speople(cf.the12tribesofIsrael,the12disciples,etc.).
38Cf.Psalm90:4and2Pet.3:8.
15 | Page
poeticmannerinwhichheisdeliveringhismessage.InsteadofthesterileassurancesofGodfoundin
manyotherwritings,theauthortapsintotheaudience’semotionalframeofreferencetocommunicate
arealitybeyondwords.39
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandForeshadowing
Theauthoralsoutilizestheelementofforeshadowinginhisliterarycompositionthroughthe
narrator.Thiselementcreatesastrongawarenessofanticipationanddramatictensionthathelp
progressthestorytowardsitsclimax.Insomesense,foreshadowingcancreatealonginginthereader
forthetensiontobealleviatedthatwascreatedbythe“potentiality”oftheforeshadow.Anelectrically
chargedforeshadowisfoundinRevelation12:10ff.Asalreadymentioned,inthischapterthekey
antagonistofthestory,Satan,isintroduced.40Inthesamechapter,Satan’sdemiseiscelebratedin
verses10ff.HeisseenasbeingdefeatedandovercomebythebloodoftheLamb.Thisreminderclues
thereaderintotherealitythatSatanisaproverbial“deadmanwalking.”Thatwhileheiscurrently
active,albeitinarestrainedmanner(i.e.,Rev.20:1‐3),ultimatelyhehasalreadylostthebattle.This
foreshadowinginRevelation12meetsitsculminationinRevelation20:7‐10whenSatanisdestroyedat
theconsummation.41
Whiletherearenumerousotherexamplesofforeshadowingintheapocalypse,theprimary
pointtoretainisthepowerinthemessageofJohnusingliterarytechniquestobuilddramatictension
39Thisissimilartothewayinwhichweattempttocommunicateouremotionstoeachotherineveryday
language.Whenwearefrustratedwithsomeone,wemaysay,“Ihavetoldyouathousandtimestoleaveme
alone!”Wasthepersontold,literally,athousandtimesto“leavemealone”?No!Thenumber1,000isnotmeant
tobemeasured…butweighed.Orbiblicallyspeaking,whenPeterasksJesusinMatthew18:20‐21,“Lord,how
manytimesshallIforgivemybrotherwhenhesinsagainstme?Uptoseventimes?”Jesusreplies,“Itellyou,not
seventimes,butseventy‐seventimes”(lit.“seventytimesseven).Soifapersonsinsagainstyoutheseventy‐
eighthtime(orfourhundredandninetyfirst),youdonothavetoforgivethem?No!Thenumberisnotmeantto
bemeasured…butweighed.
40Again,whilethisfigurehadbeenforeshadowedintheopeningchaptersofRevelation,chapter12
introduceshimblatantlyinthenarrative(Rev.2:9,13,24;3:9).
41SeeG.K.Beale,TheBookofRevelation(GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1999):991‐995forintriguingparallels
andconnectionsbetweenRevelation12and20.
16 | Page
andanticipation.Thiscanbefocusedonanegativeanticipation(destructionofevil)orapositive
anticipation(deliverancefromevil).42
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandDialogue
Oftentimes,interjectionscanbepassedoverasmerelyadistractionoralapseintheauthor’s
writing,butinRevelation,theinterjectionsoftenfunctionasinterpretativeguidestothepassagesin
theirrespectivecontexts.Agoodexampleofthisuseofdialoguetohelpprogressandinterpretthe
narrativeisfoundinRevelation6:15‐17.Thispassageconcludesthevisionofthesevensealsthat
pouredoutjudgmentontheearth.Theseerseestheconclusiontothisvisionasfollows:
Thenthekingsoftheearth,theprinces,thegenerals,therich,themighty,andevery
slaveandeveryfreemanhidincavesandamongtherocksofthemountains.They
calledtothemountainsandtherocks,“Fallonusandhideusfromthefaceofhimwho
sitsonthethroneandfromthewrathoftheLamb!Forthegreatdayoftheirwrathhas
come,andwhocanstand?”
Amidstthedescription,thetextcontainsaninterjectionfromsomeofthecharactersinthestory.Inthis
interjection,akeyquestionisposed,“Whocanstand?”WhenthewrathofGodispouredoutonthe
unrighteous,whocanstand?Whenjusticehascometoretrieveitswages,whichofthesinfulcan
stand?WhentheholyGodentersintotherealmofhumanity,whocanstand?Thisinterjectionposesa
keyquestionforallhumanity.Theanswercomesinchapter7withtheauthorsaying,“Thepeopleof
God,thefollowersoftheLamb—theChristians,willbeabletostand.”Thisinterjection,therefore,
functionsasmorethanflufforamomentarylapseoftheauthor.Itfunctionsasatoolforprompting
andrevealingtheultimatepointofthisnarrativesection.43
42Cf.theconnectionbetweenallofthepromisesinRevelation2and3andtheparallelswiththe
elementsoftheNewJerusaleminRevelation21and22.
43SeealsoRevelation16:15and21:3‐4.Somehavesuggestedthattheapparentinterludesthroughout
thetext(Revelation7;10‐11;16:15)canbeusedtointerpretthesectionsforwhichtheyareinterludes.
17 | Page
Dialogue,then,servesamuchgreaterpurposethanmerelyrecordingthecommunicative
interactionlikeastenographer.Rather,dialogueisusedbythenarratortoprompt,progressand
interpretkeymessagesthroughoutthestory.
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandParody
Throughoutthenarrative,theauthorusesasophisticatedformofironycommonlyreferredto
asparody.Aparodyisafeebleimitationofsomethingorsomeonethatcommunicatesamessageabout
eithertheonewhoisinitiatingtheparodyortheonewhomtheparodyisabout.Inadditiontothe
subtleparodiesoftheRomanEmpireinthetext,44someoftheparodiesthatcanbefoundinRevelation
includethewomaninRevelation17(thewhore)andthewomaninRevelation21(thebride),the
resurrectionofChristpicturedinRevelation1145andtheresurrectionofthebeastwoundedinthehead
inRevelation13,andthecityofBabyloninRevelation17and18andthecityofGod,theNew
Jerusalem,inRevelation21and22.
Thepurposeoftheseparodiesistoshowhowtheevilrepresentationsofthevariousgodly
realitiespaleincomparison.InthebookofRevelation,parodyistypicallyusedtoemphasizethefutility
oftheattemptsofeviltobeandfunctioninthesamemannerasthegodlyrealities.Inaddition,itisalso
usedtowarnthereadersofthepotentialforevilentitiestolookalotlikethegodlyrealities.Whilethey
maylookandactlikeGod,theyfailmiserablytodeliverthetruegoodonlyfoundinGod.
HowDoestheNarratorNarrate?–TheNarratorandParabolicNature
Whilethestudyonthisparticularelementoftheapocalypsehasnotbeengivenmuchattention
fromthescholarlycommunity,thenarratorutilizestheelementofparabletobothrevealandconceal
44Revelation4and5asparodyofImperialCult,cf.DavidAune,“TheApocalypseofJohnandGraeco‐
RomanRevelatoryMagic,”(NewTestamentStudies33(1987):481‐501.
45ThisisnottosaythatRevelation11’sprimaryintentisnottouseChrist’sactivityonearthasasymbol
forthechurch,butrather,itismerelytosaythatChristseemstobeapartofthehistoricalreferentforthis
symbol.
18 | Page
hismessagethroughouttherevelation.Johnfirstindicatesthatthiswillbearecurringtacticthroughout
hisliterarycompositioninRevelation2‐3whenherepeatsthephrase,“Hewhohasanear,lethimhear
whattheSpiritsaystothechurches.”46Thistypeoflanguageisusedinconnectionwithparables
frequentlythroughoutthegospelrecordsofJesus’parabolicteaching.47Theintentofsuchparablesisto
allowthosethatareableandwillingtohearthemessageofGodtobechallengedorencouragedbythe
words,whilethosethatdonotwantorarenotabletohearthemessageofGodtobeconfusedor
repelledbythewords.Inotherwords,theparablesandRevelationarepushingthehearerfurther
towardtheircommittedallegiances:beitGodorSatan.
Johncontinuesthisparabolicnaturethroughtheuseofriddles.InRevelation13:9‐10John
writes,“Hewhohasanear,lethimhear.Ifanyoneistogointocaptivity,intocaptivityhewillgo.If
anyoneistobekilledwiththesword,withtheswordhewillbekilled.”OrinRevelation22:11,“Lethim
whodoeswrongcontinuetodowrong;lethimwhoisvilecontinuetobevile;lethimwhodoesright
continuetodoright;andlethimwhoisholycontinuetobeholy.”Thistypeoflanguageisused
throughouttherevelationasameanstorevealandconceal.48
Summary
ThenarratorinthebookofRevelationisJohn,boththeauthorandprimecharacterinthe
narrative.Johntellsthenarrativefromwithinthestorybycommunicatingwhatheisableto“see,”
“hear,”and“touch.”Throughhisabilitiestopasseffortlesslyacrosstime,spaceandbetweenrealms,
Johnnarratestherevelationusingmultipleliterarydevicestoprogressthestorywithoutlosingthe
readerinthevisions.Bytappingintofamiliarliterarytechniquesandculturalpractices,Johnisableto
46Rev.2:7,11,17,29;3:6,13,22.
47Matt.11:15;13:9,15‐16,43;Mark4:9,23;8:18;Luke8:8;14:35.
48ItcouldbearguedthatthebookofRevelationisawholebookofparablesinthatitutilizesnarrativein
thesamemannerthatparablesareusedinthegospels.
19 | Page
challengehisaudiencetoadeepercommitment—beittowardevilorgood.Revelation,asastory,is
meanttobepolarizing.
20 | Page
Chapter2:TheSettingoftheBookofRevelation
TheSocio‐PoliticalSetting–CaughtinBetweenWorlds
Throughouttherevelation,onebecomesdistinctlyawareofthesocio‐politicalclimateasbeing
oneoftensionandconflict49.Thereareatleast95differentpassagesthatdescribeorrefertoconflicts
and/oroppositions.50Theoverwhelmingevidencepointstoasituationofturmoil.Whileitwouldbe
inaccuratetoclaimthattherewasasystematicpersecutionorimperialdecreethatspecifically
demandedtheeradicationofChristians,itwouldbeequallyinaccuratetoassumethatthesituationin
theRomanworldwasnottenseforChristians.Therewereatleastthreeagenciesofoppositionfor
ChristianstodealwithintheRomanworldthatwouldhavecontributedtotheintensityofthesituation.
First,theChristianswereblatantlyexperiencingpersecutionfromtheJewsthroughoutthe
RomanEmpire.ThisshouldcomeasnosurprisebecausetheJewshavebeentheprimaryantagonists
throughoutthewholeChristianstory.TheJewswereakeydrivingforce,utilizingRomanlegalities,in
thecrucifixionofJesus.51TheJewswereakeydrivingforceinthepersecutionoftheChristiansthatled
totheDiaspora,forthiswasthemissionofSaul.52TheJewswereakeydrivingforceinthepersecution
ofPaulandhiscompanions.53Itshouldbenosurprise,then,tofindtheJewsasakeydrivingforceof
49Conflictisdefinedas:twopeople(orkingdoms)tryingtooccupythesamespaceatthesametime.
50Thislistrecordsoppositioninamoregenericinstance,inthatevenGod’sjudgmentontheearthis
consideredopposition:Rev.1:9;2:2,3,4,5b,6,7b,9,10,11,13,14,15,16,17b,19b,20‐23,26;3:3,9,12,16;5:6,
9,12;6:2,4,6,8b,9,11,12‐17;7:2b,14b;8:5,7,8‐9,10‐11,12;9:3‐11,15‐19;11:2b,5,7,10b,13,18;12:4,7,8‐
9,12b,13,15‐16,17;13:6,7,10b,15,16‐17;14:8,9b‐11,12,13a,19‐20;16:1,2,3,4,5b,6a,6b,8‐9,10‐11,14b,
19b;17:6,14,16;18:8b,20b,21,24;19:2,15,17b‐18,19,20b‐21;20:2‐3,4a,7‐8,9b,10,15;22:18,22.19.
51Matt.12:14;21:33‐46;26:4;Mark11:18;12:1‐12;14:1;Luke19:47;20:9‐19;John5:18;7:19,25;8:37,
40.WhileitwouldbeunfairfortheJewstotakealloftheblameforthecrucifixionofChristinthattheRomans
wereinvolvedandtheScripturespointoutthatthesinsofallpeoplewereresponsibleforhisdeath,itwouldbe
irresponsibletoeradicateanyresponsibilityfromtheJewsinlightoftheoverwhelmingamountofbiblicaltexts
thatstateotherwise.
52Acts7:54‐60;8:1‐3;9:1‐6.
53Acts17:5‐9,13‐15;18:6;21:27‐36;23:1‐11,12‐22.
21 | Page
persecutioninthebookofRevelation.54ThemotivationbehindthispersecutionfromtheJewsismore
evidentwhenonerealizesthehonor/shamesociologicalsysteminplace.Namely,theexpansionofthe
ChristianswasshamingtotheJewswhoperceivedtheChristiansasablasphemousoffshootofJudaism.
Inaddition,theChristianswouldcommonlygointothesynagoguesandpreachthemessageofJesus
Christ,55whichwasashamingacttotheJewsaswell.Asaresult,theonlywaytogainbacktheirhonor
wastopersecute,kill,anderadicateallChristians,buttherewasaproblem.TheJewsdidnothavethe
authoritytokill.OnlytheRomanshadthat“privilege”,whichfunctionsasaprecursortothesecond
grouptheChristianswereinconflictwith:theImperialCult.
TheImperialCultwasthepracticeofworshippingtheemperorofRomeasagod.Oftentimes,
theImperialCultwouldbeinstitutedforanemperoronlyafterhehaddied.TheSenatewouldgather
andestablishwhetherornotthedeceasedemperorwastobeworshippedasagodornot.Thispractice
wasalteredforthefirsttimeunderthereignofCaligula(AD41‐54),wherehedemandedtobe
worshippedasagodwhilehewasstillliving.AfewoftheemperorsthatfollowedCaligulacontinued
thispractice,namelyNero(AD54‐68)andDomitian(AD81‐96).
AcceptingthetraditionaldateofthebookofRevelationasA.D.95‐96,theChristiansatthetime
oftheapocalypsewereunderthereignofDomitian.56Suetonius(A.D.69‐112)recordsthefactthat
DomitiandemandedgodlyaccoladesfromhissubjectswhenhewritesinDomitianXIII,“Withnoless
arrogancehebeganasfollowsinissuingacircularletterinthenameofhisprocurators,‘OurMasterand
ourGodbidsthatthisbedone.”57Inadditiontosacrificesofferedtotheemperorsasgods,festivals
54Rev.2:9,14,20‐24;3:9.
55Acts9:20;13:5,14,42;14:1;17:1‐2,10,17;18:4,19,26;19:8.[Notethedefinitionofconflictfrom
footnote49].
56AnImperialCulttemplededicatedtoDomitianwaserectedinthecityofEphesus,whichisthefirstcity
ofthesevencitiesaddressedinthebookofRevelation.(SeeRevelation2)
57Suetonius,vol.2,LoebClassicalLibrary,ed.ByT.E.Page,etal.andtrans.byJ.C.Rolfe.
22 | Page
celebratingtheemperorasagodwerecommonlyheldincities,andallcitizenswereexpectedto
participate.58
ThisputtheChristiansinanincrediblydifficultsituation.AkeytenettobeingaChristianwasto
worshipJesusastheonlyLordandSavior,whileRomedemandedthesameallegiance.Atthispoint,the
Christianswerefacedwithsixoptionsofresponse:Quit(curseJesusandbowbeforeRome);Lie
(worshiptheemperorinactionbutnotwiththeheart);Fight(overthrowtheoppression);Changethe
‘law’;Adjust(trytoincorporatetheEmperorworshipwiththeChristianTheology);orbefaithfuluntil
Death.ItisinthisvolatilepositionthatChristiansinAsiaMinorfoundthemselvesatthetimeofthe
compositionofthebookofRevelationbyJohn.59
InadditiontotheJewishandtheImperialCultopposition,Christianswereindirectconflictwith
Romansociety.60Ethically,theChristiansandtheRomanswereworldsapart.Inasocietythat
celebratedsexualpleasuresofallkinds(married/unmarried,homosexual/heterosexual,etc.),Christians
stoodagainstthegrainbypracticingmonogamyandfaithfulness.Inasocietythatcelebratedand
thrivedoffofwarandbloodshed,theChristiansstoodagainstthegrainbypracticingpacifism.Ina
societythatworshippedwealthandpower,Christianswerededicatedtousingtheirwealthtohelpthe
lesserbrotherandpracticingbeingaservant.Inasocietythatembracednumerousgodsexaltingonly
theemperorasthechiefgod,theChristianspracticedmonotheismandworshippedonlytheTrinityasa
god,shunningallotherallegiances.
58Thepurposeforuniversalparticipationinacitywascommonlytiedtopoliticalreasons.Oftentimes,the
ImperialCultwasmostpowerfulandpervasiveincitiesthatwerefurtherawayfromRome,likethoseinAsia
Minor.ThereasonforthisillustriousworshipinthesecitieswastoinsuretheirallegiancewiththeRoman
emperoreveniftheylivedonthefringesofRome.Thesecitiesweregrantedvariousrightsas“freecity‐states”by
theRomangovernmentinexchangefortheirundyingallegiance.TheImperialCultbecameakeywayinshowing
theirallegiancetoRome.
59RalphP.Martin,DictionaryoftheLaterNewTestament&ItsDevelopments(DownersGrove,IL:IVP,
1997):325.
60SeetheoccurrencesofPaulinPhilippi(Acts16)andEphesus(Acts19:23ff.)forkeyexamplesof
Christianconflictwithsociety.
23 | Page
ThisfinalpointistheprimarypointofcontentionwiththeChristiansandtherestofsociety.
WhilealloftheotherdifferencesmadetheRomansocietysuspiciousofthepeculiarChristianactions,61
thefinalelementofshunningalloftheothergods,eventheemperor,wasconsideredtreasonous.Ina
societythatlinksthesuccessofwarandempirewiththeworshipofthevariousgods,theChristians
wereseenasamovementthatwassabotagingthePaxRomanabyinstigatingthegodstoanger.Their
lackofparticipationintheImperialCultandothertempleworshipactivitieswasnotmerelyanactof
seclusion;itwasanactofsubversion.
Whilethefirstexplicitlysystematic,empire‐widepersecutionoftheChristiansinedictformdid
notoccuruntilthemiddleofthe3rdcenturyunderDecius,62itisclearthatfromthetimeofJesusthe
ChristianswereunderextremepressureandoppositionfromtheJews,theImperialCult,andtheRoman
societyasawhole.Thiswouldaccountfortheoverwhelmingamountofpersecutionlanguageinthe
bookofRevelationandthefocusonreinstitutingaresilienceandhopethatwouldnaturallybewaning
undersuchopposition.
TheNarrativeSetting–InterplayBetweentheCosmicandtheMundane
WhileonecouldarguethatthebookofRevelationtakesplaceontheislandofPatmosduring
thereignofDomitian,aquickreadthroughthebookwillrevealthattheislandofPatmosisleftinthe
distanceasJohnistakenonthisecstaticjourney.ThroughGod’sdivinerevelation,thebarriersbetween
heavenandearthseemtomerge,whichallowsfortheseertocommunicatehismessagefromavariety
ofsettings.
61OtheraccusationsofChristiansintheancientworldincluded:atheism–becausetheydeniedthe
legitimacyofthepantheonofgodsandonlyworshippedonegodthatcouldnotbeseenbyanyone;cannibalism–
becausetheydescribedthepracticeofeatingthefleshanddrinkingthebloodoftheirleader;incest–because
everyonecalledeachotherbrotherorsister.
62ThepersecutionofNerodoesnotfallintothiscategorybecauseitappearsthathispersecutionof
ChristianswasanisolatedeventinthecityofRomeandnottheentireempire.
24 | Page
First,itisimportanttorecognizethestrongconnectionbetweentheactivitiesofheavenandthe
activitiesofearth.Johnstressesthisconnectionintheopeningchaptersoftheapocalypseby
establishingtheconnectionbetweenthechurchesonearthwithanangelinheaven.63Eachofthe
messagestothesevenchurchesofAsiaMinorisaddressedtotherepresentativeangelforthatchurch
intheheavenlycourts.Thissetsthetonefortheblurringbetweentheboundariesofheavenandearth
thatJohncontinuouslydevelopsthroughouttherevelation.
AkeyexampleofthisconnectionisfoundinRevelation16.Inthischapter,thefinalseriesof7
judgmentsisimplementedthroughtheangelsmerelypouringoutbowlsinheaven,whichresultin
magnificentplaguesonearth.Theactionsinheavenhaveacleareffectonearth.Thismotifisa
continuationofthefirsttwoseriesof7judgments,thesealsandthetrumpets.Merelybreakingaseal
onascrollinheavenbytheLambcausedjudgmentstoreignontheearthinchapter6,whilethe
soundingoftrumpetsinheaveninchapters8and9arethecatalystsforjudgmentsontheearth.All
throughouttherevelationJohnblursthedistinctsettingsofheavenandearthintoacosmiccarousel
thattakesthereaderuptoheavenanddowntoearthasitrecapitulatesinanintensifyingspiral.
Asaresultofthisblurring,wefindJohnconstantlyshiftingfromonerealmtoanotherorone
locationtoanother.Forexample,inchapter4,Johnistakenupfromearthtoheaven.Orchapter17,
Johnistakentoearthfromheaventodescribethewhoreridingthebeast;orevenJohn’sperspectiveof
heavenmergingwithearthinRevelation21.AgoodexampleofJohn’sconstantshiftfromonerealmto
anotherisfoundinRevelation20.Atthebeginningofthechapter(vv.1‐3),Johnseesanangelcoming
downoutofheaventoearthtobindSatanandthrowhimintotheAbyss.Thefollowingverses(vv.4‐6)
revealthefateofthefaithfulbyJohngoingintotheheavenlyrealmstowitnessChristandthefaithful
ruling.64Inverses7‐10,thenarratorisshiftedbacktoearthtoshowSatan’sreleaseandfinal
63Revelation2:1,8,12,18;3:1,7,14.
25 | Page
destruction.Thissceneushersinverses11‐15thatshowthefinaljudgment,whichispresumablyin
heaven(orperhapsisamixtureofheavenandearth).
ThepointindescribingthecloseconnectionbetweenheavenandearthandJohn’scontinual
shiftbetweenthetworealmsistosuggestthatJohn’ssettinghastobedeterminedbythecontext.Itis
ashiftingsettingthatcarriesthesamethemesandfunctionsasanormalsettingwouldallow,butJohn
pushesthelimitsonaparticularsettingintoablurredpictureofheavenandearthwithminiscule
separation—adividebyonlyathinveil.
64Whilealargenumberofexegeteswillarguethatthissceneisonearth,asimplewordstudythroughout
thebookofRevelationon“throne”willshowthateverytimethewordisusedinconnectionwithGodandJesusit
islocatedinheavenandwouldbeassociatedwith“good”(thiswouldbetheonlyexception),buteverytimeitis
associatedwithSatanorhisservants,itislocatedonearthandassociatedwith“evil”(thiswouldbetheonly
exception).Itseemslogical,then,sincethetextdoesnotmentionearthasitsdwellingthatweareinheavenwith
thethroneofChristlikealloftheothertimestheword“throne”isusedinconnectionwiththepersonsofthe
Trinity.
26 | Page
Chapter3:ThePlotoftheBookofRevelation
Plot:PlottingtheConflict
Rhoads,Dewey,andMichiepointoutthatthekeytotheplotisconflict.Conflictiswhatboth
drivestheplotandrevealsthekeymessagetheplotisdrivingtowardandthrough.65Theconflictofa
plotcanbedividedupintofivecategories:conflictwithsupernatural,conflictwithnature,conflictwith
society,conflictwithotherindividuals,andconflictwithone’sself.66Revelationcontainsallfiveofthese
conflictsthatpointtowardthesamethemeandmessage:Godissovereign.
ConflictwithSupernatural
Revelationisfullofconflictwiththesupernatural.Themostblatantconflictwiththe
supernaturalisinRevelation12.Inthispassage,thedragon,orSatan,declareswaronGod’splanof
salvationbymakingwaragainstthepeopleofGod,theMessiah,heavenitself,andtheChristians.Inthe
middleofthedescriptionofthissupernaturalconflict,JohninsertsahymnthatdeclaresGod’svictory
andsovereigntyoverthissupernaturalforcebecauseofthebloodoftheLamb(Rev.12:11).
Furthermore,inalloftheattemptedconflictsbySatan,God’ssovereigntydestroysSatan’sattemptsto
ruinGod’ssalvificplan.Intheend,God,inhissovereignty,destroysSataninRevelation20:7‐10.
ConflictwithNature
God’ssovereigntyisalsomanifestedintheconflictwithnature.Theseals,trumpetsandbowls
allcontainkeyelementsofjudgmentoncreation.Inaddition,attheendofalltheseals,trumpetsand
bowls,Johnwritesthattherecame“flashesoflightning,rumblings,pealsofthunder.”67Onthesurface,
thisliteraryparalleldoesnotseemtohavemuchsignificance,butthekeytounderstandingthemeaning
ofthisphraseisfoundinRevelation4:5,“Fromthethronecameflashesoflightning,rumblings,and
65Rhoads,pg.77ff.
66Ibid.,77.
67SeeRevelation8:5;11:19;16:18.Whiletherearesomevariationsonthisformulaineachofthethree
passages,theseelementsarepresentinallthree.
27 | Page
pealsofthunder.”Inotherwords,allofthejudgmentsinflictedbytheseals,trumpetsandbowlswere
stampedwiththeapprovalofGodonhisthronethroughtherecurringphrase“flashesoflightning,
rumblings,pealsofthunder.”Godisexertinghissovereigntyovercreation,whichisinconflictwith
him—specificallyduetotheeffectsofthe“fall”inGenesis3.68
ConflictwithSociety
Asnotedabove,theChristiansinthefirstcenturywereinclearconflictwithRomansociety,and
Revelation17and18showsthatGodhimselfwasinconflictwithRomansociety.Thelongest
descriptionofanyofthejudgmentsinRevelationisreservedforthejudgmentoftheRomansocietyin
thesetwochapters.NotevenSatanisallottedasmuchtimeasthisjudgment(cf.Rev.20:7‐10).In
thesechapters,Godpowerfullycondemnsthesociety’sobsessionwithperversionand
commerce/materialism.God’szealagainstsuchabominationscanbeseeninJesus’reactiontothe
churchofLaodicea(3:14‐22),oreveninRevelation18withtherecurringphrase“Inonehour…”(18:10,
17,19).ThisphraseemphasizesthemagnitudeofGod’ssovereigntytojudgethosethatopposehim,no
matterhowgreatorpowerfultheoppositionmayappear.ThesechaptersemphasizeGod’ssovereignty
overRomansociety.
ConflictwithIndividuals
TheconflictbetweenGodandindividualsisdisplayedinatleasttwocategories:conflictwiththe
individualsoftheworldandconflictwithindividualChristianswhocompromisewiththeworld.
Revelation6:15‐17keenlypicturesGod’sconflictwithindividualsoftheworld,inwhichtheworldly
individuals,ironically,revealGod’ssovereignty:
Thenthekingsoftheearth,theprinces,thegenerals,therich,themighty,andevery
slaveandeveryfreemanhidincavesandamongtherocksofthemountains.They
calledtothemountainsandtherocks,“Fallonusandhideusfromthefaceofhimwho
sitsonthethroneandfromthewrathoftheLamb!Forthegreatdayoftheirwrathhas
come,andwhocanstand?
68SeeRomans8:19‐22andRevelation20:11b.
28 | Page
TheproclamationbytheworldlyindividualswhohavelivedtheirlivesinconflictwithGodisquitetelling
ofhowpowerfulGod’ssovereigntyinthisconflicttrulyis.
Inaddition,Revelation2and3makeitquiteclearthatGoddemandsunadulteratedallegiance
tohiskingdombyreprimandingthedeviantsinthesevenchurchesofAsiaMinorandcommandingtheir
repentance.ThefateoftheindividualChristiansthatcompromiseismadeclearinRevelation14:9b‐12:
Ifanyoneworshipsthebeastandhisimageandreceiveshismarkonhisforeheadoron
thehand,he,too,willdrinkofthewineofGod’sfury,whichhasbeenpouredfull
strengthintothecupofhiswrath.Hewillbetormentedwithburningsulfurinthe
presenceoftheholyangelsandoftheLamb.Andthesmokeoftheirtormentrisesfor
everandever.Thereisnorestdayornightforthosewhoworshipthebeastandhis
image,orforanyonewhoreceivesthemarkofhisname.Thiscallsforpatient
enduranceonthepartofthesaintswhoobeyGod’scommandmentsandremainfaithful
toJesus.
ConflictwithOne’sSelf
Theonlyrealconflictwithone’sselffoundinthebookofRevelationisdonebythenarrator
himselftwotimes,bothofwhichemphasizethesametheme:God’ssovereignty.InRevelation19:10
and22:8‐9Johnentersintoaconflictwithhimselfwhenheattemptstoworshiptheangelthatis
revealingthevisionstohim.Clearly,JohnisamanthatisdedicatedtoGod,butinthemomentsof
revelation,hebecomessooverwhelmedthathebeginstoworshipsomethingotherthanGod.The
angelcorrectlyrebukesJohninbothinstancesandexclaimsthatheismerelyaservanttothesovereign
God.ThethemeonceagainsurfacesofGod’ssovereignty,butinthefinalpassage(22:8‐9)thereaction
tothisthemeiscommanded:“WorshipGod!”
29 | Page
Chapter4:TheCharactersoftheBookofRevelation
DifficultiesinCharacterization
ThecharacterizationinthebookofRevelationhasproventobequitedifficulttoestablishfor
severalreasons.First,theshearvolumeoftheamountofcharacterscancompetewithanynovelinits
propensity.69Second,minorcharactersatthebeginningofthebookwillsurfacelaterinthebookina
completelydifferentmannerforacompletelydifferentpurpose.Forexample,angelshaveaprominent
functionthroughoutallphasesoftherevelation,buttheiractionsdifferdrasticallyfromvisionto
vision.70InRevelation16:1‐20,sevenangelsaregivenbowlstopouroutjudgmentonthecorrupt
actionsofhumanity.InRevelation21:9,however,Johnwrites,“Oneofthesevenangelswhohadthe
sevenbowlsfullofthesevenlastplaguescameandsaidtome,‘Come,Iwillshowyouthebride,the
wifeoftheLamb’.”Inthisscene,whileitreferstohispreviousappearance,theangelhastotally
changedhispurposefromanagentofjudgmenttoanagentofrevelation.
Third,themajorcharactersseemtogothroughvariousrecapitulationseachtimethatthey
appear.AkeyexampleofthisdifficultyisfoundintheappearancesofJesusthroughouttherevelation.
InRevelation1:9‐20,JesusappearsastheglorifiedChristinallofhisheavenlysplendor,butin
Revelation5:6ff.Jesusappearsasaslainlamb.InRevelation14:14,Jesuspossiblyappearsasa
harvesterofthesoulsoftheearth,butinRevelation19:11ff.Jesusappearsasadivinewarrior.The
complexity,then,ofestablishingthecharacter’sdefinitionvariesthroughouttheentirebook.
69D.L.Barr,TalesoftheEnd:ANarrativeCommentaryontheBookofRevelation(SantaRosa,CA:
PolebridgePress,1998):181‐183,Appendix.
70DescriptionofAngelsinRevelation–Messengerforthe7churches(2;3);Deliverersofthejudgmentsin
the7trumpets(8‐9);Deliverersofthejudgmentsinthe7bowls(15‐16);RepresentativesbeforeGod(1:20;2:1,8,
12,18;3:7,14);God’sRestrainers(7:1;20:1);ResidentsofHeaven(3:5;7:11;14:10;21:12);God’sMeasurer
(21:15,17);Messengers(1:1;5:2,11;7:2;10:1,5,8,9,10;11:15;14:6,8,9,15;17:1,3,7,15;18:1;19:9,17;21:9;
22:1,6[2x],8,16);God’sAgents/WeaponsofWar/Judgment(7:2;8:2,5,6,7,8,10,12,13;9:1,11,13,14[2x],15;
10:7;12:7;14:17,18,19;15:1,6,7,8;16:1,2,3,4,8,10,12,17;17:1;18:21;20:1;21:9);Satan’sAgentstowage
War(12:7,9);ActionsoftheAngelsinRevelation–WorshippingGod(7:11;8:3,4;16:5);God’sAgents/Weaponsof
War/Judgment(7:2;8:2,5,6,7,8,10,12,13;9:1,11,13,14[2x],15;10:7;12:7;14:17,18,19;15:1,6,7,8;16:1,2,
3,4,8,10,12,17;17:1;18:21;20:1;21:9);Fightssupernaturalentities(12;20);Deliversmessages(2;3;10;19;
22);ActsasTourGuide(17).
30 | Page
Fourth,theprominentcharactersvaryfromvisiontovisionthroughouttherevelation.Eventhe
more“significant”charactersdonotseemtoholdthestageforextendedperiodsoftime.Forexample,
theprominentcharacterinchapter4istheoneseatedonthethrone,whileinchapter5theLambstarts
totakeovertheleadrole,butinchapter6itisavacillatingexchangeofkeycharactersinregardstothe
executionofthejudgment(i.e.,thefourdifferenthorsemen,themartyrsunderthethrone,etc.),with
theLambasthebackgroundinstigatorofeachofthejudgments.However,inchapter8,theLambfalls
outoffocus,andthevisionsaredrivenbycharactersthatinmostcaseswouldbeperceivedas
peripheral—specifically,demoniclocusts,angels,eagles,andothers.
TheTwoSetsofTrinities:SimplifyingCharacterIssues
Asaresult,aconsolidationofthecharacterswouldbehelpfulinunderstandingsomeofthe
majordrivingforces,bothexplicitlyandimplicitly,throughouttheentirenarrative.Thetwomain
categoriescanbesplitinto:theHolyTrinityandtheUnholyTrinity.TheHolyTrinity,obviously,consists
ofJesus,GodandtheHolySpirit.JesusshowsupastheGlorifiedSaviorinRevelation1:9‐20andactsas
thevoicethatdictatesthemessagestothesevenchurchesofAsiaMinorinchapters2‐3.Afterthis
initialprominence,JesusdisappearsfromthescenetobereplacedbytheappearanceofGod,ortheone
sittingonthethrone,inRevelation4.Godisprominentthroughoutthesceneuntilthemiddleof
chapter5,wheretheLambtakesbackovertheprimaryfocusofthenarrative(5:6).Attheopeningof
chapter6,theLambfallsbackintothebackdropandisonlymentionedincursorystatementsabout
breakingtheseals.Inchapter7,bothGodandJesusareinthebackdropofthenarrativeatbest,asthe
followersofGodtakecenterstage,onlytoendrightbackinthethroneroomofGodatthebeginningof
chapter8.Immediatelyafterthisopeningscene,GodandJesusarerightbackinthebackdropofthe
scenesuntiltheendofchapter11whereGodbecomestheclearfocusandcentralcharacterofthe
section(11:15ff.),albeitinanindirectmanner.
31 | Page
InRevelation12,theactionsofGodandChristarebothclearlyseen,butdonotplayas
prominentofaroleinthenarrativeasthedragon.Bothofthecharactersfallintothedistant
backgrounduntiltheopeningofchapter14,wheretheLambtakesfrontandcenterwhileGodismerely
mentioned.Attheendof14,Christpossiblyappearsastheharvesterofsouls,whileGodismerelyin
thebackground.71Chapter15,however,openswithGodtakingamoreprominentrolethroughoutthis
chapter,andChristshiftingintothebackground.BothGodandChristseemtotakeacursoryposition
throughoutchapters16,17,and18.Inchapter19,thenarrativeopenswithhymnstobothGodandthe
Lamb,whichisfollowedbyChristtakingthestage,frontandcenter,asthedivinewarriorin19:11ff.
Chapter20offersamixtureofChristandGodinthenarrative’simmediatebackgrounduntilverses11‐
15,whereitseemsthatGodtakesthecenterstageinthejudgmentscene.Thescenedecisivelyshiftsin
chapters21and22,wherebothGodandChristdominatethescenes,Godwithmoreprominenceatthe
beginningandChristwithmoreprominenceattheend.
TheHolySpiritisconsistentlyinthebackgroundoftheentirerevelation.Whilethethirdpartof
theTrinityismentionedexplicitlyin2:7,11,17,29;3:6,13,22;4:5;5:6;14:13;19:10;22:6,17,heis
neverseenasthecentralfigureinanygivenscene.ThisdoesnotmeanthattheSpiritisinsignificant
throughoutRevelation,butrather,itsimplyindicatesthatheisfunctioninginthebackgroundto
progressthenarrative.
TheUnholyTrinity,conversely,appearsinamuchmoresporadicfashion.WhileSatanis
referredtoinRevelation2:9,13,24and3:9,hedoesnotappearasakeycharacteruntilchapter12.In
thischapter,Satanisthekeyfigureinthesceneandportrayedasareddragon.Enteringintochapter
13,Satanbecomesapowerfulcharacterinthebackgroundonly.Heistheonethatempowerstheother
twoelementsoftheUnholyTrinitytofulfilltheirmission,butafterchapter12,Satandoesnotappearas
71TheargumentagainstthisbeingapictureofJesusisinthefactthatthe“onelikethesonofman”is
commandedbyanangel,whichcanbeabitawkwardforChristtobecommandedbyanangel.Nevertheless,“one
likethesonofman”isexclusivelyusedfortheMessiahthroughouttheBible(note:Ezekieliscalled“sonofman”,
butnot“onelikeasonofman”)—SeeDaniel7:13andRevelation1:13.
32 | Page
theprimarycharacterinavisionuntilchapter20.ThischapterdisplaystheultimatefateofSatanfrom
thelensoftheinteradventage,inwhichSatanisbound.Ultimately,Satanfindsaneternalplaceof
residenceinthelakeoffire(20:10).
ThesecondtwopartsoftheUnholyTrinityareintroducedinchapter13:thebeastfromtheland
andthebeastfromthesea.ThesetwopartsofthetrinityfunctionasSatan’sprimaryagentstocarry
outhiswillonearth,similarlytothepurposesofJesusandtheSpiritasagentsofGodtocarryouthis
willonearth.Thesetwobeastsareonlyperceivedaspuppetsinchapter13,andthentheyfalloutof
viewuntilchapter19,wheretheyaredestroyedbytheDivineWarrior.72LikeSatan,thetwobeastsare
thrownintotheLakeofFireforeternaltorment(19:20).73
Thepurposeoffocusingonthesetwogroupsasthekeycharactersofthenarrativeisfora
coupleofreasons.First,alloftheothercharactersthatappearinthisrevelationeitherflowfrom,arein
submissionto,orarecontrolledbyoneofthetwotrinitiespresented.Second,theUnholyTrinityis
consistentlypresentedasaparodyoftheTrinitythroughouttherevelation.Forexample,thebeastof
theearthisdescribedasreceivingafatalwoundtohisheadthatismiraculouslyhealed.Thisreference
isaparodyfromtheUnholyTrinityofthedeathandresurrectionofJesus.TheUnholyTrinity,andby
extensionitsfollowers,areperceivedasbeingacheapimitationofthetrueTrinityand,byextension,its
followers.Third,thekeyapplicationquestionsthatarebeingaskedbyJohn’saudiencewouldbein
directconnectiontooneofthesetwotrinities:Whoisreallysovereigninlightofthesufferingwe
experience?WhereisGod?WhyisSatansopowerful?Whyarewebeingoppressedifwearetrulythe
childrenofGod?
72Revelation17doespresenttheaudiencewiththepictureofanotherbeast,whichprobablycarriesthe
samesymbolicconnotations,riddenbythedoomedprostitute,butitisnotoneofthetwobeastsfromRevelation
13.Johndescribesthisbeastasbeingredorscarletinvs.3.Thisadditiontothenarrativeisintentionally
indicatingtothereaderthatthisisnotthesamebeastspreviouslyseen,ofwhichneitherweredescribedwiththe
colorred.Otherwise,thisdetailiscompletelyinconsequentialtothenarrative—asuperfluousdetailatbest.
73ItisimportanttonotethatoneofthebeastshasbeenchangedinitsreferencetohimhereinRev.19as
thefalseprophet.
33 | Page
ExpandingtheIssue:CharactersinRevelation
Whilethissimplifiedfocusofthetwotrinitieshelpsinouroverallanalysis,hereisalsoalistof
thefunctioningcharactersthroughoutRevelation:
• John
o Descriptions
Persecuted(1:9)
OnPatmos(1:9)
ServantofGod(1:1)
WitnesstoJesusChrist(1:9)
Witnesstothevisions(22:8)
o Actions
Prays(1:10)
Receivesvisions(1:10ff.)
• Jesus
o Descriptions
GlorifiedSavior(1:11ff.)
SlainLamb(5)
TriumphantLamb(14)
HarvesterofSouls(14:14‐20)
Onelikeasonofman(14:14)
TheChild(12)
DivineWarrior(19)
ComingKing(22:7ff.)
RulerinHeaven(20:4‐6)
o Actions
Comesinjudgment(6;12;14;19;22)
Cameinsalvation(5;7;12;14;21;22)
Demandsrepentance(2;3;22)
RevelatorofMessage(1;2;3;22)
RulesinHeaven(20:4‐6)
• God
o Descriptions
Creator(4)
Eternal(5)
EternalLight(22:5)
SovereignRuler(4;5;6;8‐9;12;14;15‐16;17;18;19;20;21‐22)
Judge(20)
Protector(7;12)
o Actions
Institutorofjudgment(6;8‐9;15‐16;20)
Makesallthingsnew(21‐22)
Judgesthedead(20:11‐15)
34 | Page
• Angels
o Description
Messengersforthe7churches(2;3)
Deliverersofthejudgmentsinthe7trumpets(8‐9)
Deliverersofthejudgmentsinthe7bowls(15‐16)
RepresentativesbeforeGod(1:20;2:1,8,12,18;3:7,14)
God’sRestrainers(7:1;20:1)
ResidentsofHeaven(3:5;7:11;14:10;21:12)
God’sMeasurer(21:15,17)
Messengers(1:1;5:2,11;7:2;10:1,5,8,9,10;11:15;14:6,8,9,15;17:1,3,7,
15;18:1;19:9,17;21:9;22:1,6[2x],8,16)
God’sAgents/WeaponsofWar/Judgment(7:2;8:2,5,6,7,8,10,12,13;9:1,11,
13,14[2x],15;10:7;12:7;14:17,18,19;15:1,6,7,8;16:1,2,3,4,8,10,12,17;
17:1;18:21;20:1;21:9)
Satan’sAgentstowageWar(12:7,9)
o Actions
WorshippingGod(7:11;8:3,4;16:5)
God’sAgents/WeaponsofWar/Judgment(7:2;8:2,5,6,7,8,10,12,13;9:1,11,
13,14[2x],15;10:7;12:7;14:17,18,19;15:1,6,7,8;16:1,2,3,4,8,10,12,17;
17:1;18:21;20:1;21:9)
Fightssupernaturalentities(12;20)
Deliversmessages(2;3;10;19;22)
ActsasTourGuide(17)
• ChristiansinEphesus
o Descriptions
Hardworkers(2:2)
Perseverant(2:2,3)
Discerning(2:2,6)
Forsakentheirfirstlove(2:4)
o Actions
Endureshardships(2:2,3)
HatestheNicolaitans(2:6)
• Nicolaitans
o Descriptions
HatedinEphesus(2:6)
HatedbyChrist(2:6)
SomefollowNicolaitansinPergamum(2:15)
o Actions
TeachafalsedoctrinethatisintendedtoleadChristiansastray(2:15)
• Spirit
o Descriptions
Speakstothechurches(2:7,11,17,29;3:6,13,22)
BeforethethroneofGod(4:5)
Sentoutintoalloftheearth(5:6)
Messenger(14:13;22:17)
35 | Page
TestimonyofJesus(19:10;22:6)
• ChristiansinSmyrna
o Descriptions
Afflicted(2:9)
Impoverished(2:9)
RichSpiritually(2:9)
SlanderedbytheJews(2:9)
o Actions
SlanderedbytheJews(2:9)
PersecutedbySatan(2:10)
Endurehardships(2:9,10)
• Jews
o Descriptions
PersecutorsofChristiansinSmyrna(2:9)
WorshipinaSynagogueofSatan(2:9;3:9)
PersecuteChristiansinPhiladelphia(3:9)
DestinedtobeinsubmissiontotheauthorityoftheChristians(3:9)
o Actions
PersecuteChristians(2:9;3:9)
Areinvolvedintheactoflying(3:9)
• ChristiansinPergamum
o Descriptions
RemaintruetoChrist’sname(2:13)
Resilientintheirfaithinthefaceofpersecutionandevendeath(2:13)
SomeholdtotheteachingofBalaam(2:14)
SomeholdtotheteachingofNicolaitans(2:15)
• Antipas
o Descriptions
WasmartyredinPergamum(2:13)
o Actions
Wasfaithfultohistestimonytothepointofdeath(2:13)
• ChristiansinThyatira
o Descriptions
Loving(2:19)
Faithful(2:19)
Servants(2:19)
Perseverant(2:19)
TolerateJezebel(2:20)
o Actions
SomehavefollowedthelicentiousnessofJezebel(2:20ff.)
Somehaverejectedherandfacedpersecution(2:24)
36 | Page
• Jezebel
o Descriptions
Claimstobeaprophetess(2:20)
MisleadsChristians(2:20)
Invitessexualimmorality(2:20)
Coercesthemintoeatingfoodsacrificedtoidols(2:20)
Adulteress(2:22)
Destinedfordestruction(2:22ff.)
o Actions
LeadsChristiansastrayinherteaching(2:20)
LeadsChristiansastraywithherunrighteousness(2:20,22)
• ChristiansinSardis
o Descriptions
Appearalive,butaredead(3:1)
AsleepSpiritually(3:2)
Somehavenotsoiledtheirclothes(3:4)
o Actions
BecomelacklusterintheirChristianity(3:1‐3)
Somehaveresistedthetemptationtobecomelackluster(3:4)
• ChristiansinPhiladelphia
o Descriptions
Littlestrength(3:8)
Perseverant(3:8)
Patientendurers(3:10)
o Actions
Resistthetemptationtocompromiseinthefaceofpersecution(3:8,10)
• ChristiansinLaodicea
o Descriptions
Neitherhotnorcold,butlukewarm(3:15‐16)
Boastofwealth(3:17)
Self‐sufficient(3:17)
Spirituallynakedanddistraught(3:17)
Spirituallyblind(3:18)
o Actions
Relyonthemselves(3:17)
Boastofwealth(3:17)
• 24Elders
o Descriptions
Seatedonthrones(4:4;11:16)
LaydowncrownsbeforeGod(4:10)
WorshipGodthroughsong(4:11;19:4)
Deliverersofmessages(5:5;7:13)
BowdowntotheLamb(5:8)
o Actions
37 | Page
Worship(5:14;11:16;19:4)
Standaroundthethrone(5:11,6;7:11)
• FourLivingCreatures
o Descriptions
Lookedlikealion,ox,man,andaneagle(4:7)
Hadsixwingsandeyesallaround(4:8)
WorshipGodthroughsong/shouts(4:8;5:14)
BowdownbeforetheLamb(5:8)
o Actions
Worship(4:9;19:4)
Encirclethethrone(5:11;7:11)
InstigatorsofJudgment(6:1,3,5,6,7;15:7)
• Fourhorseman
o Descriptions
Commandedbyoneofthefourlivingcreatures(6:1,3,5,6,7)
AgentsofDestruction(6)
o Actions
Destroytheearth,creatures,commerce,etc.(6)
• Martyrs
o Descriptions
Cryoutforjustice(6:9‐11)
ReignwithChrist(20:4‐6)
o Actions
RulerswithJesusinheaven(20:4‐6)
• People/RulersoftheWorld
o Descriptions
Kings(6:15)
Princes(6:15)
Generals(6:15)
Merchants(18)
SeaCaptains(18)
o Actions
CoweringinfearoverGodandtheLamb’swrath(6:15‐17)
LamentingoverthedestructionofBabylon(18)
• SealedPeopleofGod
o Descriptions
Seenasreigningonearth(7)
Seenasreigninginheaven(14;20)
• Locusts
o Descriptions
Lookedlikehorsespreparedforbattle(9:7)
38 | Page
Woresomethinglikecrownsofgold(9:7)
Hadfaceslikehumans(9:7)
Hadhairlikewomen’shair(9:8)
Hadteethlikelions(9:8)
Hadbreastplateslikeiron(9:9)
Hadtailslikescorpions(9:10)
o Actions
Tormentedpeopleforfivemonths(9:10)
Werereleasedfromtheabysstomakewar(9:11)
• Abaddon
o Descriptions
Kingoverthelocusts(9:11)
KingoftheAbyss(9:11)
Hisnamemeansdestroyer(9:11)
Isanangel(9:11)
o Actions
Rulesthelocusts(9:11)
RulestheAbyss(9:11)
• 2Witnesses
o Descriptions
Havepowertodestroyenemieswithfirefromtheirmouths(11:5)
Havepowertoshutuptheskyfromrain(11:6)
Prophets(11:6)
Havepowertoturnwaterintoblood(11:6)
Havepowertostriketheearthwitheverykindofevilplague(11:6)
Killedbythebeast(11:7)
Bodieslieinthestreetfor3and½days(11:8)
Raisedfromthedead(11:11)
Ascendedtoheaven(11:12)
o Actions
Tormentedtheearthwithprophecy(11:10)
• WomandescendingfromHeaven
o Descriptions
Clothedwiththesun(12:1)
Moonunderherfeet(12:1)
Crownof12starsonherhead(12:1)
Pregnantandabouttogivebirth(12:2)
ShegivesbirthtotheMessiah(12:5)
Shefleestothedesert(12:6)
Givenwingsofagreateagletofleethedragon(12:14)
Savedbytheearthfromthedragon’sattemptsatdestruction(12:15‐16)
o Actions
Givesbirth(12:5)
Fleestothedesert(12:6,15‐16)
39 | Page
• Satan
o Descriptions
TheDragon(12:9;20:2)
TheAncientSerpent(12:9;20:2)
TheDevil(12:9;20:2)
Castdowntoearth(12)
Boundbyanangel(20:1‐3)
CastintotheAbyss(20:1‐3)
Releasedtodeceivethenations(20:7‐10)
CastintoHell(20:10)
o Actions
Leadstheworldastray(12:10)
MakeswaragainstGod’splanofsalvation(12)
MakeswaragainstGod’speople(12;13)
Empowersthebeasts(13)
MakeswaragainstGod(20:7‐10)
• BeastoftheSea
o Descriptions
10hornsandsevenheads(13:1)
10crownsonhishorns(13:1)
Ablasphemousnameoneachhead(13:1)
Resembledaleopard(13:2)
Feetlikeabear(13:2)
Mouthlikealion(13:2)
Receivedthepower,throne,andauthorityfromthedragon(13:2)
Seeminglyfatalwoundishealed(13:3)
Worshippedbythepeople(13:4,8)
Givenpowertomakewarandconquerthesaints(13:7)
o Actions
Utteredproudwordsandblasphemies(13:5,6)
• BeastoftheLand/FalseProphet
o Descriptions
2hornslikealamb(13:11)
Spokelikeadragon(13:11)
Hadalloftheauthorityofthebeastfromthesea(13:12)
DestroyedbytheDivineWarriorandthrownintohell(19:21;20:10)
o Actions
Madetheearthworshipthebeastofthesea(13:12)
Performedmiraculoussigns(13:13,15)
Deceivedtheinhabitantsoftheearth(13:14)
Forcedworshipofanimageinhonorofthebeastofthesea(13:14)
Forcedthereceptionofamark(13:16,17,18)
Controlledcommerce(13:16‐17)
• TheProstitute
o Descriptions
40 | Page
Sitsonmanywaters(17:1)
Sittingonascarletbeast(17:3)
Dressedinpurpleandscarletandglitteringwithgoldandpreciousstonesand
pearls(17:4)
Heldagoldencupfilledwithatrocities(17:4)
Waslabeledonherforeheadwith:MYSTERYBABYLONTHEGREATTHEMOTHER
OFPROSTITUTESANDOFTHEABOMINATIONSOFTHEEARTH(17:5)
Drunkonthebloodofthesaints(17:6)
Shesitsonsevenhills(17:9)
Destroyedbythebeast(17:15ff.)
o Actions
Committedadulterywithkingsoftheearth(17:2)
Intoxicatedinhabitantsoftheearth(17:2)
41 | Page
Chapter5:TheReaders/HearersoftheBookofRevelation
TheRoleoftheReaders
Inunderstandingtheroleofthereaderintherevelation,itisimportanttokeepinmindthe
historicalcontextofthereaders.Thesewerepeoplethatwerebeingoppressedandseducedbytheir
society.TheywerereelingforhopeandameanstosurviveasaChristian,bothliterallyandfiguratively.
Asaresult,John’sidealreader74experiencesthestoryfirsthand,whichisintendedtoproducethe
narrator’sdesiredresult:resilientfaithfulness.
TacticsofInteractionwiththeIdealReader
Theidealreaderisintendedtoexperiencethestoryfirsthandthroughanumberofliterary
techniques.Onesuchtechniqueisdramatictension.Johndevelopsdramatictensionfrequently
throughouttheapocalypseasameanstodrawtheidealreaderclosertothestory.Hedoesthis
throughshatteringexpectationswithdelays,75throughbuildingclimactictensionthroughanincreasein
intensity,76andevenbringingthestorytothepointofintersectionwiththeidealreader’slife.77
Agoodexampleofincreasingthedramatictensiontopulltheidealreaderclosertothestory,if
notintothestory,isfoundinRevelation20.Thissectionstartsoutwithatriumphantrealitythatthe
idealreaderhasclearlyexperienced,namelythebindingofSatanachievedthroughtheresurrectionof
JesusChrist.Satan’sinfluencehasbeendiminished,notintoparalysis,butratherintoobscurity.There
74TerminologyborrowedfromRhoads,138,“Theidealreaderisthemirrorimageofthenarrator.The
idealreaderisthereaderthattheauthorcreates(hasinmindtoshape)inthecourseoftellingthestory—an
imaginaryreaderwithalltheidealresponsesimpliedbythenarrativeitself.”
75Forexample,betweenthe6thand7thelementofeachofthe3seriesof7judgments(seals,trumpets,
andbowls),Johnaddsaninterludewhichcreatesdramatictension(i.e.,Rev.7:1‐17;10:1‐11:14;16:15).
76Thisisclearlyseenintherecapitulationstructureoftheapocalypseandtheincreasefrom1/4to1/3to
100%destructionintheseals,trumpets,andbowlsrespectively(i.e.,Rev.6:8;8:8ff.;16:3‐4,8,20).
77ThisoccursmostclearlyinRevelation12wherethedragonprogressivelycomesclosertotheideal
readerinhisrage,andthenfinallyturnsfullytowardtheidealreadertopersecutethem.Thisisalsodonesubtlyin
allusionstoritualsandpracticesthatwereoccurringintheirrespectiveregions(cf.Rev.4and5asaparodyof
ImperialCultritual;Rev.19asaRomantriumphalentry;etc.)
42 | Page
isastartlingline,however,inverse3whichsays,“Afterthat,hemustbesetfreeforashorttime.”
Immediatelythiswouldalarmtheidealreaderwithquestionslike,“Why?”or“Whatwillhedoifheis
released?”JohnimmediatelylaunchesintoadescriptionofthesecurityoftheChristianswhohavedied,
orwhowilldiebeforetheSecondComing,seenintheirreignwithChristinheaveninverses4‐6.This
“interlude”wouldalleviatesomeofthedramatictensionfortheidealreaderbecausetheyareableto
seetheirfateiftheyarepersistentinresistingthedevil’stactics.
Thedramatictension,however,isreignitedinverses7‐10withanintensitythatexceedsthat
feltintheearlierverses.Verse7indicatesthatSatanisreleased.Thefollowingversesshowhim
gatheringallofthenationsforwar,andthenthereaderrealizesthetargetofSatan’saggression:God’s
people.ThesiegebeginswhentheenemiesencirclethepeopleofGod.Atthismomentthetensionhas
builttoabreakingpoint:“Whatishegoingtodo?”;“WhywouldGodallowthis?”;“Didn’tthe
resurrectionconquerthisfoe?”;“Whereisthejustice?”;“Whatwillwedo?”;“Canweevencomeclose
toavictoryagainstafoeofthismagnitude?”Asalloftheseemotionsandquestionsarefloodingthe
mindandheartoftheidealreader,somethingunexpectedhappens;firecomesdownfromheavenand
devourstheenemy.Thedramatictensiongiveswaytoelatedjubilation,forGodissovereign.
Throughtacticssuchasdramatictension,Johnallowstheidealreadertoevenexperiencethe
consequencesoftheirpotentialchoicesthroughthestory.Theyareabletoexperienceonsomelevel
God’sjudgmentandfuryonthosethatchoosetoberebellious,78andatthesametime,theyareableto
experienceGod’ssalvationanddesireforthosethatchoosetobeobedienttothecalling.79Thisallows
theidealreadertoclearlyestablishtheirdesirewhentheyareabletoperceiveandencounterthe
sovereignGodthroughJohn’sstory.
78SeeRev.6;8‐9;14:14ff.;15‐16;20:11‐15.
79SeeRev.7;14;20:4‐6;21;22.
43 | Page
ThesetacticscreateintheidealreaderhopeandresiliencetostandfirmforChristeventothe
pointofdeath.ThisexperiencecreatescommunitywithboththeTrinityandwitheachother(Rev.21‐
22).ThiscommunityiswhatunitesandtiestogetherChristiansfromthecenturiespastthathavedied
beingfaithfultoChrist,ChristiansofthepresentstrugglingtobefaithfultoChrist,andtheChristiansof
thefuturethatwilllongtofollowinthefootstepsofthecloudofwitnessesbeforethem.John’sideal
reader,then,is:Christiansthatwillrespondtothevisionsbybeingresilientintheirfaithinthefaceof
persecutionandsocialseduction,nomatterwhatthecostbecausetheirGodissovereignandhas
conqueredtheforcesofevilyesterday,today,andforever.
44 | Page
Conclusion
ReadingRevelationasliteratureenhancesourunderstandingofJohn’sliterarymasterpiecethat
concludesourScriptures.Withthefunctionalityoftheauthor,thesettingoftherecipientsandthe
narrative,thedevelopmentofthestorylinethroughconflict,theidentificationofthekeycharactersin
thedrama,andeventheroleofthereaderencounteringthetext,theexegeteisabletopeelbackthe
veilofthescienceofexegesis,whichisavitalstageofinterpretation,andengagewiththeartof
hermeneutics.Appreciatingthemasterpiecepresented,theparallelsandprogressionofthenarrative
areclearlytracedtorevealthepathsintheoceanofwordsthatguidetheaudiencetotheauthor’s
desiredlocation,namely–afaithrootedinthesovereigntyofGodthatisabletofacedeathknowing
thatvictoryisjustbeyondtheveil.
45 | Page
Bibliography
Aune,DavidE.“TheApocalypseofJohnandGraeco‐RomanRevelatoryMagic.”NewTestamentStudies
33(1987):481‐501.
Barr,D.L.TalesoftheEnd:ANarrativeCommentaryontheBookofRevelation.SantaRosa,CA:
PolebridgePress,1998.
Beale,G.K.TheBookofRevelation.GrandRapids:Eerdmans,1999.
Lowery,Robert.Revelation’sRhapsody:ListeningtotheLyricsoftheLamb–HowtoReadtheBookof
Revelation.Joplin,MO:CollegePress,2006.
Rhoads,David,JoannaDewey,andDonaldMichie.MarkasStory:AnIntroductiontotheNarrativeofa
Gospel.Minneapolis:FortressPress,1999.
