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0 6 - 0 9 J U N E 2 0 2 2 , B O R O V E T S , B U L G A R I A

ISSN 2535-0315 (Print)

ISSN 2535-0323 (Online)

X INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

2022

VOLUME I

• TECHNICS. TECHNOLOGIES.

• INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES. NATURAL

AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

• EDUCATION. PUBLIC SCIENCES.

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INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

YEAR VI,

ISSN 2535-0315(Print),

ISSN 2535-0323 (Online)

ISSUE 1 (14),

BOROVETS, BULGARIA 2022

VOLUME 1

 EDUCATION. PUBLIC SCIENCES.

 INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES, NATURAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

 TECHNICS. TECHNOLOGIES.

-0

BOROVETS, BULGARIA

www.techtos.net

Publisher: Scientific technical union of mechanical engineering

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Members:

Prof. Dr. Eng. Alexander Tokarev

Altai State Technical University, Russian Federation

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Academy of National Defence, Warsaw, Poland

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Prof. DSc. Igor Taratorkin

Ural Branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences, Russia

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University of Shumen

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University of Defence in Brno – Czech Republic

Col. Prof. Dr. Hab. Mariusz Wiatr

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Vasil Levski National Military University

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Vasil Levski National Military University

Prof. DrSc. Eng. Vladimir Musiyko

National Transport University of Ukraine

Assoc. Prof. Dr. Volodymyr Zhavoronkov

National Aviation University of Ukraine

Prof. Dr. Zelimir Kesetovic

University of Belgrad, Serbia

C O N T E N T S

TECHNICS. TECHNOLOGIES.

NUCLEAR POWER PLANT STEAM RE-HEATING SYSTEM - EXERGY ANALYSIS AT FOUR DIFFERENT

OPERATING REGIMES

Mrzljak Vedran, Prpić-Oršić Jasna, Anđelić Nikola, Lorencin Ivan ............................................................................................. 5

AN APPROACH FOR DESIGN AND MANAGEMENT OF A SUPPLY CHAIN FOR BIODIESEL PRODUCTION

TAKING INTO ACCOUNT THE UNCERTAINTIES AT TWO SCENARIOS WITH DIFFERENT LOCATIONS OF

THE FUEL BLENDING CENTERS

Yunzile Dzhelil, Evgeniy Ganev, Elisaveta Kirilova, Rayka Vladova .......................................................................................... 9

THE IMPACT OF COV - 19 PANDEMIC ON USE OF PUBLIC TRANSPORT IN SELECTED CITY IN SLOVAKIA

Daniela Šusteková, Lýdia Kontrová ............................................................................................................................................ 13

RESEARCH ON LOADING-TRANSPORT MACHINE PARTS IN ORDER TO DETERMINE THE CAUSES OF

DEFECTS

Rositsa Gavrilova, Boyan Yordanov, Dimitar Krastev, Iliyan Mitov ......................................................................................... 18

INVESTIGATION OF MANGANESE CONTENT IN THE ELECTROLYTIC IRON-NICKEL-COBALT-

MANGANESE COATINGS.

д-р инж. Драголов Е.Д., д-р инж. Георгиев И.Й., инж. Георгиева Н.И., Драголов Д.Е. ..................................................... 22

INVESTIGATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY PARAMETERS ON COHESION OF

ELECTROLYTIC IRON-NICKEL-COBALTIC-MANGANESE ALLOY

д-р инж. Драголов Е.Д., д-р инж. Георгиев И.Й., инж. Георгиева Н.И., Драголов Д.Е. ..................................................... 25

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FOR THE CREATION AND RETENTION OF PLASMA FROM THE ISOTOPES OF

HYDROGEN DEUTERIUM AND TRITIUM AND ITS APPLICATION IN FUSION TECHNOLOGY.

Инж. – физик Ташев В.Л, Гл. асистент Манев А. П., физик Вълев Д. Т. ............................................................................ 28

INFORMATION TECHNOLOGIES, NATURAL AND MATHEMATICAL SCIENCES.

SPECIAL CASES IN DETERMINING THE CRITICAL BUCKLING LOAD OF EULER ELASTIC COLUMNS

Svetlana Lilkova-Markova, Dimitar Lolov .................................................................................................................................. 32

DEVELOPMENT OF SECURE SOFTWARE

Valentina Petrova ......................................................................................................................................................................... 35

SYSTEM FOR SIMULATING CYBERATTACKS AND DATA ACQUISITION FOR NETWORK TRAFFIC AND

USAGE OF PROCESSOR AND MEMORY OF HOSTS

Александър Христов, Румен Трифонов ................................................................................................................................... 39

FORENSICS INVESTIGATION COMPARISON OF PRIVACY-ORIENTED CRYPTOCURRENCIES

Marija Taneska, Jovana Dobreva, Vesna Dimitrova ................................................................................................................... 43

EDUCATION. PUBLIC SCIENCES.

REFLECTION OF EMOTIONS IN MUSIC – PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS

проф. д-р Янна Павлова Рускова, проф. д-р Стефан Панайотов Русков ............................................................................. 47

TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION - AN ESSENTIAL DIMENSION OF EDUCATION IN ROMANIA

Monica Moraru ............................................................................................................................................................................ 51

DIDACTIC TEXTS SHARED VIA THE INTERNET

MPH Bartošovič, Michal ............................................................................................................................................................. 54

EDUCATIONAL AND PHILOSOPHICAL DIMENSIONS OF THE SOCIAL IDENTITY

Lora Radoslavova ........................................................................................................................................................................ 56

ORGANISATION OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE IN ROMANIA, GREECE AND

BULGARIA

Galina Georgieva ......................................................................................................................................................................... 58

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ ФУНКЦИОНАЛНОСТТА И ВЪЗМОЖНОСТИТЕ НА НЯКОИ ПЛАТФОРМИ, ИЗПОЛЗВАНИ

ЗА ПРИСЪСТВЕНО ОБУЧЕНИЕ В ЕЛЕКТРОННА СРЕДА

Янева Светлана, Денчева Снежина .......................................................................................................................................... 61

GENERATION ALPHA AND THE EDUCATION

Dima Spasova .............................................................................................................................................................................. 65

DANCING GENRE - EPOCH, STILE, THINKING

Assoc. prof. PhD Zlatkova L. ...................................................................................................................................................... 69

ACHIEVEMENTS OF COMPUTER TECHNOLOGY IN BULGARIA IN THE SECOND HALF OF XX CENTURY

Boyan Aspruhov .......................................................................................................................................................................... 72

STRATEGY FOR LENDING TO A SMALL COMPANY IN A CRISIS

Минева С. К. ............................................................................................................................................................................... 75

CONSEQUENCES OF INAPPROPRIATE DETECTION AND REMOVAL OF OUTLIERS IN STATISTICS

Georgi Petkov .............................................................................................................................................................................. 79

COMPLEX FUNCTIONAL DEPENDENCE OF TEMPERATURES ON THE POLLUTANTS AND GASEOUS

MATERIAL PARTICLES IN THE FORM OF ATMOSPHERIC AEROSOLS

Mihai Petrov ................................................................................................................................................................................. 83

Nuclear power plant steam re-heating system - exergy analysis at four different operating

regimes

Mrzljak Vedran1, Prpić-Oršić Jasna1, Anđelić Nikola1, Lorencin Ivan1

1Faculty of Engineering, University of Rijeka, Vukovarska 58, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia

E-mail: vedran.mrzljak@riteh.hr, jasna.prpic-orsic@riteh.hr, nandelic@riteh.hr, ilorencin@riteh.hr

Abstract: In this paper is performed exergy analysis of steam re-heating system, through all of its components, which operate in nuclear

power plant. Analyzed re-heating system consists of the moisture separator (MS) and two re-heaters (RH1 and RH2) and is observed in four

different operating regimes. MS has significantly lower exergy destructions and significantly higher exergy efficiencies in comparison to

both re-heaters, regardless of the observed operating regime. MS and both re-heaters did not achieve the lowest exergy destructions and the

highest exergy efficiencies in the same operating regime which notably complicated possible improvements. Further research of presented

re-heating system will be based on operation improvement of RH1 and RH2 - performed exergy analysis shows that MS operation in any

operating regime leaves no room for further improvement.

KEYWORDS: STEAM RE-HEATING SYSTEM, NUCLEAR POWER PLANT, EXERGY ANALYSIS, VARIOUS OPERATING REGIMES

1. Introduction

Nowadays, in the commercial thermal power plants, regardless of

its size, type or produced power, re-heating system is often (almost

standard) used for steam temperature increase [1]. Steam re-heater

(or re-heating system) is mounted between high pressure and

medium pressure steam turbine cylinders in conventional steam

power plants [2], while in nuclear power plants steam re-heating

system is mounted between high pressure and low pressure steam

turbine cylinders (nuclear power plants did not poses medium steam

turbine cylinder) [3]. Steam re-heating brings several benefits into

the power plant process, it significantly increases power plant

produced power and efficiency (when compared to plants without

re-heating) [4, 5].

In conventional steam power plants, steam re-heating process is

performed with burning of additional fossil fuel, regardless of the

fact is it steam re-heater mounted inside the steam generator (the

most common composition) [6], or steam re-heater is an

independent power plant component [7].

Nuclear power plants did not use any fossil fuels, therefore steam

re-heating system cannot be performed identically as in

conventional steam power plants. As nuclear power plants operate

with saturated steam in the most of the turbine process, steam re-

heating in such power plants is performed by combining moisture

separation process and additional main steam heating process (main

steam is heated with a steam flow stream of higher temperature) [8].

Additional heating process can be performed with one or two

heaters (re-heaters).

In this paper is performed an exergy analysis of steam re-heating

system used in nuclear power plant which consists of moisture

separator and two additional main steam heaters (re-heaters). It is

observed operation as well as exergy efficiencies and destructions

of each system component in four different operating regimes.

2. Analyzed steam re-heating system from nuclear

power plant - structure and operating characteristics

The analyzed steam re-heating system, which operates in a PWR

(Pressurized Water Reactor) nuclear power plant [8] consist of three

components, as presented in Fig. 1. Those components are Moisture

Separator (MS), Re-Heater of lower pressure (RH1) and Re-Heater

of higher pressure (RH2).

The operation principle of the whole system is that the majority

of steam mass flow rate produced in steam generators is lead to high

pressure turbine cylinder (main steam), while a small amount of that

steam (with the highest pressure and temperature inside whole

observed nuclear power plant) is delivered to RH2 and will be used

for additional heating of main steam - operating point 4, Fig. 1. The

main steam expands through high pressure turbine cylinder after

which is delivered to re-heating system (operating point 1, Fig. 1).

Moisture separator (MS) removes the majority of water droplets

inside main steam (after moisture separator main steam state is very

close to saturation line). Collected condensate in MS is delivered to

the deaerator. In the first re-heater (RH1), main steam (of lower

temperature) is heated with steam extracted from the high pressure

turbine cylinder (which has higher temperature). Second main

steam heating process is performed in RH2 with a small amount of

steam produced in steam generators (regardless of the observed

operating regime, heating steam in RH2 must have higher

temperature in comparison with main steam). In the observed re-

heating process, heating steam in RH2 has notably higher pressure

in comparison to heating steam in RH1. In Fig. 1 are also presented

operating points required for the exergy analysis of each

component.

Fig. 1. Scheme of observed steam re-heating system from nuclear

power plant along with operating points required for the analysis

3. Equations for the analysis of re-heating system

3.1. The principle of main steam operating parameters

calculation in operating points A and B

Before defining equations of observed steam re-heating system

exergy analysis, it should be explained calculation procedure for

defining main steam operating parameters in operating points A and

B, Fig. 1. Those operating parameters enable observing each steam

re-heating system component (MS, RH1 and RH2) independently in

each operating regime. For all operating points presented in Fig. 1

which are marked with numbers are known required operating

parameters at each observed operating regime. For operating points

A and B are calculated two main steam operating parameters

(pressure and specific enthalpy), which are used for the calculation

of all the other required operating parameters. All the unknown

operating parameters in each operating point presented in Fig. 1 are

calculated by using NIST REFPROP 9.0 software [9].

Main steam pressure in operating points A and B is obtained by

the uniform distribution of pressure difference between steam re-

heating system inlet (operating point 1, Fig. 1) and outlet (operating

point 2, Fig. 1), because required operating parameters from the

literature (presented later in a paper) show steam pressure decrease

from the system inlet to the outlet (due to losses). Therefore, each

steam re-heating system component proportionally participates in

the cumulative steam pressure drop throughout observed system.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Main steam specific enthalpies in operating points A and B are

obtained by assuming energy efficiencies of RH1 and RH2. As the

other analyses show [10, 11], heat exchangers have very high

energy efficiencies, so for both RH1 and RH2 are assumed energy

efficiencies equal to 96 %. From the definition of RH2 energy

efficiency:

7744

BB22

RH2en, hmhm hmhm









, (1)

is obtained equation for main steam specific enthalpy in point B:

RH2en,74422

B)(

hhmhm

h









, (2)

where should be highlighted that in each observed operating

regime is valid:

74 mm  

, (3)

512B mmmm  

. (4)

The same principle is used for calculation of main steam specific

enthalpy in operating point A, so the final obtained equation is:

RH1en,633BB

A)(

hhmhm

h









, (5)

where in each observed operating regime is valid:

63 mm  

, (6)

512BA mmmmm  

. (7)

In the above equations, h is operating fluid specific enthalpy in

(kJ/kg),



is operating fluid mass flow rate in (kg/s) and



energy efficiency. Markings of all operating points are defined

according to Fig. 1.

3.2. General exergy analysis equations

Second law of thermodynamics defines exergy analysis of any

system or a control volume [12, 13]. As the analyzed steam re-

heating system did not use or produce any mechanical power, the

exergy balance equation can be defined as [14]:

Dex,outex,heatinex, EEXE  







, (8)

where

Dex,



is exergy destruction in (kW), indexes in and out

denotes input and output,

heat



is the exergy transfer by heat at the

temperature T, which can be defined according to [15]:

X



 )1( 0

heat

. (9)

In all equations from this sub-section, T is temperature in (K) and



is energy heat transfer in (kW), while index 0 denotes the

ambient state. The last undefined element from Eq. 8 is



exergy flow of any operating fluid in (kW), which can be calculated

as [16]:



 mE 

ex

, (10)

where



is specific exergy of any operating fluid in (kJ/kg)

which definition can be found in [17]:

)()( 000 ssThh 



. (11)

In Eq. 11, s is operating fluid specific entropy in (kJ/kg·K).

During the exergy analysis, is valid mass flow rate balance [18]:





outin mm 

. (12)

In general form, exergy efficiency of any system or a control

volume can be defined as [19, 20]:

inputexergycumulative outputexergycumulative

ex 



. (13)

3.3. Exergy analysis equations of steam re-heating system

Observed steam re-heating system is analyzed through all of its

constituent components. Here will be presented final exergy

analysis equations (equations for exergy destruction and exergy

efficiency calculation) of MS, RH1 and RH2. All of the markings in

the following equations are presented in regards to operating points

from Fig. 1. Equations presented in this sub-section remains the

same regardless of the observed operating regime.

Moisture Separator (MS)

- Exergy destruction:

AA5511MSD,ex,



 mmmE 



. (14)

- Exergy efficiency:

AA55

MSex,











mmm





. (15)

Re-Heater 1 (RH1)

- Exergy destruction:

66BB33AARH1D,ex,



 mmmmE 



. (16)

- Exergy efficiency:

6633

AABB

RH1ex,







mm mm



. (17)

Re-Heater 2 (RH2)

- Exergy destruction:

772244BBRH2D,ex,



 mmmmE 



. (18)

- Exergy efficiency:

7744

BB22

RH2ex,







mm mm



. (19)

4. The operating parameters of fluid streams required

for steam re-heating system exergy analysis

Required operating parameters of each fluid stream at each

observed operating regime of analyzed steam re-heating system are

found in [8]. It is observed four different operating regimes -

operating regime with the highest main steam mass flow rate at the

entrance into the system (operating point 1, Fig. 1) is denoted as

operating regime 1. Higher operating regime number denotes lower

main steam mass flow rate at the re-heating system entrance. In [8]

are found operating fluid mass flow rate, specific enthalpy, pressure

and temperature in each required operating point (according to Fig.

1) at each observed operating regime. Other operating parameters of

each fluid stream (in each operating point from Fig. 1) are

calculated by using NIST REFPROP 9.0 software [9].

In each operating point from Fig. 1, specific exergies are

calculated by using Eq. 11 for the ambient temperature of 25 °C and

ambient pressure of 1 bar, as proposed in the literature [21, 22].

Table 1 presents operating parameters of each fluid stream

required for the exergy analysis in Operating regime 1 (main steam

mass flow rate at the re-heating system entrance, operating point 1,

Fig. 1, is equal to 1239 kg/s), while Table 2 presents operating

parameters of each required fluid stream for main steam mass flow

rate at the re-heating system entrance equal to 1234 kg/s - Operating

regime 2. Table 3 presents operating parameters of each fluid

stream in Operating regime 3 (main steam mass flow rate at the re-

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

heating system entrance, operating point 1, Fig. 1, is equal to 1231.8

kg/s), while Table 4 presents operating parameters of each required

fluid stream for main steam mass flow rate at the re-heating system

entrance equal to 1208.5 kg/s - Operating regime 4.

Table 1. Operating parameters of fluid streams required for the

exergy analysis - Operating regime 1

O.P.*

Mass flow

rate (kg/s)

Specific

enthalpy

(kJ/kg)

Pressure

(MPa)

Temp.

(°C)

Steam

content (%)

Specific

exergy

(kJ/kg)

1239.00

2467.0

0.879

174.3

85.0

698.28

1057.40

2979.5

0.838

264.1

Superheated

874.91

86.41

2632.9

2.960

233.0

90.5

891.92

63.48

2757.5

7.150

287.3

99.1

1038.60

181.50

735.4

0.865

173.7

120.36

86.41

995.4

2.850

231.1

218.72

63.48

1269.7

7.040

286.3

Subcooled

342.26

1057.40

2893.8

0.852

225.1

Superheated

840.80

1057.40

2765.3

0.865

173.7

99.7

795.78

* O.P. = Operating Point (according to Fig. 1)

Table 2. Operating parameters of fluid streams required for the

exergy analysis - Operating regime 2

O.P.*

Mass flow

rate

(kg/s)

Specific

enthalpy

(kJ/kg)

Pressure

(MPa)

Temp.

(°C)

Steam

content (%)

Specific

exergy

(kJ/kg)

1234.00

2467.4

0.857

173.3

85.1

695.64

1054.30

2976.5

0.818

262.4

Superheated

870.34

77.51

2635.8

2.920

232.4

90.7

891.65

70.65

2759.4

7.020

286.0

99.1

1037.60

179.70

730.8

0.844

172.6

118.82

77.51

992.4

2.820

230.5

217.47

70.65

1263.0

6.910

285.0

Subcooled

339.04

1054.30

2880.2

0.831

218.5

Superheated

832.09

1054.30

2764.2

0.844

172.6

99.7

792.25

* O.P. = Operating Point (according to Fig. 1)

Table 3. Operating parameters of fluid streams required for the

exergy analysis - Operating regime 3

O.P.*

Mass flow

rate

(kg/s)

Specific

enthalpy

(kJ/kg)

Pressure

(MPa)

Temp.

(°C)

Steam

content (%)

Specific

exergy

(kJ/kg)

1231.80

2466.6

0.869

173.9

85.0

696.90

1051.50

2978.8

0.829

263.6

Superheated

873.15

83.07

2633.8

2.940

232.8

90.6

891.56

65.87

2758.1

7.110

286.9

99.1

1038.30

180.30

733.3

0.855

173.2

119.66

83.07

994.3

2.840

230.9

218.26

65.87

1267.6

7.000

285.9

Subcooled

341.25

1051.50

2889.2

0.842

222.8

Superheated

837.40

1051.50

2764.8

0.856

173.2

99.7

794.27

* O.P. = Operating Point (according to Fig. 1)

Table 4. Operating parameters of fluid streams required for the

exergy analysis - Operating regime 4

O.P.*

Mass flow

rate

(kg/s)

Specific

enthalpy

(kJ/kg)

Pressure

(MPa)

Temp.

(°C)

Steam

content (%)

Specific

exergy

(kJ/kg)

1208.50

2476.3

0.783

169.5

85.8

688.60

1042.70

2984.5

0.747

265.1

Superheated

861.72

72.01

2652.4

2.760

229.2

91.7

892.34

79.30

2768.9

6.320

279.0

99.2

1031.30

165.80

714.2

0.771

168.9

113.32

72.01

974.6

2.630

226.7

210.11

79.30

1220.1

6.110

276.8

318.65

1042.70

2871.4

0.759

213.1

Superheated

816.66

1042.70

2760.2

0.771

168.9

99.7

779.29

* O.P. = Operating Point (according to Fig. 1)

5. Results and discussion

Steam re-heating process for operating regime 1 in specific

enthalpy-specific entropy diagram is presented in Fig. 2. It also

should be noted that in all the other operating regimes presented

diagram is very similar (exact values can be found in Table 2, Table

3 and Table 4), but the main conclusions are identical in all

operating regimes (due to small differences, main steam re-heating

process is shown only for operating regime 1).

In operating point 1, Fig. 1 and Fig. 2, main steam content is low

(high amount of water droplets inside main steam). Moisture

separator (MS) removes almost all water droplets from main steam

and after MS, main steam is almost saturated (operating point A,

Fig. 1 and Fig. 2). First re-heater (RH1) increases main steam

temperature up to operating point B in which main steam is

superheated, Fig. 2. Additional re-heating occurs in the second re-

heater (RH2) which operates with higher pressure of heating steam

in comparison to RH1. Complete observed re-heating process ends

in operating point 2, Fig. 2, after which the main steam is sent to

low pressure turbine cylinders (nuclear power plant in which

analyzed steam re-heating system operates has three dual flow low

pressure cylinders).

Fig. 2. Steam re-heating process from the observed nuclear power

plant in h-s diagram

The exergy analysis of all steam re-heating system constituent

components gives exergy destructions (Fig. 3) and exergy

efficiencies (Fig. 4) at each of four observed operating regimes.

Considering exergy destructions of all components, it should be

highlighted that both re-heaters (RH1 and RH2) have significantly

higher exergy destructions than moisture separator (MS), regardless

of the observed operating regime, Fig. 3. Also, RH1 has higher

exergy destruction in comparison to RH2 in all operating regimes.

Comparison of all operating regimes show that MS obtain the

lowest exergy destruction equal to 818.96 kW in operating regime

4. Also in operating regime 4, RH1 has the lowest exergy

destruction equal to 10161.68 kW. Unlike MS and RH1, RH2 has

the lowest exergy destruction in operating regime 1 equal to

8135.75 kW.

Fig. 3. Exergy destruction change of steam re-heating system

components in four observed operating regimes

Exergy efficiency change of all steam re-heating system

components in all observed operating regimes show that moisture

separator (MS) has significantly higher exergy efficiencies in

comparison to both re-heaters (RH1 and RH2), Fig. 4. Also, it can

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

be observed that RH2 has higher exergy efficiencies in comparison

to RH1 in all operating regimes except the operating regime 1.

When observing various operating regimes, it can be concluded that

MS and RH2 have the highest exergy efficiencies (equal to 99.90 %

and 83.14 %, respectively) in operating regime 4, while RH1 has

the highest exergy efficiency in operating regime 1 equal to 81.83

Fig. 4. Exergy efficiency change of steam re-heating system

components in four observed operating regimes

6. Conclusions

This paper presents an exergy analysis of steam re-heating

system which operates in nuclear power plant. Steam re-heating

system is analyzed through all of its components at four different

operating regimes. The most important conclusions are:

- Both re-heaters (RH1 and RH2) have significantly higher exergy

destructions than moisture separator (MS), regardless of the

observed operating regime.

- MS and RH1 have the lowest exergy destructions (equal to 818.96

kW and 10161.68 kW, respectively) in operating regime 4, while

RH2 has the lowest exergy destruction equal to 8135.75 kW in

operating regime 1.

- Moisture separator (MS) has significantly higher exergy

efficiencies in comparison to both re-heaters (RH1 and RH2). Also,

RH2 has higher exergy efficiencies in comparison to RH1 in all

operating regimes except the operating regime 1.

- MS and RH2 have the highest exergy efficiencies (equal to 99.90

% and 83.14 %, respectively) in operating regime 4, while RH1 has

the highest exergy efficiency in operating regime 1 equal to 81.83

- Further improvement for all steam re-heating system components

will be a challenge due to different behavior of system components

at various operating regimes. Improvements can be based on both

re-heaters (RH1 and RH2), while the performed analysis show that

moisture separator (MS) can hardly be further improved.

7. Acknowledgment

This research has been supported by the Croatian Science

Foundation under the project IP-2018-01-3739, CEEPUS network

CIII-HR-0108, European Regional Development Fund under the

grant KK.01.1.1.01.0009 (DATACROSS), project CEKOM under

the grant KK.01.2.2.03.0004, CEI project "COVIDAi" (305.6019-

20), University of Rijeka scientific grants: uniri-tehnic-18-275-

1447, uniri-tehnic-18-18-1146 and uniri-tehnic-18-14.

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[4] Anđelić, N., Mrzljak, V., Lorencin, I., Baressi Šegota, S.:

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[9] Lemmon, E.W., Huber, M.L., McLinden, M.O.: NIST reference

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[10] Mrzljak, V., Poljak, I., Medica-Viola, V.: Thermodynamical

analysis of high pressure feed water heater in steam propulsion system

during exploitation, Shipbuilding 68 (2), p. 45-61, 2017.

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[11] Mrzljak, V., Poljak, I., Medica-Viola, V.: Efficiency and losses

analysis of low-pressure feed water heater in steam propulsion system

during ship maneuvering period, Scientific Journal of Maritime

Research 30 (2), p. 133-140, 2016. (doi:10.31217/p.30.2.6)

[12] Kanoğlu, M., Çengel, Y.A., Dincer, I.: Efficiency Evaluation of

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[13] Mrzljak, V., Poljak, I., Prpić-Oršić, J., Jelić, M.: Exergy analysis of

marine waste heat recovery CO2 closed-cycle gas turbine system,

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propulsion steam turbine from marine propulsion plant, Brodogradnja:

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[17] Tan, H., Shan, S., Nie, Y., Zhao, Q.: A new boil-off gas re-

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cycle, Cryogenics 92, p. 84–92, 2018.

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(doi:10.17818/NM/2018/1.4)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

An approach for design and management of a supply chain for biodiesel production taking

into account the uncertainties at two scenarios with different locations of the fuel blending

centers

Yunzile Dzhelil1*, Evgeniy Ganev2, Elisaveta Kirilova3, Rayka Vladova4

Bulgarian Academy of Science, Sofia, Bulgaria

unzile_20@abv.bg1, evgeniy_ganev@iche.bas.bg2, e.kirilova@iche.bas.bg3, r.vladova@iche.bas.bg4

Abstract: This study proposes a mixed integer linear programming (MILP) approach to the design and management of the biodiesel / diesel

(SC) supply chain. The approach was applied to two scenarios with different locations of the fuel blending centers. For both scenarios,

optimization problems were formulated and solved while satisfying environmental and economic criteria. The latter are defined in terms of

minimum total costs and minimum greenhouse gas emissions generated during the performance of all activities included in the supply chain.

The approach was applied to a real case from Bulgaria, where its 27 administrative regions were considered. An analysis was carried out in

terms of uncertainties regarding the obtained optimal routes for transportation of raw materials and products, the optimal quantities of

feedstocks for cultivation and optimal quantities of biodiesel produced, which is transported to the search areas under both scenarios.

Keywords: SUSTAINABLE SUPPLY CHAIN, DESIGN MODELING, BIODIESEL PRODUCTION, UNCERTAINTIES, SCENARIOS

1. Introduction

Over the last years, biofuels are attracting increasing attention

worldwide due to their environmental and economic benefits.

Biodiesel is one of the most commercially available biofuels which

has many advantages, such as reducing harmful emissions of sulfur

dioxide, carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, etc. [1], a higher cetane

number, improved engine performance, increased power, and

reduced fuel consumption, as well as the production of glycerol as a

by-product, which is applicable in medicine, cosmetics and others

[2]. It cannot be used in its pure form in internal combustion

engines because it is highly corrosive. For that reason, it is blending

with conventional diesel in different percentages.

Different types of feedstocks can be used for the production of

biodiesel. They can be some crops such as sunﬂower, rapeseed,

soybean, coconut etc., [3], non-food or waste sources such as waste

cooking oil and animal fats [4], and microalgae [5]. The production

of biodiesel from sunﬂower and rapeseed is the most popular and is

applied on the largest scale. One of the best ways to improve the

sustainability of biodiesel production is to apply optimization

approaches [6]. This includes optimizing all activities over the

supply chain from the production of biomass for biodiesel

production, collection of biomass, storage and transportation of

biomass to the biorefinery, conversion of the biomass into fuel in

the biorefinery, distribution of biodiesel to customers, and finally,

the use of fuel while meeting economic, environmental and social

criteria. In fact, the direct application of such approaches is

hampered by varying the values of supply chains parameters such as

quantities of feedstock for cultivation, biodiesel production costs,

transporation logistics, products demands on the markets, etc. [7].

The latter can cause the arising uncertainties of the generated

greenhouse gas emissions related with the biodiesel production and

these related with total costs and prices of biodiesel on the markets.

One way to predict these uncertainties in terms of avoiding the risk

of generating large amounts of greenhouse gas emissions and

increasing economic costs is to apply of special mathematical

approaches to designing sustainable biodiesel/diesel supply chains

operating in uncertainties [8] or those that operate under certain

conditions but applied to different scenarios.

The present study proposes a MILP approach for sustainable

design of biodiesel/diesel supply chain using feedstock such as

sunflower and rapeseed satisfying economic and environmental

criteria. The proposed approach has been implemented on real case

study, in which the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria with its 27

administrative regions is considered as potential areas for

cultivation of sunflower and rapeseed feedstocks for biodiesel

production. Optimization problems have been formulated and

solved either at environmental or economic criterion as the other is

defined as a constraint for two scenarios - Scenario 1, in which 27

blending centers have been considered and Scenario 2, in which

only one blending center has been considered. An analysis of the

results obtained in solving the optimization problems in both

scenarios and both criteria has been conducted and uncertainties

regarding the main parameters of the considered supply chains have

been identified.

2. Supply chain optimization problem formulation

Optimization problems for optimal design of a sustainable

biodiesel/diesel supply chain using as feedstocks sunflower and

rapeseed operating within a time horizon of ten years are

formulated. They are solved while satisfying an economic

optimization criterion, as the environmental one being defined as a

constraint and vice versa for the two scenarios.

The optimization problems are formulated in terms of MILP

and its solution is related to determining the optimal values of: the

number, sizes and locations of biorefineries; the sites and quantities

of feedstocks; the transportation routes; and the number of blending

centers.

2.1. Environmental performance of the biodiesel/diesel

The main greenhouse gases that are released during the

operation of the SC for biodiesel are: methane (CH4), nitrogen

dioxide (N2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2).

For definition of the environmental impact assessment of the

SC operation, the entire life cycle of the produced biodiesel is

considered. It includes assessments for the greenhouse gas

emissions generated at each stage of the considered supply chain

and determines as follows:

CARTRBPBC EBELELELTEI 

(1)

TEI the total environmental impact of the SC operation,

(kgCO2-eqd-1).

2.1.1. Greenhouse gas emissions due to biomass

cultivation, (kgCO2-eqd-1):



  















Ii Gg g

igig

igBC

EFBCEL





(2)

2.1.2. Greenhouse gas emissions due to biodiesel

production, (kgCO2-eqd-1):

 



   



Gg Ii Ff Ll igfliiBP QIEFBPEL



(3)

2.1.3. Greenhouse gas emissions due to transportation of

biomass and biodiesel, (kgCO2-eqd-1):

   

        



Ii Pp Ff Cc Bb ipfcbfcbb

Ii Gg Ff Ll igflgflilTR QBADFEFTRBQIADDEFTRAEL

(4)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

2.1.4. Greenhouse gas emissions due to the use of

biodiesel (B100) in vehicles, (kgCO2-eqd-1):

 



    



Ii Pp Ff Cc Bb ipfcbCAR QBECBEB

(5)

2.1.5. Total environmental impact related with the fuels

to ensure the energy balance of the regions

The annual greenhouse gas equivalent as a result of the

operation of the SC for biodiesel (B100) and diesel fuel should be

reduced to meet the energy needs of the regions.

The annual greenhouse gas equivalent of the fuels used is

determined by the equation:

CAR

EGTEITEIF 

(6)

TEIF the total environmental impact of the fuels used (biodiesel

(B100) and petroleum diesel) to ensure the energy balance

of the regions, (kgCO2-eqd-1);

TEI the total environmental impact of biodiesel SC operation,

(kgCO2-eqd-1);

EGCAR the greenhouse gas emissions due to petroleum diesel

combustion by vehicles engines, (kgCO2-eqd-1).

2.2. Economic performance of the biodiesel/diesel SC

For definition of the economic impact assessment of the SC

operation the annual operating costs are used. They include:

biomass cultivation costs, biodiesel production costs, biomass and

biodiesel transportation costs. Production costs include operating

costs for a period of one year, defined as a percentage of total

investment costs and variable costs that are proportional to the

quantity of the produced biodiesel. Transportation costs depend on

the distances between the regions. They can be constant and

variable.

The economic assessment of the considered SC is defined in

terms of the total investment costs for biodiesel production (B100),

costs for building the biorefineries and SC operation costs for a

given period. The latter is expressed by the dependence:

TLTTAXBTTCTPCTICTDC 

(7)

TDC the total SC costs per a year, ($ year-1);

TIC the investment costs for biodiesel production (B100) in

relation to the operational period and the purchase of the

biorefinery per a year, ($ year-1);

TPC the production costs, ($ year-1);

TTC the transportation costs, ($ year-1);

TTAXB the carbon tax on the SC operating per a year,

($ year-1);

TL the government incentives for biodiesel production and

consumption (B100), ($ year-1).

2.2.1. Total investment cost model

The components TIC of equation (7) are determined according

to the following equations:

 



 



Ff Pp pf

pf ZCostCCFTIC

(8)

The capital costs of the biorefineries are fixed and variable

costs. The location of the biorefinery refers to the fixed costs. The

variable costs of biodiesel production (B100) are related with the

size of the biorefineries.

The capital costs are determined using the following ratio:

base

pSize

Size

Cost

Cost 















Costp the variable capital costs;

Sizep the investment costs and capacities of the new bio

refineries;

Costbase the investment costs for a certain capacity of the

biorefinery;

R scale factor with a value of 0.6 to 0.8.

2.2.2. Model of the total production costs

 

        















Ii Pp Ff Cc Bb ipfcbpff

Ii Gg igigig QBUPCfAUCCTPC



(9)

2.2.3. Model of total transportation costs

   

 

       



Gg Ll Ii Ii Pp Ff Bb Cc ipfcbfcbf

Ff igfligflg QBUTBfQIUTCTTC



(10)

 













fcbbbfcb

gflililigfl

ADFOBOAUTB

ADDIBIAUTC

IAil and IBil are fixed and variable costs for transportation of

biomass

Ii

;

OAb and OBb are fixed and variable costs for transportation of

biodiesel (B100).

2.2.4. Model of costs for government incentives for

biodiesel production (B100)

Government incentives for biodiesel production (B100) and its

consumption are given by the equation:

 

  

   



























Ff Gg Ii igigif AINSTL



(11)

2.2.5. Carbon tax costs model, (kgCO2-eqd-1)

The carbon tax is determined by the equation:

 

COCARTRBPBC CFEBYELYELYELTTAXB 

(12)

YELBC the greenhouse gas emissions due to biomass cultivation,

(kgCO2-eqd-1);

YELTR the greenhouse gas emissions due to transportation of

feedstocks and products within the SC, (kgCO2-eqd-1);

YELBP The greenhouse gas emissions due to biodiesel production

per a year within the SC, (kgCO2-eqd-1).

2.3. Constraints

2.3.1. Constraints related with the capacities of

biorefineries

The capacities of the biorefineries vary within lower and upper

boundaries of their productivity. The lower production capacity

boundary for each region is determined, depending on the installed

capacities of the biorefineries:

FfPp ZPBQBfZPB pf

MAX

Ii Cc Bb ipfcbfpf

MIN

p 

  



(13)

2.3.2. Constraints related with the total costs of the SC

design

TDCTDCMAX 

(14)

TDCMAX maximum costs on the SC network, ($).

2.4. Environmental optimization criterion

The environmental objective function aims minimization of the

carbon emissions (CO2) equivalents emitted within one year as a

result of the SC operating. For their definition, the life cycle

analysis (LCA) approach is applied. It is based on consideration of

the entire life cycle of the products.

The optimization problem for defining the optimal locations of

the biorefineries in the regions and their parameters using

environmental optimization criterion, as the economic one being

defined as a constraint for the two scenarios is formulated as

follows:

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

 

   

 









































GgIiA

CcQEO

CcQEB

IiPpBbCcFfQB

LlFfGgIiQI

GgIiPBB

BbFfGgY

LlFfGgIiX

FfPpZ

EqEq

EqTEIFMINIMIZE

Food

ipfcb

igfl

gfb

igfl

, ,

,,,, ,

,,, ,

, ,

,, ,01

,,, ,01

, ,01

14.13.

subject to

)6.(

(15)

2.5. Economic optimization criterion

The economic objective function is related to minimization of

the total annual costs, including annual capital costs, annual

operating costs, government incentives, and CO2 emissions costs.

The optimization problem for defining the optimal locations of

the facilities in the regions and their parameters using economic

optimization criterion, as the environmental one being defined as a

constraint for the two scenarios is formulated as follows:

 

   

 









































GgIiA

CcQEO

CcQEB

IiPpBbCcFfQB

LlFfGgIiQI

GgIiPBB

BbFfGgY

LlFfGgIiX

FfPpZ

EqEq

EqTDCMINIMIZE

Food

ipfcb

igfl

gfb

igfl

, ,

,,,, ,

,,, ,

, ,

,, ,01

,,, ,01

, ,01

14.13.

subject to

)7.(

(16)

3. Results and discussion

The formulated above optimization problems have been solved

using an economic optimization criterion, as the environmental one

being defined as a constraint and vice versa for the two scenarios.

For that purpose, GAMS® optimization software-CPLEX solver

has been used. As a result of their solution, the number, sizes and

locations of biorefineries and blending centers as well as the

optimal transportation routes and flows of biomass and biodiesel

between SC sites have been obtained.

3.1. Optimal structure of the SC for biodiesel production

for Scenario 1 for both criteria

Two optimization problems for optimal design of

biodiesel/diesel supply chain for Scenario 1, which consists of 27

regions for biomass cultivation, 27 potential locations for

biorefineries and 27 warehouses for blending and delivery of

biodiesel have been formulated and solved using either

environmental or economic criterion, as the other being defined as a

constraint. The obtained results are presented in Figure 1.

(a)Minimum amount GHG emissions (b) Minimum average annual costs

Fig. 1 Optimal structure of the SC for biodiesel production on the territory

of the Republic of Bulgaria in Scenario 1 for both criteria.

The represented in Figure 1a solution is related with obtaining

of minimum values of used environmental criterion in terms of

quantities of greenhouse gas emissions (GHGB=4509.80 kgCO2-

eqton-1biodiesel). For this solution, it was found that 4 biorefineries

located in Region-9 (Lovech), Region-10 (Pleven), Region-21

(Ruse) and Region-26 (Varna) with production capacities: 32.50 t/y,

34.84 t/y, 12.00 t/y и 26.00 t/y biodiesel (В100) should be built. The

obtained values for the average annual costs, for this case, are:

PB=1083.585 $/t.

The represented in Figure 1b solution is related with obtaining

of minimum values of used economic criterion in terms of average

annual costs (PB=797.136 $/t). For this solution, it was found that 3

biorefineries, located in Region-9 (Lovech), Region-10 (Pleven)

and Region-26 (Varna) with production capacities: 32.500 t/y,

44.866 t/y, 27.972 t/y should be built. The obtained values for the

greenhouse gas emissions, for this case, are: (GHGB=4817.88

kgCO2-eqton-1biodiesel).

3.2. Optimal structure of the SC for biodiesel production

for Scenario 2 for both criteria

Two optimization problems for optimal design of

biodiesel/diesel supply chain for Scenario 2, which consists of 27

regions for biomass cultivation, 27 potential locations for

biorefineries and 1 warehouse for blending and delivery of biodiesel

have been formulated and solved using either environmental or

economic criterion, as the other being defined as a constraint. The

obtained results are presented in Figure 2.

(b)Minimum amount GHG emissions (b) Minimum average annual costs

Fig. 2 Optimal structure of the SC for biodiesel production on the territory

of the Republic of Bulgaria in Scenario 2 for both criteria.

The represented in Figure 2a solution is related with obtaining

of minimum values of used environmental criterion. For this

solution, it was found that 3 biorefineries located in Region-9

(Lovech), Region 25 (Dobrich) and Region-26 (Varna) available

with production capacities: 30.00 t/y, 38.00 t/y, 37.339 t/y biodiesel

(В100) should be built.

The represented in Figure 2b solution is related with obtaining

of minimum values of used economic criterion. For this solution, it

was found that 2 biorefineries located in Region-25 and Region-26

and production capaciets: 41.08 t/y, 64.259 t/y should be built. The

cities of Dobrich and Varna are located in these regions.

From the results shown in Table 1, it can be seen that solving

the problem in economic optimization criterion for both scenarios

leads to lower values for all economic parameters of the obtained

solutions as obtained values for Scenario 2 are lower than those in

Scenario 1. For this case, the obtained values for greenhouse gas

emissions are higher concerning the specific environmental

parameters such as GHG emissions related to growing biomass for

biodiesel production, GHG emissions related to transportation than

those obtained at environmental optimization criterion.

However, the values of the total greenhouse gas emissions

associated with biodiesel production for the solutions obtained at

economic optimization criterion does not differ significantly from

that obtained in solving the optimization problem at environmental

criterion.

With regard to the values for the arable land for the cultivation

of both types of crops for the production of biodiesel, the solutions

for the economic criterion have lower values, ie they lead to more

free arable land.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Table 2: The results obtained in solving the formulated optimization problems for both scenarios and at optimization criterion: (a) Minimum amount of

greenhouse gas emissions and optimization criterion (b) Minimum average annual costs.

Results

Scenario 1 – optimal design of

biodiesel SC in a case of 1 warehouse

for biodiesel/diesel blending

Scenario 2 – optimal design of biodiesel SC

in a case of 27 warehouse for biodiesel/diesel

blending

Optimization

criterion (a)-

minimum GHG

emissions

Optimization

criterion (b)-

minimum

average annual

costs

Optimization

criterion (a)-

minimum GHG

emissions

Optimization

criterion (b)-

minimum average

annual costs

Optimization criterion (a), kgCO 2eq /d

25347651.82

25475649.38

25348154.43

25478785.45

Optimization criterion (b), [ $/y]

111210369.50

80801347.49

111450945.39

80437937.25

SC investment costs, [ $/]

6681600.00

4365600.00

6320400.00

3949200.00

Biomass and SC production costs, [ $/]

91998122.40

67752154.04

92020308.02

67717572.60

Production costs, [ $/y]

13167282.72

13167382.77

Cost for biomass, [ $/y]

78830839.68

54584871.32

78852925.26

54550189.83

Transportation costs of SC, [ $/y]

9713152.54

5066114.10

10290783.74

5135267.14

Carbon tax, [ $/y]

11876585.08

12676569.85

11878612.97

12695056.85

Government incentives, [ $/y]

-9059090.51

-9059159.34

Total minimum GHG emissions related with

biodiesel production, kgCO 2eq /d

1900253.61

2028251.18

1900578.08

2031209.10

Total minimum GHG emissions related with

diesel production, kgCO 2eq /d

23447398.21

23447576.36

GHG related with growing biomass, kgCO 2eq /d

598253.76

681193.39

598184.81

681318.62

GHG related with biodiesel production, kgCO 2eq /

d󰇠

809051.27

824122.93

809044.07

824151.01

GHG related with transportation, kgCO 2eq /d

2914.98

32901.26

3311.88

35702.15

GHG related with biodiesel exploitation,

kgCO 2eq /d

490033.59

490037.32

Total arable land, []

1613611.00

1613611

1613611.00

Arable land for growing biomass needed for

biodiesel production, []

99264.74

81175.40

99281

81149.84

Arable land for growing biomass to meet food

needs, []

668093.45

657463.95

657464

657463.95

Free arable land, []

846267.81

874986.65

856881

875012.21

Biodiesel demand for the regions, [ t/y]

105338.26

105339.06

Petrol diesel demand for the regions, [ t/y]

1617954.61

1711000.00

Price of biodiesel (B100), [ $/t]

1055.745

767.065

1055.745

767.065

4. Conclusions

The study proposes a MILP model for optimal design of a

sustainable biodiesel/diesel supply chain using different crops as

feedstock. The proposed approach has been implemented on real

case study, in which the territory of the Republic of Bulgaria with

its 27 administrative regions is considered. Four optimization

problems have been formulated for two scenarios - Scenario 1, in

which 27 blending centers have been considered and Scenario 2, in

which only one blending center has been considered. The problems

have been solved using either environmental optimization criterion,

as the economic one being defined as a constraint or vice versa for

the two scenarios. When solving the optimization problem at

environmental criterion for Scenario 1, a reduction of the values for

the minimum GHG emissions and the minimum annual costs with

503 (kg_(CO_2 eq )/d) and 3136 (kg_(CO_2 eq )/d) is obtained.

When solving the optimization problem at economic optimization

criterion for Scenario 1, a reduction of the values for the minimum

annual costs at minimum GHG emissions with 240576 ($) and a

reduction of the values for the minimum costs at minimum annual

costs with 363410 ($) is obtained.

The analysis of the results obtained in solving the optimization

problems in both scenarios and both criteria shows that depending

on the decision made regarding the number of blending centers,

uncertainties may arise regarding production and investment costs

and biodiesel prices on the market, which to affect the sustainable

operating of the biodiesel/diesel supply chain.

Acknowledgments

This study was carried out with the financial support of

National Science Fund, Ministry of Education and Science of the

Republic of Bulgaria, Contract No. КΠ-06-Н37/5/06.12.19.

5. References

1. Viswanathana, V.K., Thomai, P., 2020, Performance and

emission characteristics analysis of Elaeocarpus Ganitrus

biodiesel blend using CI engine, Fuel 2020, 14, 119611.

2. Popova-Krumova, P., Yankova, S., Ilieva, B., 2013,

Mathematical modeling of glycerol biotransformation,

Proceedings of 39th International Conference Applications of

Mathematics in Engineering and Economics (AMEE '12),

1570, 74-79.

3. Taufiqurrahmia N., Bhatia, S., 2011, Catalytic cracking of

edible and non-edible oils for the production of biofuels.

Energy Environ. Sci., 4, 1087-1112.

4. Balat, M., 2011, Potential alternatives to edible oils for

biodiesel production - A review of current work, Energy

Conversion and Management, 52(2), 1479-1492.

5. Popova P., Boyadjiev Chr., 2008, About microalgae growth

kinetics modeling, Chemical and Biochemical Engineering

Quarterly, 22 (4), 491-497.

6. Popova P., Boyadjiev Chr., 2022, Chapter 7. Approach for

Parameter Identification of Multiparameter Models. In book:

Modeling and Simulation in Chemical Engineering, Project

Reports on Process Simulation, Springer International

Publishing, Book Series: Heat and Mass Transfer, 147-154.

7. Awudu, I., Zhang, J., 2012, Uncertainties and sustainability

concepts in biofuel supply chain management: A review,

Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 16(2), 1359-

1368.

8. Habib, M.S., Asghar, O., Hussain, A., Imran, M., Mughal,

M.P., Sarkar, B., 2021, A robust possibilistic programming

approach toward animal fat-based biodiesel supply chain

network design under uncertain environment, Journal of

Cleaner Production, 278, 122403.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

The impact of COV - 19 pandemic on use of public transport in selected city in Slovakia

Daniela Šusteková1, Lýdia Kontrová2

University of Ţilina1,2, Slovakia

Email:sustek@fpedas.uniza.sk, lydia.kontrova@fpedas.uniza.sk

Abstract: The aim of the article was to analyze the impact of lockdowns carried out during the Covid-19 pandemic in Slovakia in the years

2020 and 2021 on changes in public transport utilization in a selected locality. The sample city was the city of Košice in Slovakia and the

sample contained data about the number of transported persons by public transport in this city during single days in the years 2018, 2019,

2020, 2021.

We created weekly time series from line graphs compiled for separate years. Subsequently, we analyzed the dynamics of individual time

series using calculations of absolute and relative increments, basic indices, growth coefficients, absolute increment and total growth

coefficient, and we modeled trends in time analysis and exponential adjustment for the observed years. We compared the years before the

pandemic (2018, 2019) with the years most affected by the Corona crisis (2020, 2021). We evaluated the obtained data in the context of the

timeline of ongoing lockdowns.

Key words: LOCKDOWN, COVID - 19, TRANSPORT, Z - TEST FOR MEDIUM VALUE, TIME COUNCILS.

1. Introduction

The Covid-19 pandemic has caused the worst economic and social

shocks since the Great Depression in the 1930s. By the end of

March 2022, Covid-19 had infected about 570 million people

worldwide with more than 6.236 million deaths (Worldometer, April

22, 2022). Countries have had different approaches to resolve the

crisis. Some have focused on economic stability and minimized

Covid-19 restrictions, causing huge numbers of infections and

deaths. In other countries, including Slovakia, governments have

introduced locdowns to limit human contact and thus the spread of

infection. The countries have suspended public transport, restricted

entertainment establishments and banned public gatherings [1],[2].

Transport is one of the indicators for measuring sustainable

development through overall energy consumption, transport growth,

transport prices, and social and environmental impacts [3]. The

challenge for many cities is to at least maintain the current number

of passengers using public transport.

The Covid-19 pandemic has hit public transport hard in Slovakia

as well. Number of passengers has dropped sharply and operators in

several regions (especially in less developed towns) are currently

facing difficult questions about their future viability. Several states

of emergency and curfews have been declared in Slovakia, which

have had a significant impact on the number of people using public

transport. Even huge cities such as New York, Moscow, Milan and

Paris, [4], did not escape from the sharp decline in population

mobility between March 2020 and November 2020, as indicated by

the data in Fig.1.

Fig1 1: Decline in population mobility between March 2020 and November

2020 in selected cities

The appropriate response from public transport operators to

experienced events is to plan (anticipate) such unpredictable

episodes in the future. A thorough analysis of the impact of the

measures taken during the pandemic on changes in transport use is

therefore appropriate.

The aim of the article was to analyze the impact of lockdowns

carried out during the Covid-19 pandemic in Slovakia in 2020 and

2021 on changes in public transport utilization in a selected locality.

The chosen city was Košice and the sample contained data on

the number of transported persons by public transport in this city on

single days during the years 2018, 2019, 2020, 2021.

The obtained data were evaluated in the context of the timeline

of ongoing lockdowns. We investigated how the closure of partial

sectors (curfew, state of emergency, recommendation to work from

home, closure of schools, services, restaurants, wellness, some

workplaces, shopping centers, cultural institutions, sports grounds)

affects the number of people transported in public transport and to

what extent the use of public transport returned to its original

numbers after the cancellation of individual lockdowns (whether the

pandemic meant a global and permanent decline in the use of public

transport or it was just a short-term phenomenon).

Based on the obtained data, we tried to answer the questions:

Has the relationship of the population to the form of public transport

changed? Has the confidence in this way of transport declined? If

so, what are the main reasons, how can they be eliminated, what

measures can be taken to stop this trend. We know that, given the

negative effects on the environment, the increased orientation of the

population towards car transport at the expense of limiting the use of

public transport is not a welcome phenomenon.

2. Prerequisites and means for solving the

problem

2.1. Creation of a timeline of persons movement in

Slovakia in the years 2020 and 2021

In the first stage of the work, we created a timeline of states of

emergencies, curfews and epidemiological measures announced in

Slovakia in 2020 and 2021. Subsequently, we classified the time

periods in terms of restrictions on movement to five levels:

1. Degree: mildest measures - obligation to wear respirators

indoors, mandatory minimum distances, hand disinfection,

relaxed measures and permitted visits to schools, shopping

centers, churches, cultural and sport events, family

celebrations, facilities providing various services.

2. Degree: moderate measures - obligation to wear

respirators indoors, mandatory minimum distances, hand

disinfection, open schools and school facilities, open

shopping centers, churches, allowed cultural and sport

events, facilities providing various services for a limited

number of people.

3. Degree: stricter measures - obligation to wear respirators

indoors, mandatory minimum distances, hand disinfection,

closed schools and school facilities, ban on DSS and

hospital visits, open churches with limited number of

persons, acceptable cultural and family events for a small

number of people, facilities providing various services for

only a small number of people.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

4. Degree: strict measures - declared state of emergency,

closure of schools, shopping centers, service operations,

limited time of free movement and gathering of persons.

5. Degree: the strictest measures - state of emergency and

curfew, citizens only allowed to go to work, medical

facilities and to purchase basic needs.

After getting acquainted with the decrees (directives) concerning

pandemic measures, which were published by the Government of

the Slovak Republic in 2020 and 2021, we created relevant tables

and subsequently graphs of restrictions on the movement of persons.

When creating graphs, we applied the time variable (week) to

the horizontal axis and to the vertical axis the degree of the

restriction according to the valid directive, which was valid in the

given period.

We obtained bar graphs - Graph 2, Graph 3. These data were

then used to evaluate the correlation between the number of public

transport passengers and the degree of restriction of movement in

the analyzed weeks.

Fig. 2 The degrees of country closure 2020

Fig. 3 The degrees of country closure 2021

In Slovakia during 2020, according to our classification, there

was a degree of threat of either 4 or 5 (maximum restriction of

movement of persons) from March 15 to May 20. Subsequently, in

the autumn, with the onset of the second wave of the pandemic,

there was the closure of service operations and restrictions on the

movement of persons according to level 4 or 5 from October 1, 2020

to November 16, 2020. As of December 19, the curfew and the

strictest level of restrictions on the movement of persons were

announced. These lasted with a short release until the end of March

2021. Since mid-April, the situation with the number of people

infected with the coronavirus has gradually improved. In the

summer of 2021, measures and the movement of persons were

relaxed, but they were bound to a confirmation about a vaccination

or a negative coronavirus test.

2.2. Statistical analysis of the dates

We created a weekly time series from the daily data of the

number of passengers obtained from the transport company of the

city of Košice. We obtained initial information for the analysis of

these time series from line graphs compiled for separate years. We

applied the time variable (weeks) on the horizontal axis and the time

series values (number of public transport passengers) on the vertical

axis. We plotted the values of four time series in a line graph.

Graphs of the annual values of the weekly time series of the number

of public transport passengers in Košice in the period 2018 - 2021

show how the level of values in the given seasons differs during the

entire time series. (Fig. 4)

Fig. 4 Annual values of the weekly time series of the number of passengers

3. Solution of the examined problem

The course of the graphs in 2018 and 2019 led us to the idea of

comparing the numbers of passengers per week in public transport

in Košice in these periods. We wanted to confirm the hypothesis of

equal occupancy of public transport in Košice in 2018 and 2019, i.e.

to confirm the assumption that in the years before the pandemic, the

weekly number of public transport passengers in Košice was

approximately at the same level.

We used a two - tailed z - test for the mean, given that the

ranges of both random samples were large enough, n> 30 [5].

We tested the hypothesis

𝐻0: 𝜇1=𝜇2 against 𝐻1: 𝜇1≠ 𝜇2.

We chosen the commonly used 𝛼= 0,05.

The output from Excel (Table 1) indicates the P-value at the

level 𝑃= 0,49.

The test at the 5% level of significance proved that we do not

reject the null hypothesis: the occupancy of public transport in the

city of Košice in 2018 and 2019 was at approximately the same

level, i.e. the weekly numbers of transported passengers in these

years were approximately the same.

Table 1: z-Test: Two Sample for Means

z-Test: Two Sample for Means

Variable 1

Variable 2

Mean

265568,3396

244103,3396

Known Variance

2,65562E+14

2443405562

Observations

Hypothesized Mean

Difference

0,009589227

P(Z<=z) one-tail

0,49617451

z Critical one-tail

1,644853627

P(Z<=z) two-tail

0,992349021

z Critical two-tail

1,959963985

Subsequently, we performed a simple exponential compensation

with the selected compensation constant α = 0.7 to determine the

trend of non-seasonal swaying time series. We obtained "smoother

curves", the course of which we compared to the graphs of

movement restrictions (Fig. 5).

The degree of country closure 2020

The degree of country closure 2021

10000

50000

90000

130000

170000

210000

250000

290000

330000

370000

Annual values of the weekly time series of the

number of the passengers

2018

2019

2020

2021

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Fig. 5 Exponential balancing of the weekly time series

The analysis of the obtained graphs brought these conclusions

 As we can see from the graphs, the number of people

using public transport in the city of Košice is declining

from year to year. The reason is obviously the fact that

more and more people prefer a more comfortable way of

transport by their own car. The number of people who can

afford this mode of transport is also growing.

 In 2018 and 2019, we registered very similar numbers of

transported persons in individual weeks of the year.

Interesting is the almost identical occupancy of public

transport during the summer holidays in both years.

 We recorded the largest decrease in the number of

transported persons during the announcement of the first

curfew in Slovakia in March 2020. In this period, the

inhabitants very strictly adhered to the government's

regulations and "life in Slovakia" really almost stopped.

 The year 2021 no longer brought such a remarkable

decrease in the mobility of citizens, as a large number of

measures were targeted at unvaccinated persons, while

vaccinated persons had a greater degree of freedom of

movement. Here again, we register an interesting match in

the number of transported persons in 2020 and 2021

during the summer holidays.

In the next stage of the work, we calculated the dynamics of the

obtained time series.

Simple measures of time series dynamics allowed us to

accurately characterize the basic features of the "behavior" of the

time series, determine the periods of greatest growth (decrease) in

the number of passengers, or the average weekly percentage

decrease of passengers in the analyzed seasons.

We evaluated the dynamics of time series using calculations of

absolute and relative increments of the series (delta1, delta2) and

basic indices. We determined the acceleration or deceleration of the

trend on the basis of calculations of chain indices, growth

coefficients, and average growth coefficient [6].

Data tables compiled in MS Excel (Table2, Table3) were crucial

for us.

We derived the answers to the questions we asked above mainly

from the sixth column in the Table 2 iR = ki (see pink), which

reflects the average weekly percentage decrease (or increase) in the

number of passengers.

After finding the maximum and minimum value of the chain

indices iR = Ki in the sixth column of Table 2, we obtained

information on where, when and how the number of public transport

passengers changed the most.

As an example, we present a part of the table of time series data

for the year 2020 (Table 2).

We summarize in Table 3 the important information about the

given years, such as the average number of passengers, the

maximum, the minimum, the average weekly growth (decrease) of

passengers, the average weekly slowdown in the number of

passengers and the average weekly percentage decrease in the

number of passengers.

Table 2: Time series data for 2020

week

2020

delta

1 i

delta

2 i

iR=k

223000

223688

688

1,003085

1,00

100,31%

0,31%

214772

-8916

-9604

0,963103

0,96

96,01%

-3,99%

201609

-13163

-4247

0,904076

0,94

93,87%

-6,13%

195009

-6600

6563

0,87448

0,97

96,73%

-3,27%

199399

4390

10990

0,894166

1,02

102,25%

2,25%

213309

13910

9520

0,956543

1,07

106,98%

6,98%

203394

-9915

-3825

0,912081

0,95

95,35%

-4,65%

184775

-18619

-8704

0,828587

0,91

90,85%

-9,15%

156595

-28180

-9561

0,70222

0,85

84,75%

-15,25%

66476

-90119

-1939

0,298099

0,42

42,45%

-57,55%

33441

-33035

57084

0,14996

0,50

50,31%

-49,69%

35509

2068

35103

0,159233

1,06

106,18%

6,18%

37391

1882

-186

0,167673

1,05

105,30%

5,30%

20198

-17193

-9075

0,090574

0,54

54,02%

-45,98%

41248

21050

38243

0,184969

2,04

204,22%

104,22%

45551

4303

-6747

0,204265

1,10

110,43%

10,43%

45602

-4252

0,204493

1,00

100,11%

0,11%

58102

12500

12449

0,260547

1,27

127,41%

27,41%

76914

18812

6312

0,344906

1,32

132,38%

32,38%

96985

20071

1259

0,43491

1,26

126,10%

26,10%

Table 3: Data related to transported persons

year

2018

2019

2020

2021

average

265821

245721

129919

135225

maximum

333182

303163

223688

211051

minimum

196684

15008

11246

8914

Delta1

-5211

-5096

-4072

-1290

Delta2

-2368

-1994

-762

-1399

Average iR

=Ki

0,949

0,945

0,949

0,95

4. Results and Discussion

The lowest weekly percentage decrease in 2018 in the time

series occurred in week 52 (to 42%) and week 53 (to 14%). The

highest percentage increase was in week 45 (149%).

The lowest weekly percentage decrease in 2019 in the time

series occurred again in week 52 (to 45%) and week 53 (to 13%).

The highest percentage increase was in week 17 (139%).

The lowest weekly percentage decrease in 2020 in the time

series occurred in weeks 11 (to 42%) and weeks 53 (to 22%). Both

periods correspond to the periods of introduction of the strictest

restrictions on the movement of persons. We recorded the highest

percentage increase in week 16 (204%), which was at the time of the

release of the government measures.

The lowest weekly percentage decrease in 2021 in the time

series occurred in week 52 (to 11%). We recorded the highest

percentage increase in week 7 (270%), which was at the time of the

release of the government measures.

0,00

500000,00

Exponential balancing of the weekly time

series

exp.balanc. 0,7_18

exp. balanc.0,7_19

exp.balanc.0,7_20

exp. balanc. 0,7_21

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

The obtained results also point to the fact that the number of

public transport passengers has decreased significantly not only in

Slovakia and there may be several reasons:

✔ People avoid public transport because they anticipate the

risk of infection, which has not yet been confirmed by any

relevant research. A study in Paris declared that none of

the 150 epicenters of the coronavirus infection came from

the city's transport systems. A similar study in Austria

declared that none of the 355 cases infected with the

coronavirus in April and May 2021 were traced to public

transport[7].

✔ If transit itself was a super-spread spot, then a large

outbreak would be expected, for example, in Hong Kong

(7.5 mil. population) dependent on public transport, which

transported about 12.5 million people a day before the

pandemic[8]. According to the study, the number of

passengers there has decreased less than in other systems

in the world, and yet they have recorded only about 1,100

cases of infection. Replacement of public transport with

individual (car) transport is unbearable. Nowadays, more

than 1.3 million people die every year of road accidents

and another 4.2 million die of the health effects of air

pollution[9].

5. Conclusion

The world after COVID-19 is facing unprecedented challenges.

Nevertheless, this global pandemic presents opportunities to raise

cities and countries' awareness of their transport needs and

infrastructure, and in some cases to reduce transport dependence and

move towards more resilient and sustainable transport infrastructure

and operations in the future. Public transport, despite the potential

for reducing social distance, is nevertheless the only possibility of

transport available to many people.

The challenge for many cities is to at least maintain the current

number of passengers using public transport[11] and [12] identified

in their research several factors by which providers and passengers

can, to some extent, influence the demand for public transport.

Through the public transport policy of individual cities, regions,

and states, stabilization of the demand for public passenger transport

(PPT) is achievable [13],[14]. The relationship between satisfaction

with PPT and way of transport has been investigated by Diana [15],

Cantwell et al.[8] and Abouhassan [9].

The governments of all the concerned countries face the

following challenges:

✔ They must protect the survival and efficiency of public

transport while ensuring safe mobility during a pandemic

(unforeseen events).

✔ Without proper investment in public transport

accessibility, the developing middle class will focus more

on individual transport, which will jeopardize the

sustainability of public transport.

✔ Reducing public transport availability can likely lead to

higher unemployment, weakened access to labor market

opportunities and damage the city's productivity.

✔ For many less developed cities, it is the right time to take

the opportunity to think about reorienting the public

transport network and securing a more reliable network, as

well as increasing coverage.

✔ After overcoming the pandemic, people will choose

services that offer better reliability, lower costs,

convenience, safety and sustainability. Public transport

must be prepared to capture this return to market.

✔ Decisions for public transport on an emotional and

economic level.

✔ The coming years will be crucial in showing how many

people will work from home or use individual transport.

✔ Public transport is rarely profitable, but it is essential for

the success of large cities - a reduction in public transport

costs can be compared to "killing a hen that lays golden

eggs".

✔ Revitalized transportation systems do not need hospital-

level disinfection to function safely. What can help is to

expand contactless payments, a new culture of transit,

hand washing at bus stops (practiced in Korea).

✔ According to the results in terms of reducing traffic in the

Underground compared to transit "above" the ground, it

has been shown that passengers feel more threatened by

travelling "underground".

✔ Anticipating the number of passengers and providing real-

time response so as to avoid crowding; implementing

contactless payment systems; and providing regular and

transparent communications to staff and passengers [17].

Coming out of the pandemic, it is essential that governments learn to

use these resources to make evidence-based decisions about

infrastructure and investments to make the very best transportation

systems for their countries and cities.

The road out of the pandemic runs along tram rails, demarcated

lanes for buses and trolleybuses.

Acknowledgement

This publication was created thanks to support under the

Operational Program Integrated Infrastructure for the project:

Identification and possibilities of implementation of new

technological measures in transport to achieve safe mobility during

a pandemic caused by COVID-19 (ITMS code: 313011AUX5), co-

financed by the European Regional Development Fund.

6. References

1. R. M. Anderson, H. Heesterbeek, D. Klinkenberg, T. D.

Hollingsworth, How will country-based mitigation measures

influencethe course of the COVID-19 epidemic, ?Lancet,395, 931–

934. (2020)

2. J.A. Lewnard, Lo, N.C. Scientific and ethical basis for social-

distancing interventions against COVID-19, Lancet Infect. Dis.,20,

631–633. (2020)

3. A. Kalašová, V. Harantová, K.Culík, Public transport as a part of

shared economy.Arch. Automot. Eng. Arch. Motoryz.,85,49–56.

(2019)

4. J. Sung, Y. Monschauer, Covid-19 is changing our behaviour and

transport energy use patterns, Changes in transport behaviour during the

Covid-19 crisis, 27 May (2020), https://www.iea.org/articles/changes-

in-transport-behaviour-during-the-covid-19-

crisis?msclkid=89100f35c62911ec86c640646fd69e74

5. A.Tirpáková, Štatistické metódy a ich aplikácie, FPV UKF Nitra

(2011)

6. M. Sebera, Časové rady, Masarykova univerzita Brno, FSS

(2014)

7. Here's how to build better public transport after COVID-19, 30

April, World economic forum, (2021),

www.weforum.org/agenda/2021/04/how-improve-public-transport-

after-covid- 19/?msclkid=890f2ae6c62911ec9ed21e42438905ac

8. J. Sadik-Khan, S. Solomonow, Fear of Transit Is Bad for Cities -

The Atlantic, June 14, (2020)

https://www.theatlantic.com/ideas/archive/2020/06/fear-transit-bad-

cities/612979/

9. J.Bird, S. Criticis, N. Tsivanidis, Impact of COVID-19 on public

transport, The International Growth Centre, 6 Aug, (2020),

https://www.theigc.org/blog/impact-of-covid-19-on-public-

transport/

10. C. Polat, The demand determinants for urban public transport

service, A rewiev of the literature J. Appl. Sci.,12, 1211–1231,

(2012)

11. N. Paulley, R. Balcome, R. Mackett, H. Titheridge, J. Preston,

M. Wardman, J. Shires, P. White, The demand for publictransport:

The effects of fares, quality of services, income and car

ownership,Transp. Policy, ,13, 295–306, (2006)

12. D. Metz, Demographic determinants of daily travel demand.,

Transp. Policy,21, 20–25, (2012)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

13. G. Currie, Exploring links between the sustainability

performance of urban public transport and land use in international

cities., J.Transp. Land,11, 325–342, (2018)

14. J. Holmgren, A strategy for increased public transport usage—

The effects of implementing a welfare maximizing policy.,

Res.Transp. Econ., ,48, 221–226 (2014)

15. M. Diana, Measuring the satisfaction of multimodal travelers for

local transit services in different urban contexts, Transp. Res.Part A

Policy Pract.,46, 1–1, (2012)

16. M. Cantwell, B. Caulfield, M. O Mahony, Examining the factors

that impact public transport commuting satisfaction. J.

PublicTransp.,12, 1–21, (2009)

17.M. Abouhassan, Urban transport systems analysis, Wit Trans.

Built Environ.,176, 57–68. (2017)

18. Can public transportation survive the pandemic? Experts warn of

'death spiral' (nbcnews.com), Decembre, (2020)

https://www.nbcnews.com/tech/tech-news/can-public-

transportation-survive-pandemic-experts-warn-death-spiral-

n1252214

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Research on loading-transport machine parts in order to determine the causes of defects

Rositsa Gavrilova, Boyan Yordanov, Dimitar Krastev, Iliyan Mitov

University of Chemical Technology and metallurgy, Sofia, Bulgaria

E-mail: r.gavrilova@abv.bg

Abstract: Possible defects in the system: piston-cooling jacket occur for various reasons. This system work in severe conditions: heat load;

variable gas pressure and mechanical friction, which requires high strength, good wear resistance with limited lubrication and overall high

resistance to abrasion, corrosion and other wear.The operation of the cylinder-piston group with insufficient or poor quality oil is the most

common cause of overheating or engine blockage. Seizing of one or more pistons leads to major engine repairs or even scrapping. Damaged

fuel injectors, inaccurate injection or ignition timing can also cause the mechanism to melt or puncture. Therefore, it is essential to identify

the exact causes of defects in the system and look for ways to prevent them.

Studied details were functioned under the identical conditions of good lubrication and no overheating. The reason, apart from the ones

mentioned above, which led to their destruction, has been established.

KEYWORDS: LOADING MACHINEs, SEIZED PISTONS, DEFECTS

1.Introduction

The wear of the cylinders of automobile engines is a consequence

of the complex action of many physical and chemical fast-moving

processes, and most often it is the result of three main types of

impacts:

• erosion impact, due to mechanical friction, abrasion

and other destructive processes as a result of direct

contact with friction metal surfaces;

• corrosion effects, caused by various oxidative

processes on friction surfaces;

• abrasive impact, caused by the destruction of friction

surfaces by solid particles between them.

Each of the listed effects, as well as the combination of them, can

be the cause of defects. A common reason for the appearance of

defects is the type of material from which the individual parts of

the engine are made. These materials and them behavior is

subjected to this paper, including the following methods of

research: Chemical analysis; Macrostructural and Microstructural

metallographic analysis; Hardness measurement.

2. Preconditions and means for resolving the

problem

2.1. Theoretical Model

During operation of the engine, the pistons may break due to

forced overload, foreign body colliding with the piston or fatigue

of the material, shown in Fig.1:

Forced fracture is always caused by a foreign body colliding with

the piston while the engine is running. These foreign bodies can be

torn off parts of the connecting rod, crankshaft, valves and more.

Forced piston breakage can also occur if water or fuel enters the

cylinder and results in hydraulic shock. The fracture surfaces of

such a fracture appear gray. They do not show wear and

deformation lines. The piston breaks suddenly.

Fig 1 Examples of piston breakage caused by various

factors

a) Fracture caused by a foreign body

b) Fracture due to fatigue of material

In case of fatigue breakage of the material, deformation lines are

formed on the surface, which reveal the beginning and progressive

trend of the fracture. Fracture surfaces often wear to the point of

being extremely smooth and looking shiny. The cause of metal

fatigue breakage is overvoltage of the piston

A defect can occur due to:

• detonation combustion;

• strong vibrations of the piston if its forehead has

mechanical contact with the cylinder head;

• defects in the material of which the piston is made;

• Excessive piston clearance.

Excessive deformation of the piston bolt due to overstrain

(bending and radial deformation) causes cracks in its hole. In

addition, fatigue fractures can also be caused by cracks from

overheating the piston forehead. The figure shows the fracture of

the piston in the holes for the piston bolt.

Fig 2 Example of piston breakage caused by fracture of the

piston in the holes for the piston bolt

2.2. Experimental stand. Examination of pistons – original

piston, non-seized piston and seized pistons

The chemical composition of material from which the pistons are

made is given in Table 1. The equipment is from the BRUKER

AXS Company, Germany.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Table 1 Chemical composition of piston samples

Chemical

composition,

Original

piston

Non-

seized

piston

Seized

piston 1

Seized

piston 2

Cu %

1,33

1,21

1,25

1,22

Mg %

1,02

1,07

1,12

0,96

Si %

18,67

17,00

17,25

17,03

Fe %

0,71

0,49

0,69

0,41

Mn %

0,20

0,16

0,22

0,20

Ni %

0,88

0,80

0,71

0,92

Zn %

0,08

0,15

0,11

0,07

Ti %

0,09

0,10

Cr %

0,08

0,02

0,06

0,03

Al %

The percentage complements up to 100%

The obtained data show that the material is silumin -

AlSi18CuNiMg, [1, 2]. All three pistons are in the brand

according to Bulgarian State Standard 12223-74, as in the seized

and non-seized pistons Si is at the lower limit of 17.03 and 17%,

respectively, and in the original piston is 18.67%.

The composition of these alloys shows, that they are

multicomponent systems, based on the elements Al-Cu-Mg and

with added Si, Ni, Mn and other elements. Mn and impurities of

iron and silicon are obligatory in these alloys. The main

components providing the strengthening of the alloys are Cu and

Mg. Manganese is a must-have additive because its presence helps

to crush the structure, increase strength and corrosion resistance.

As additional elements available, Fe and Si are unavoidable in

these alloys. Iron appears as a harmful impurity that reduces their

strength and ductility. Silicon to some extent compensates for the

harmful effects of iron by binding it in a phase, more easily

destructible in plastic deformation [2÷6].

2.1.1. Macrostructural metallographic analysis

The conducted macrostructural analysis includes examination of

the place of "dragging", seizing of the piston, which was destroyed

as a result of the appearance and development of this defect. This

section was taken at magnifications of 150x and 500x, the photos

are shown in Fig. 3.

Fig. 3 Occurrence and development of seizing defect, led to

destruction of the material

Magnification 150х

Magnification 500х

2.1.2. Microstructural metallographic analysis of

piston samples

The microstructural analysis was performed after fabrication and

preparation of metallographic sections according to standard

methods. The structure was observed on a metallographic

microscope MIM 8 with a digital camera, the micrographs were

taken at magnifications of 240x and 360x. Some of them are

shown in Fig. 4÷6.

The structure of the original piston is fine with an even

distribution of the primary Si crystals. In the defective seized

piston the inhomogeneity and much coarser structure are obvious.

Accumulations of Si crystals up to 2-3 times larger than those in

the original, were observed.

The structural elements, described above, are presented at fig. 4 to

the original piston; fig. 5, to the non-seized piston and at Fig. 6,

for the seized pistons at the same magnification. Rough

separations, with uneven distribution in the matrix structure and

sharp edges, under load could become stress concentrators and be

a good reason for the initial "dragging", seizing of the detail and

subsequent destruction.

Fig. 4 Original piston

a) Magnification 240x; b) Magnification 360x;

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Fig. 5 Non-seized piston

a) Magnification 240x; b) Magnification 360x;

Fig. 6 Seized piston

a,b,c) Magnification 240x; d,e,f) Magnification 360x;

In the microstructure of the piston, which worked in the engine for

the same period of time and at a similar load, structural

inhomogeneity is also observed, but to a lesser extent.

2.1.3. Measurement of hardness of test specimens

Brinell hardness was measured on a Brinell-Rockwell equipment

at a test load F=125 [kgf] and a penetrating sphere diameter

D=5mm. Arithmetic mean values of 5 pieces were obtained, [3].

Measurements are shown in Table 2.

Table 2 Hardness measurement

Original piston

118НВ

Non-seized pistons

100НВ

Seized pistons

Values from 88 to 130 HB have been

calculated, depending on the

measurement location;

The hardness of the three pistons meets the requirements of

Bulgarian State Standard 12223-74, as the different, lower values

in the seized piston can be explained by the heterogeneity of the

structure.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

3. Results and discussion

It is impossible to give an unambiguous answer as to how long the

mechanism will last and whether the piston will not show a purely

operational defect, a defect as a result of incorrectly performed

production process or a defect of poorly selected material for its

manufacture.

Based on the comparative analysis of the original, seized and non-

seized pistons, the following conclusions were made:

In practice, the piston cylinders operate in identical modes. The

normal operating temperature of the silumin piston fronts is not

more than 250°C. In more severe operating conditions, if

overheating is allowed, the material with inhomogeneous structure

expands differently in the areas with accumulations and large

separations from those with a relatively balanced structure. The

high coefficient of linear expansion in the working piston leads to

stresses where inhomogeneous areas have already occurred during

the casting process, [5]. Due to the small distance between the

piston, the segments and the cylinder liner, the piston inflated by

thermal and structural stresses touches its walls. A “drag effect” is

observed, [4,6÷8].

4. Conclusion

The macrostructural analysis of the place of destruction showed

that the appearance and growth of the defect until its destruction is

of mixed type - in certain areas it is fragile, in neighboring -

plastic. The metal fracture visually looks like "twisted", probably

the origin of the definition "dragged" piston is due to this type.

Microstructural analysis of the samples of original and seized

pistons shows differences in the structure, mainly in the size and

distribution of silicon emissions, namely:

 The original piston has a fine structure with small single

formations. Unsuccessful modifications and omissions

in the casting technology are the most probable reason

for the presence of coarse Si crystals in the seized

piston. The structure of the non- seized piston is close to

that of the seized piston, but is characterized by smaller

sizes of Si-crystals releases and uniform distribution.

 Equivalent and approximately equal in size grains are

observed in the original piston. Areas with very large

grains and others with very small ones are observed in

the defective one. A similar effect could be obtained as a

result of poorly performed or no homogenizing

annealing, which would achieve a balanced internal

crystal structure and good ductility of the cast metal.

This gives us reason to conclude that the detail was destroyed as a

result of a technological rather than an operational defect.

5. References

1. http://www.splav-kharkov.com/z_mat_type.php

2. Anchev V., Physical Metallurgy, part I, Sofia, Technical

University, 1990.

3. Laboratory Workshop on Metallurgy, Krastev,

Yordanov, Gavrilova, Klyavkov, Lazarova, 2020, ISBN

978-954-465-108-4 9

4. BSS 2734-83 Tensile/compression material testing.

5. BSS 5177-05 Defects in castings. Terminology and

classification of defects, Sofia, 1986.

6. Handbook of Metallurgy and Metal Processing by

Plastic Deformation, Acad. Marin Drinov, Union of

Metallurgists in Bulgaria, 2009.

7. Maneva, Stanev, Details of aluminum alloys for the

automotive industry, Proceedings of "FOUNDRY

2014", 196-199, ISSN 1310-3946.

8. Stanev, Iotov, Comparative study of the behavior of dry

and abrasive friction and wear of a piston aluminum

alloy, Proceedings of "FOUNDRY 2014", 200-203,

ISSN 1310-3946.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ СЪДЪРЖАНИЕТО НА МАНГАН В ЕЛЕКТРОЛИТНИТЕ

ЖЕЛЯЗНО- НИКЕЛОВО-КОБАЛТОВО-МАНГАНОВИТЕ ПОКРИТИЯ.

INVESTIGATION OF MANGANESE CONTENT IN THE ELECTROLYTIC

IRON-NICKEL-COBALT-MANGANESE COATINGS.

д-р инж. Драголов Е.Д., д-р инж. Георгиев И.Й., инж. Георгиева Н.И., Драголов Д.Е.

България НВУ „Васил Левски”

e-mail: edragolоv@yahoo.com, iygeorgiev@nvu.bg, nigeorgieva@nvu.bg, ddragolov@abv.bg.

Abstract: In the research is made geometric representation of the polynomial model with two-dimensional sections,

which allows to obtain a set of contours for the content of manganese in iron-nickel-cobalt-manganese electrolytic alloy by

dependence on two factors at fixed values of the other two.

Keywords: ELECTROLYSIS, CONTOURS, ALLOY, MANGANESE.

1.Увод

При възстановяването на износените детайли от земедел-

ската и автотракторна техника чрез електролитни сплавни

покрития, съставът на отделните елементи е от съществено

значение за техните физикомеханични свойства [3].

Формирането на желязно-никелово-кобалтово-манганови

покрития в смесени електролити със състав: FeCl2, NiCl2,

CoCl2, MnCl2 и HCl под действието на асиметричен промен-

лив ток при редуване с честота 50 Нz, става при протичане на

процесите:

- отлагане на електролитната сплав през катодния полу-

период

- разтваряне на част от образуваната електролитна сплав

през анодния полупериод на действие на електрическия ток

Целта на настоящата разработка е геометрично предста-

вяне на полиномния модел с помощта на двумерни сечения,

което позволява да се получат съвкупност от изолинии за

съдържанието на мангана в Fe-Ni-Co-Mn електролитна сплав

чрез зависимостта от два фактора при фиксирани значения

на другите два.

2. Изложение

При изследването е използван тиристорен източник за

синусоидален асиметричен променлив ток.

При изследването са използвани цилиндрични образци от

Стомана 40Х с диаметър 10 mm и обща площ на покритието

0,01m2.

Съдържанието на Fe, Ni, Co и Mn в композиционното

покритие се определя по метода на рентгеноспектралния

анализ. Същият се извършва с помощта на рентгенова мик-

росонда тип EDS-system на фирмата Tracor-USA, снабдена

със силициев детектор и берилиево прозорче. Получените

резултати се обработват и изобразяват в графичен вид с

помощта на компютърна система. Времето за експонация е

60 s , ускоряващото напрежение е 40 кW, а ъгълът на наклона

на изследване -30°. Информацията се получава от площ с

размери 2,5х10µm, като се отчитат пиковете на интервалните

интензитети по линията К



Fe, К



Ni, К



Co, К



Mn [4].

Търсенето на адекватното описание на функцията на за-

висимостта Y Mn (% манган в електролитната сплав), е прове-

дено в областта на факторното пространство, в което се

намират оптималните условия за протичане на процеса на

отлагане [2].Тези факторни пространства са определени на

базата на предварителни изследвания. Поради това в тази

област беше решено да се изпълни от ортогонален централно

композиционен план. Факторите, техните нива и интервали-

те на вариране са дадени в таблица 1.

Въз основа на получените данни от приетия план на екс-

периментите и приетата компютърна програма се получи

функционална регресионна зависимост за съдържанието на

манган в композиционното Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покритие от техно-

логическите фактори на процеса на отлагане в изследваната

област[2], както следва:

2.05,0.128,0.238,0..022,0.053,0

..0469,0.0894,0.064,0.625,0.358,0.749,0015,2

ТДкТДкДк

ДкССТДкCY

срсрср

срсрMn







Геометрическото представяне на полиномния модел с

помощта на двумерни сечения позволи да се получи съвкуп-

ност от изолинии за съдържанието на Mn в композиционното

Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покритие чрез зависимостта от двата фактора

при фиксирани значения на останалите други два фактора.

Чрез компютърна обработка са изчислени зависимостите за

съдържание на манган в електролитното сплавно покритие

въз основа на полученото регресионно уравнение [4].

Таблица 1 Нива и интервали на кодираните фактори при определя-

не на процентното съдържание на Mn в Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покрития.

Зависимостта на съдържанието на манган в сплавта от

средната катодна плътност на тока Дкср и катодно-анодния

показател ß при постоянна Т = 333° К и С =20 g/l има вида:

1.128,0.238,0..053,0.6011,0.2686,038,1 црсрср ДкДкДкY



и се представя чрез таблица 2 и изолиниите на фиг.1. В гра-

ниците на Дкср =2÷3,5 kA/m2 и ß=3÷12 получените покрития

имат относително стабилно съдържание на Mn. Покритията,

получени при по-малки значения на Дкср и ß , имат повишено

съдържание на Mn, което рязко се увеличава при понижаване

на Дкср и ß. Тези изолинии потвърждават резултатите от

предварителните изследвания за съдържанието на Mn в

Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покрития.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Таблица 2 Резултати за съдържанието на манган в електролитна-

та сплав в зависимост от температурата и концентрацията на

MnCl2 в електролита при постоянни С =20 g/l и Т=333°К.

Фиг. 1 Изолинии за съдържание на манган в сплавта в зависимост

от Дкср и ß при Т =333°К и С =20 g/l.

Зависимостта на съдържанието на Mn в електролитната

сплав е :

2.128,0..047,0.656,0.746,0194,2 срсрср ДкДкСДкСY

от въздействието на Дкср и С при Т =333°К и ß = 9 е показа-

на на фиг. 2 по данни от табл. 3 и свидетелства за определе-

на стабилност на сплавта в диапазона Дкср =2÷4 kA/m2 . При

отлагане в електролит с неизменен състав на мангановия

хлорид. С повишаването на концентрацията на MnCl2 в гра-

ниците на Дкср =2÷4 kA/m2 съдържанието на манган в сплавта

значително се повишава.

Таблица 3 Резултати за съдържанието на манган в

електролитната сплав в зависимост от Дкср и С на MnCl2 при

постоянни ß=9 и Т=333°К.

Фиг. 2 Изолинии за съдържание на манган в сплавта в зависимост

от Дкср и С на MnCl2 при Т =333°К и ß=9.

Влиянието на Т и С на MnCl2 в него при Дкср= 3,5 kA/m2 и

ß = 9 се описва от зависимостта :

3.05,0.015,0.064,0962,1 TСTY 

и се интерпретира чрез изолиниите на фиг. 3 в съответствие

с таблица 4.

Колебанията на Т в диапазона 333° ÷ 345° К практически

не влияят върху съдържанието на манган в покритието, но се

забелязва тенденция към обедняване на покритието с манган

при повишаване на температурата. Концентрацията на MnCl2

в електролита е един от основните фактори, определящи

състава на Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покрития.

Таблица 4 Резултати за съдържанието на Mn в електролитната

сплав в зависимост от Т и концентрацията на MnCl2 в

електролита при постоянни ß=9 и Дкср =3,5 kA/m2.

Фиг. 3 Изолинии за съдържание на манган в сплавта в зависимост

от T и С на MnCl2 при Дкср =3,5 kA/m2 и ß=9.

Съвместното влияние на ß и концентрацията на MnCl2

върху състава на електролитните покрития при

Дкср= 3,5 kA/m2 и Т = 333 °К се дава от зависимостта:

4.238,0..0894,0.358,0.749,0057,2



 CCY

изобразена таблично и графично та табл. 5 и фиг. 4

Таблица 5 Резултати за съдържанието на Mn в сплавта в

зависимост от ß и С на MnCl2 в електролита при ß=9 и

Дкср =3,5 kA/m2.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Фиг. 4 Изолинии за съдържание на манган в сплавта в зависимост

от ß и С на MnCl2 при Т =333К и Дкср =3,5 kA/m2.

Анализът показва, че в електролит с малка концентрация

на манганов хлорид, формата на асиметричния ток незначи-

телно влияе върху състава на сплавта, но с обогатяването на

електролита с манганови йони ефектът на въздействие на

формата на асиметричния ток значително се повишава.

3.Заключение

Получените изолинии позволяват предварително да се

определи процентното съдържание на Мn в електролитното

покритие при определени интервали на двата фактора и

фиксирани значения на другите два. Оптималните стойности

на зависимостта на двата фактора определя процентното

съдържание на мангана в изследваната електролитна сплав.

4. Литература:

1. Кангалов Пл. Теоретичен анализ на съвместното

електрохимично отлагане на различни метали при получава-

нето на възстановителни покрития. сб. Научни трудове на

РУ “Ангел Кънчев”, Русе: ПБ при РУ “Ан. Кънчев” , 2002,

том 39,стр. 245...249.

2. Кангалов Пл., Петков Е. Характеристики и особе-

ности на възстановителните покрития от електролитни спла-

ви на основата на желязото. сб. Научни трудове на РУ “Ан-

гел Кънчев”, Русе: ПБ при РУ“Ан.Кънчев”,2005,том44,

стр. 43...47.

3. Кръстев Г., Кангалов Пл. Физико-механични и екс-

плоатационни свойства на възстановителни електролитни

покрития. сб. Научни трудове на РУ “Ангел Кънчев”, Русе:

ПБ при РУ “Ан. Кънчев” , 2004, том 41, стр. 142...144.

4. Комитов Г., Станев Л., Многофакторно изследване

на нанасянето на възстановително манганово покритие, НТК,

Сб. Доклади, Сливен, 2005.

5. Tontchev N. L. Kirilov, Two methods for solving mul-

tiple criteria decision making (mcdm) problems, amtech`05, 2,

18-23 2005

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

ИЗСЛЕДВАНЕ ВЛИЯНИЕТО НА ТЕХНОЛОГИЧНИТЕ ПАРАМЕТРИ ВЪРХУ

СЦЕПЛЕНИЕТО НА ЕЛЕКТРОЛИТНАТА СПЛАВ ОТ

ЖЕЛЯЗО-НИКЕЛ-КОБАЛТ-МАНГАН

INVESTIGATION OF THE INFLUENCE OF TECHNOLOGY PARAMETERS ON

COHESION OF ELECTROLYTIC IRON-NICKEL-COBALTIC-MANGANESE ALLOY

д-р инж. Драголов Е.Д., д-р инж. Георгиев И.Й., инж. Георгиева Н.И., Драголов Д.Е.

България НВУ „Васил Левски”

e-mail: edragolоv@yahoo.com, iygeorgiev@nvu.bg, nigeorgieva@nvu.bg, ddragolov@abv.bg.

Abstract: We examined a new technological scheme by gradually increasing the density of the electricity in the initial period is obtained

shelter with reduced hardness providing sufficient cohesion of electrolytic iron-nickel-cobalt-manganese coating.

Keywords: ELECTROLYSIS, COHESION, SHELTER, ALLOY.

1.Увод

При подбора на материала за електролитните покрития и

за неговото нанасяне обикновено се оценява здравината на

сцепление. Тази характеристика се смята за една от основни-

те [1] особено в тези случаи когато покритието се използва за

възстановяване на износени детайли [2].

Здравината на сцепление на покритието с основния метал

зависи не само от характера на връзката между метала и

покритието, но и от нивото на вътрешните напрежения.

Целта на разработката е да се изследват режимите на но-

вата технологична схема осигуряващи достатъчно добро

сцепление на Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покритие чрез използване на

преходен слой.

2. Изложение

В сравнение с общоизвестната технология за електро-

литното пожелезяване в хлоридни горещи електролити, е

предложена нова технологична схема, която в началния

период на отлагане осигурява подслой с понижена твър-

дост[2]. След анодна обработка върху образците се отлага

преходен слой , получен при висока киселинност с асимет-

ричен токов режим в основната вана с четирикомпонентен

електролит (FeCl2 X 4H2O), (NiCl2 X 4H2O), (CoCl2 X 4H2O) и

(MnCl2 X 4H2O.)След този слой технологичните операции са

извършвани съгласно известната технологична схема [4].

Сцеплението на Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покритие с основата се оп-

ределя съгласно разработената методика за оценка на нор-

малното откъсване с помощта на коничните щифтове с ра-

ботно сечение 3,01mm2, изработени от Стомана 40Х [1].

Последната механична обработка на образците челно се

извършва върху шкурка 400. Времетраенето на напластява-

нето с електролитна Fe-Ni-Co-Mn сплав в основната вана е от

50 до 60 минути. Сцеплението на покритието с основата се

определя чрез измерване на усилието при откъсване на ма-

шина за комбинирано изпитание на опън и натиск ZD 10/90

на фирмата „FRITZHECKERT” – Германия.

След проучване на априорната информация за решаване

на поставената задача са подбрани фактори , чието влияние

върху сцеплението е силно проявено или противоречиво –

напр. концентрацията на никеловия, кобалтовия и мангано-

вия двухлорид.

Нивата и интервалите на вариране на променливите фак-

тори са избрани след предварителен анализ и са показани в

таблица 1.

Таблица 1 Нива и интервали на кодираните фактори при определя-

не на процентното съдържание на Ni в Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покритие.

Първите три фактора характеризират условията на елект-

ролизата в основната вана, а четвъртият има отношение към

твърдостта на подслоя.

Тъй като броя на факторите е

4m

, при използване на

пълен факторен експеримент с дължина на звездното рамо –

1,414 и брой на опитите – 25 [3].

Провеждането на опитите е рандомизирано по таблицата

на случайните числа при четирикратна повторяемост на

всеки опит. С цел провеждане на статистически анализ на

получените резултати са проведени още пет допълнителни

опита в центъра на плана. Въз основа на данните от приетата

матрица за провеждане на експериментите, на компютър се

получава регресионната зависимост за здравината на сцепле-

нието на отложената електролитна сплав с подложката

/основата / в изследваната област:

4342

32413121432

39,239,1

88,018,08,15,148,03,28.18,485

XXXX

XXXXXXXXXXXY





Посредством дисперсионния анализ се постига висока

информационна способност на модела и адекватност на

неговите експериментални данни при 95 % равнище на дове-

рителна вероятност.

Факторите в уравнението на регресия са кодирани. От

трите значими фактора /концентрацията на NiCl2, CoCl2

MnCl2; киселинността; катодно-анодния показател /най-

силно влияние върху здравината на сцепление Fe-Ni-Co-Mn

сплав с основата оказва киселинността на електролита. Рег-

ресионното уравнение потвърди предварителната информа-

ция за влиянието върху киселинността върху сцеплението.

Най-добри резултати за силата на сцепление 491 ÷ 497 МРа

са получени при температура 328 К и киселинност 0,4 рН.

Влиянието на концентрацията на никеловия, кобалтовия и

мангановия двухлорид и на коефициента ß в изследвания

интервал е по-слабо изразено.

Геометричното представяне на получения полиномен

модел с помощта на двумерните сечения позволява да се

получи съвкупност от криви с равни значения за здравината

на сцепление на електролитната Fe-Ni-Co-Mn сплав с осно-

вата, чрез зависимостта от два фактора при фиксирано зна-

чение на останалите два [3]. Чрез заместване в изведеното

регресионно уравнение фиксираните два фактора, считайки

че Y е параметър, се изразява третият фактор чрез четвъртия.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

По този начин се получават уравнения на изолиниите, изра-

зяващи един от факторите чрез някои от останалите.

Зависимостта на сцеплението на желязно-никелово-

кобалтово-мангановото покритие с основата от рН и ß при

постоянна температура Т = 318 К и концентрация на NiCl2,

CoCl2 , MnCl2 – С =20 g/l има вида :

131,271,2 38,18,485

ХY

X





Зависимостта се представя чрез изолиниите на фиг.1

посредством данните от таблица 2. В диапазона на измене-

ние на катодно-анодния показател (ß = 6 ÷ 8) и киселинност

на електролита (рН = 0,4 ÷ 0,7) напластените образци показ-

ват понижена здравина на сцепление. Образците , напласте-

ни при по-високи стойности на ß = 8 ÷ 10 и рН = 0,7 ÷ 1 имат

повишена здравина на сцепление.

Таблица 2 Резултати за сцеплението на Fe-Ni-Co-Mn покритие с

основата в зависимост от рН и ß при постоянни Т=318 K и С=20

g/l за Y1 на MnCl2 в електролита при постоянни С =20 g/l и

Т=333°К.

Фиг. 1 Изолинии за сцеплението на покритието с основата в

зависимост от рН и ß при постоянни Т=318° K и С=20 g/l за Y1.

Влиянието на температурата на електролита и катодно-

анодния показател при постоянни: рН = 1 и С = 20 g/l се дава

от зависимостта:

214,051,1 96,21,486

ХY

X





Изолиниите на тази зависимост са показани на фиг.2 с

помощта на данните от таблица 3.

Анализът показва, че по-ниската температура практичес-

ки не оказва влияние върху силата на сцеплението на нап-

ластените образци с електролитната сплав, независимо от

колебанията на ß.

Таблица 3 Резултати за сцеплението на покритието с основата в

зависимост от Т и ß при постоянни рН =1 и С=20 g/l за Y2.

Фиг. 2 Изолинии за сцеплението на покритието с основата в

зависимост от Т и ß при постоянни рН =1 и С=20 g/l за Y2.

Съвместното влияние на С на NiCl2, CoCl2, MnCl2 и ß

при постоянни: Т = 318° К и рН = 1 , върху силата на сцепле-

нието на напластените образци с електролитната сплав се

дава от зависимостта:

316,039,1 38,2489

3



 Х

ХY

Тя е изобразена графично на фиг.3 посредством данни от

табл. 4. Понижаването на С = 27 ÷ 10 g/l влияе положително

върху силата на сцепление, независимо от колебанията на ß.

Таблица 4 Резултати за сцеплението на покритието с основата в

зависимост от С и ß при постоянни рН =1 и Т=318° K за Y3.

Фиг. 3 Изолинии за сцеплението на покритието с основата в

зависимост от С и ß при постоянни рН =1 и Т=318° К за Y3.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Съвместното влияние на С и Т при постоянни рН = 1 и

ß = 8 върху силата на сцепление на напластените образци се

определя от зависимостта:

7,15,1 226,16,488

4



Х

ХY

Графичното изображение е показано на фиг.4 посредст-

вом данни от табл.5 . Интервалите в температурните граници

(280° ÷ 295° К) реално не оказват съществено влияние върху

силата на сцепление. Забелязва се незначително увеличаване

на силата на сцепление при понижаване на С =28 ÷ 12 g/l.

Таблица 5 Резултати за сцеплението на покритието с основата в

зависимост от С и Т при постоянни рН =1 и ß = 8 за Y4.

Фиг. 4 Изолинии за сцеплението на покритието с основата в зави-

симост от С и Т при постоянни рН =1 и ß = 8 за Y4

3.Заключение

Сцеплението на електролитната сплав от Fe, Ni, Co, и Mn

основно се влияе от по-високите стойности на Т в диапазона

290° ÷ 340° К и от рН – 0,55 ÷ 1,05, които водят до относи-

телно повишаване силата на сцепление на отложеното пок-

ритие с основния материал.

4. Литература:

1. Василев В.,Технология за възстановяване на детай-

ли,ПБ при ТУ-Русе,1996

2. Митков Ат., Минков Д., Статистически методи за изс-

ледване и оптимизиране на ССТ, София, ЗЕМИЗДАТ, 1989

3. Стойков С.Н.,Стоянов В.А.Възстановяване на детайли-

те чрез пожелезяване,Русе,1989

4. Tontchev N. Peculiarities applyng multi criteria decision

aiding approach a clas problems in material science, Amtech`05,

2, 12-17 2005

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

ИДЕЕН ПРОЕКТ ЗА СЪЗДАВАНЕ И УДЪРЖАНЕ НА ПЛАЗМА ОТ

ИЗОТОПИТЕ НА ВОДОРОДА ДЕУТЕРИЙ И ТРИТИЙ И НЕГОВОТО

ПРИЛОЖЕНИЕ В ТЕХНОЛОГИЯТА НА ТЕРМОЯДРЕН СИНТЕЗ.

CONCEPTUAL DESIGN FOR THE CREATION AND RETENTION OF PLASMA FROM THE

ISOTOPES OF HYDROGEN DEUTERIUM AND TRITIUM AND ITS APPLICATION IN

FUSION TECHNOLOGY.

Инж. – физик Ташев В.Л, Гл. асистент Манев А. П., физик Вълев Д. Т.

Институт за космически изследвания и технологи - Бългаска Академия на Науките

Филиал Стара Загора, България

veselinlt@abv.bg

Abstract: Of the several known types of fusion reactions, the most interesting is practically the one between deuterium and tritium

carried out at extremely high temperatures in the plasma state. The result is helium, free neutrons and a huge amount of energy. Traditional

research into controlled thermonuclear fusion is carried out in a reactor called TOKAMAK. The basic philosophy of our idea is to carry out

numerous micro-thermonuclear explosions so that the energy is absorbed in small portions without destroying the equipment. The purpose

of the created high temperature is to bring the working substance into a plasma state. The possibility of generating plasma in the PN

junction of a powerful bipolar transistor is theoretically considered.

Key word: Thermonuclear fusion

1. Увод.

Контролираната реакция на термоядрен синтез се

осъществява в съвременните реактори за ядрен синтез, които се

развиват интензивно през последните десетилетия. Такъв е

международния проект ITER Засега обаче няма положителни

резултати в тази посока. За разлика от атомните централи, в

които има деленe на тежки радиоактивни атомни ядра, в

термоядрените добива на електроенергия се извършва чрез

синтез на леки ядра. Основното предимство на тези централи

е, че те са екологично по-чисти, значително по-безопасни, а

очакваната цена на енергията по-ниска.

От известните няколко вида реакции на ядрен синтез

практически най-интересна е:

(1)

MevnHeTD 58.17

4

Където D – деутерий

Т – тритий

Деутерия и трития са изотопи на водорода.

Интереса към нея се дължи на факта, че тя е енергетично

най-изгодна. За ефективността на термоядрения синтез може да

се съди от следните приблизителни примери: Един грам от D-T

плазма може да произведе 100 000 kWh електроенергия,

равняваща се на енергията получена от 8 тона въглища или при

“изгарянето” на една чаша с вода от деутерий и тритий, в

термоядрен реактор ще се отдели толкова енергия, колкото при

изгарянето на един тон нефт. Деутерият се съдържа в

обикновената вода в съотношение 1 : 7000 спрямо водорода и

може лесно да се извлича от нея.

2. Основни проблеми в термоядренния

реактор.

За да се осъществи термоядрен синтез, плазмата и

съоръженията за нейното удържане трябва да отговарят на

определени условия, които са оценени за първи път от Лоусън:

1. Достатъчно висока температура на плазмата от порядъка

на T = 4.109K. При толкова висока температура деутерият се

превръща в плазма.

2. Плазмата трябва да има достатъчно голяма плътност, за

да протичат много реакции на сливане.

3. Силно магнитно поле за удържане на плазмата.

4. Време за удържане на плазмата - произведението от

плътността на плазмата по времето, за което тя се удържа в

реактора ( nτ ) да бъде по-голямо от 10

20 m-3s.

Тези условия пораждат и доста сериозни проблеми, някои

от тях нерешими на този етап.

3. Нова философия на управляемия

термоядрен синтез.

Конструирането на лазерни установки за термоядрен синтез

е не само технологична новост, но и принципно нов начин на

мислене. Доскоро добива на енергия от термоядрен взрив се

отхвърляше категорично, заради разрушителния характер на

процеса. Днес, новия подход в мисленето ни подсказва, че би

могло да се изготви водородна бомба, толкова малка, че

нейното взривяване да няма разрушителен характер. Като се

взривяват контролирано поредица от микробомби на практика

се овладява управлението на термоядренния синтез.

Най-впечатляващия експеримент в този смисъл бе проведен

през 2011г. в лабораторията на американския научен комплекс

National Ignition Facility (NIF). Там бе тествана успешно

система за запалване на сфера с термоядрено гориво.

За да се получи термоядрена реакция е нужно D-T ядреното

гориво да е във вид на ледено топче с плътност 1029 частици на

м3 и диаметър 1мм. Тези съвсем малки количества вещество са

необходими с оглед да не би взривът да има разрушителен

характер върху реактора. В тази установка е предвидено 192

лазерни лъча да се насочат не върху самата сфера с берилиева

обвивка и деутерий-тритиев пълнител, а върху металния

(златен) цилиндър, в който тя се намира. Той се нагрява и

отдава получената енергия във вид на рентгеново излъчване,

което си взаимодейства с мишената. Тази енергия трябва да

доведе до изпарение и бързо изтичане на вещество (аблация) от

повърхността на сферата благодарение на берилия. Взривният

процес на аблацията ще даде направление навътре на ударната

вълна, която ще свие и нагрее горивото, намиращо се в

централната част на мишената до термоядрени параметри, след

което горенето ще започне да се разпространява от центъра към

периферията. Вместо магнитни полета, плазмата се ограничава

от инерцията на собствената и маса – попоради тази причина се

използва терминът инерционно задържане на термоядренния

синтез (inertial confinement fusion ICF) [6], [7], [8].

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Експериментът е дал положителни резултати с ледено топче от

обикновена вода в смисъл, че са постигнати условия за

термоядрен синтез. Предстои експеримент с ледено топче от

деутерий и тририй.

Тази установка със 192 лазерни лъчи обаче, е доста сложна

и произведената енергия вероятно ще бъде доста скъпа,

особено като се има в предвид, че вложената енергия е все още

повече от получената,

За да се реши този проблем ние предлагаме следната идея:

Конструиране на евтина електрическа запалка за

еднократна употреба.

В този случай, микро термоядрената бомба (ледена микро

сфера) заедно с електрическата запалка и електронния ключ се

монтират в един корпус, условно наречен термоядрен реактор.

Той се поставя в резервоар с работно вещество, например вода

или течен метал литий, което ще акумулира енергията на

взрива. Самия реактор трябва да е евтин, защото ще се

използва еднократно. Схемата на електрическата запалка е

показана в силно опростен вид на фиг. 1.

Фиг. 1 Електрическа запалка за термоядрен реактор.

В схемата с лазерното запалване за еднократно използване

ще бъде само мишената, но възниква проблема с опазване на

сложната и скъпа лазерна установка от микро термоядрения

взрив.

Целта на установката показана на фиг. 1 е да се

концентрира електрически ток с много голяма плътност в едно

миниатюрно пространство, в което е разположена

термоядрената мишена. Реакторът, който съдържа освен

запалката, с термоядреното гориво и електронния ключ, се

потапя в резервоара с вода. Бързо действащия електронен ключ

се задейства дистанционно и ако запалката осигури

необходимите условия за термоядрен синтез ще последва

взрив. Цялата енергия се поема от резервоара, който е разчетен

така, че да издържи на ударната механична вълна.

Температурата на водата ще се покачи значително. Взривовете

могат да се управляват през по-малки или по-големи

интервали от време в зависимост от това колко висока искаме

да бъде температурата на водата. Горещата вода се изпраща

към съответната турбина за генериране на електрическа

енергия.

4. Идеи за нов вид електрическа запалка.

Идеята е - да се използва колекторния p-n преход в

мощен високочестотен биполярен транзистор като

електрическа запалка и термоядрен реактор едновременно!

Тази идея възникна случайно, когато в нашата

експериментална практика, тествахме разработено от нас

електронно управление за стъпков двигател с много голяма

мощност. Крайната схема е показана на фиг. 2.

На ключовия транзистор първоначално се подава високо

напрежение от порядъка на 270 волта, за да се увеличи

динамиката на задвижването, след което то се изключва

автоматично и се преминава към по-ниско напрежение. В

цялата електрическа верига има минимално омическо

съпротивление от порядъка на 1-2 ома. Ако управляващата

система по някаква причина не изключи своевременно

високото напрежение, токът през ключовия транзистор

нараства лавинообразно и той се поврежда с лек взрив. Тази

повреда е много интересна, защото след нея се вижда, че част

от корпуса липсва. В следствие на огромната енергия

инжектирана в колектора, който е залепен за корпуса,

температурата нараства толкова много, че част от корпуса се

изпарява.

Фиг. 2 Електронно управление с индуктивен товар.

В същото време базовия извод на транзистора остава запоен

към свързващия проводник, което показва че температурата

там не надхвърля 100°С, въпреки че той е метален, свързан е с

колекторния преход и е с дължина само няколко милиметра.

От този факт следва важния извод, че термодинамичните

процеси в колекторния преход протичат с толкова голяма

скорост, че рязкото покачване на температурата там не води до

покачване на температурата в базовия извод. От това пък

следва, че в колекторния преход е налице явление познато като

„взрив”.

Взрив или експлозия се нарича явлението, при което

работното вещество внезапно и драстично увеличава обема си

и е съпроводено с освобождаване на голямо количество

енергия при високи температури, отделяне на газове, радиация

и частици във вид на нуклеони. Експлозиите предизвикват

ударни механични вълни. В случая на явлението „взрив“

интересното е това, че кинетичната енергия на частиците

(температурата) в част от тялото може да се повиши драстично

преди да се отнеме топлина за загряване и на останалите

частици.

От казаното до тук следва важния извод, че температурата в

една част от тялото може рязко да се повиши докато в съседна

част на тялото температурата може да е много ниска. И още

нещо много важно – оказва се, че дори и не много голяма

енергия концентрирана в много малък (нано) обем може да

предизвика рязко покачване на температурата до много високи

стойности. За това има основно 2 причини:

- Топлопроводимостта на тялото е много ниска.

- Термодинамичните процеси протичат с толкова голяма

скорост, че времето се оказва недостатъчно за да може

топлината да се разпространи и да отнеме енергия.

Втория случай е характерен за взривните вещества.

Инжектирането на голямо количество енергия в определена

част от тялото води до рязко покачване на кинетичната енергия

на частиците, а от там и на тяхната температура, преди

топлината да се разнесе до съседните частици и да повиши

тяхната температура. Известно е, че при взривните вещества с

голяма ефективност, например тротил, ударната механична

вълна се разпространява със скорост от порядъка на 6 000

м/сек. Доколкото процесът на окисляване в химическите

вещества протича значително по-бързо, то частиците получават

огромни количества кинетична енергия преди да се разбягат.

Поради тази причина първоначално взривното вещество е с

началния си обем и едва когато частиците получат голяма

кинетична енергия започват да се разбягват, от което се

получава могъща ударна вълна, наречена още детонация.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Следователно, ако се инжектира в p-n прехода на един

транзистор поток от електрони (електрически ток) с голяма

плътност, да предположим около 100 Ампера, с голяма

скорост, да предположим 1000 Волта, в ограничен обем, да

предположим 1 кубичен милиметър е възможно да се създадат

условия за възникване ядро със свръх висока температура, т. е.

образуване на плазма и условия за микро термоядрен синтез.

Корпусът на транзистора може да се покрие от вътрешна

страна с литий, така че да се осъществи реакцията от типа

Деутерий-Тритий.

Подобен е процесът във физически конструираната

водородна бомба, която за съжаление има само огромен

разрушителен ефект. Там кинетичната енергия в сместа

деутерий-тритий се нагнетява от експлозията на атомна бомба,

още преди частиците да се разбягат и осъществят детонацията.

Следователно в този случай, не е необходимо да има корпус,

наречен термоядрен реактор със силно магнитно поле, който да

удържа високо нагрята плазма, както и да я предпазва от

топлинни загуби. Казаното до тук е в сила и за всички останали

случаи, когато се инжектира голямо количество енергия в

ограничено пространство със свръх висока скорост на

термодинамичните процеси. По същата логика и в цитирания

случай на инжектиране на електрически ток посредством p-n

прехода на един транзистор в термоядрената мишена не е

необходим термоядрен реактор в класическия му вид.

Единственото, което трябва да се направи е да се имплантират

една или няколко капки смес деутерий-тритий в областта на

колекторния преход на един транзистор. Схемата е показана на

фиг. 3.

Фиг. 3 Схема на полупроводников термоядрен реактор

Честотата на взривяване автоматично се регулира в

зависимост от желаната температура на водата.

5. Енергиен и електрически разчет на

експерименталната установка.

Като имаме в предвид закона на Авогадро лесно можем да

пресметнем, че 18 грама вода или 18 милилитра вода съдържат

6.02*1023 частици. Тогава в една капка, която

средностатистически е 1/40 от милилитъра ще се съдържат

0,00836*1023 частици. Тъй като в термоядрената реакция

участват 2 частици и се отделя 17,58 МеV енергия, то общия

добив на енергия от една капка ще е:

(2)

][101177.0

][106.17106.11000836.05.0

61923

eVE



 

- Където числото 1.6*10-19 превръща енергията от

електронволт в джаули.

От друга страна 1 литър нафта отделя 4,19*107J енергия.

Следователно при пълното изгаряне на 1 капка деутерий и

тритий се отделя енергия колкото от 28 литра нафта. Това е

цялата излъчена енергия, но каква част от нея реално ще се

усвои на този етап е трудно да се пресметне. Разчетът е

направен за една капка, защото това е максималното

количество термоядренно гориво, което може да се вмести в

стандартния корпус на мощен транзистор.

Освен това можем да пресметнем и енергията необходима

за загряване на една капка вода до температура от 10*106 С,

каквато е необходима за образуване на плазма и осъществяване

на термоядрен синтез. При предположение, че в 1 милилитър

вода се съдържат около 40 капки и че в първо приближение

деутерия и трития са с топлинни параметри като тези на водата,

за енергията получаваме:

(3)

][10105.0][19.41010025.0 76 JJE 

Това предполага, че за да се осигури тази енергия в p-n

прехода трябва да се инжектира ток с големина от 500 А, при

напрежение 2000 V, в рамките на 1 секунда. За сведение можем

да споменем, че в плазмения шнур на съвременните

термоядрени реактори протича ток от порядъка на 2 до 20

милиона ампера.

Ако сравним резултатите получени във формула (2) и

формула (3) ще видим, че прихода на енергия е около 1 000

пъти по-голям от колкото разхода. Нещо повече – кинетичната

енергия на частиците плазма образувана от ядрата на деутерия

и трития се трансформира и запазва в изходните продукти

хелий и неутрони, а от там във водата на басейна показан на

фиг. 3. Това допълнително повишава коефициента на полезно

действие на системата. Колко големи ще са загубите засега все

още не можем точно да пресметнем, но се вижда от формула

(2) и формула (3), че резервите са големи.

Както енергийните така и електрическите разчети на

този етап имат предимно качествен характер. За

местоположение на термоядрения заряд избираме биполярен

транзистор и то в колекторния p-n преход, защото той е

управляем от базовия. Точно на базовия p-n преход подаваме

управляващия импулс, за да стартираме термоядрения процес.

Този транзистор трябва да е високочестотен, за да обезпечи

бързо нарастване на тока през него, респективно бързо

покачване на температурата. Индуктивността в изхода на

транзистора трябва силно да ограничи скоростта на изтичане на

електроните от него. По този начин максимално се усвоява

енергията на електронната инжекция в колектора на

транзистора.

6. Заключение:

В момента, все още липсват достатъчно експериментални

данни, за да се проектира в подробности конкретната

електрическа схема.

Литература:

[1]. Dinko Dinev, Controlled thermonuclear fusion into

important decision, Institute for Nuclear Research and Nuclear

Energy Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, ( in bulgarian) 2004 .

[2]. Ratko K. Janev, Atomic and plasma-material interaction

processes in controlled thermonuclear fusion., Elsevier Science,

1993 ISBN-10: 0444816305

[3]. D. Lindl, Development of the indirect-drive approach to

inertial confinement fusion and the target physics basis for ignition

and gain, Physics of Plasmas, Vol. 2, November 1995,

[4]. Post D.E., Behrisch R., Physics of plasma-wall

interactions in controlled fusion, Plenum Press, New York, NY,

1984 , OSTI Identifier: 7012450

[5]. C. Yamanaka, Inertial confinement fusion: The quest for

ignition and energy gain using indirect drive, 1999 Nucl. Fusion 39

825 doi:10.1088/0029-5515/39/6/702

[6]. D. Keefe, Inertial Confinement Fusion, Annual Review of

Nuclear and Particle Science, Vol. 32: 391-441 1982 DOI:

10.1146/annurev.ns.32.120182.002135

[7]. John D. Lindl, Robert L. McCrory, E. Michael Campbell,

Progress toward Ignition and Burn Propagation in Inertial

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Confinement Fusion, September 1992, ISSN 0031-9228 Publisher:

American Institute of Physics

[8]. Pitts, J.H., Hovingh, J., Walters, S., Inertial-confinement

fusion, 1982 Oct, DOE Contract Number: W-7405-ENG-48

[9[. R. Betti, V. N. Goncharov, R. L. McCrory, and C. P.

Verdon, Growth rates of the ablative Rayleigh–Taylor instability in

inertial confinement fusion, Phys. Plasmas 5, 1446 (1998);

http://dx.doi.org/10.1063/1.872802

[10[. Powers, L.; Condouris, R.; Kotowski, M.; Murphy, P.W.

(eds.), Inertial confinement fusion Publication Date: 1992 Jan 01

DOE Contract Number: W-7405-ENG-48

[11]. John H. Nuckolls, Lowell L. Wood, Inertial Confinement

Fusion Fundamental Theories of Physics Volume 30, 1988, pp 157-

158 [12].

https://lasers.llnl.gov/programs/nic/icf/how_icf_works.php

[13]. https://lasers.llnl.gov/programs/nic/icf/

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Special cases in determining the critical buckling load of Euler elastic columns

Svetlana Lilkova-Markova1,*, Dimitar Lolov2

University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria1

University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy, Sofia, Bulgaria2

lilkova_fhe@uacg.bg, dlolov@yahoo.com

Abstract: The Energy method is widely applied to determine the critical loads in elastic systems. A widely used variant of the method

applies the Rayleigh-Ritz approach where the approximation of the buckling mode of the column is a function that satisfies the boundary

conditions. A numerical example of a two-storey column is considered. An important aspect in the problem is the solution the complex

integrals that emerge during the solution process. That problem could be overcome by the use of math software. The investigated column is

hinged at its both ends and has an additional lateral support in the middle. It is loaded with a compressive distributed load alongside its

length.

Keywords: STABILITY, CRITICAL FORCE, ELASTIC COLUMNTS, ENERGY METHOD, EULER’S FORMULA

1. Introduction

Stability of axially compressed columns has been studied

thoroughly by Euler. If a slender column is loaded by a load above

its critical buckling value, it may buckle. If the compressive force is

less than the critical load, the rectilinear equilibrium form of the

column is stable. [4]

The stability analysis in mechanical engineering often leads to

nonlinear differential equations that could be solved numerically or

with approximate solution techniques.

In [1, 2], the homotopy analysis method is applied to determine

the critical forces in Euler columns. Article [5] is devoted to the

variational iteration method for stability analysis of a column.

In [3] the Picard’s method is applied for stability analysis of a

Euler column with pinned ends. A suitable function, satisfying the

boundary conditions, is used for the initial approximation to the

buckling mode.

This paper investigates the stability of a two-storey Euler

column using the Energy method. The column into the

consideration is pinned at both of its ends, and with a lateral support

in the middle. The method derives simplified and accurate solution

of the problem.

2. Problem formulation

The present paper considers a buckled column of length

under an external axial compressive force

and compressive

distributed load t alongside its length. The column, shown in Fig.1,

is hinged at its both ends and has an additional lateral support in the

middle.

Fig. 1 Static scheme of the investigated column

The function of the first buckling shape of the column is defined

as follows:

(1)

 





sin

The bending moment in any section m of the buckled column,

shown in Fig.2, is [6]

(2)

   

xMxMM Ft 

;

(3)

     

 



dxwtxM

t

;

(4)

   

xwFxMF

Fig. 2 First buckling mode of the investigated column

The definition of the function of the deflection

 



is the same

as that of the function

 

(5)

 





sin

Substituting the function

 



in the equation (3) for the

bending moment, yields

(6)

      













 

tdxlxwtxM



The solution of the integral in (6) leads to the following

expression

(7)

 













1

cos

2lxl







After inserting equations (1) and (7) in equation (6), the

following form for the bending moment

 

xMt

is acquired

(8)

   





















 1

cos

sin lxl

xltxMt





The expression (8) satisfies the following boundary conditions

for the column in Fig. 1

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

(9)

 

00 

;

(10)

 

0lMt

;

Inserting (4) and (8) in equation (3), yields

(11)

 

 lx

FxM





sin

 





















 1

cos

sin lxl

xlt





The Energy method is applied to determine the critical loads on

the elastic column in Fig.1.

(12)

tF WWU 

The strain energy

, that is accumulated in the column as it is

being bend, is

(13)

 

dxxM





The solution of the complex integral in (13) is a hurdle to be

overcome. The math software could be the solution of the problem.

(14)























 16

6222 12







The work of the compressive force

while lowering its acting

point is

(15)

dwF

2













(16)





The work of the compressive distributed load

while lowering

its acting point is

(17)

dxd

l l



1 













(18)



Wt

The total potential energy of the system is:

(19)

tF WWU 

In order the system to be in equilibrium, the total potential

energy



must be stationary. The condition for that is the first

derivative

(20)

0



















(21)































212

222







tltFlF

02 22 



Ft cr





;

76,410l

tF cr 

;

The accuracy of the solution could be improved by adding an

additional term in the function of the first buckling shape [6].

(22)

 

axw



sin

sin 

The same computational procedure is followed here. The details

are omitted for brevity.

(23)

 





sin

sin 

(24)

   



























 1

cos

sin

sin lxla

axltxMt





















 1

cos

4lxlb



(25)





























 1

649

232







lblbaal

 







 22

33812

16 bbaa



(26)

 

2ba

Wt



(27)

WU 

Here there are two conditions for the stationarity of the total

potential energy

(28)

0













;

(29)

0













(30)

3









































ababa

;

(31)

3









































bbaba

;

Let





, then the system of equations (30) and (31)

obtains the form

(32)

 

048.396336.39444.0

09444.08696.96648.4





pba

bpa

In order to obtain a non-trivial solution, the determinant from

the coefficients in front of

and

must vanish.

(33)

   

48.396336.39444.0

9444.08696.96648.4 



The minimal root for

corresponds to the critical load

(34)

65,390895,2min l

tp cr 

3. Conclusion

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

The major disadvantage of the applied Energy method for

solving the stability problem of a Euler column, subjected to a

distributed compressive load alongside its length, is the great

amount of computational work that has to be done. In the course of

the solution process lots of complex integrals appear. That problem

could be overcome by the use of a math software

4. References

1. M.T.Atay, M. T. , Determination of critical buckling loads for

variable stiffness Euler columns using homotopy perturbation

method, International Journal of Nonlinear Sciences and Numerical

Simulation, Volume 10, Issue 2, 2009.

2. A. Eryılmaz, M.T. Atay, S.B. Coşkun, M. Başbük, Buckling of

Euler columns with a continuous elastic restraint via homotopy

analysis method. Journal of Applied Mathematics, Volume 2013,

Special Issue ,2013.

3. C. C. Ike, E. U. Ikwueze, I.O. Ofondu, Picard’s successive

iteration method for the elastic buckling analysis of Euler columns

with pinned ends, Saudi Journal of Civil Engineering Vol.2, Issue 2,

2018.

4. K. Mladenov, J. Klecherov, S. Lilkova-Markova, V. Rizov,

Strength of Materials, ABC Technics, 2012.

5. F. Okay, M.T. Atay, S.B. Coşkun, Determination of buckling

loads and mode shapes of a heavy vertical column under its own

weight using the variational iteration method. International Journal

of Nonlinear Sciences and Numerical Simulation, Volume 11, Issue

10, 2010.

6. C. Yoo, C. Sung Special topics in elastic stability of columns,

Stability of structures, 2011.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Development of secure software

Valentina Petrova

Nikola Vaptsarov Naval Academy, Varna, Bulgaria

vmb75bg@gmail.com

Abstract: The main goal of this paper is to present methods and tools for secure software development. The process of creating secure

software involves analysis, design and implementation based on multi criteria decision making risk assessment. The results of this study give

readers some proposals how to produce secure software systems and conduct cost-benefit analysis.

Keywords: Fuzzy AHP, MULTI-CRITERIA DECISION MAKING (MCDA)

1. Introduction

Several research studies have been presented in literature for

analysing and classifying the ways for assessing software security

[16]. The gap between research proposals and actual practices that

appear due to this is difficult to bridge completely. The main

purpose of this study is to secure systems from malicious attacks. It

is achieved through identification, authentication, information

assurance availability, integrity, confidentiality, analyses, and their

assessment.

The assessment of software security is a decision-making

problem. The author of this paper proposes Fuzzy Analytic

Hierarchy Process (Fuzzy AHP) for developing security systems.

Information security assessments include following triad:

confidentiality, integrity and availability (CIA triad). The

confidentiality, integrity and availability are fundamental principles

for software security. Security developers apply each requirement

when analyzing how to protect information systems. Confidentiality

refers to the allowance of authorized access to sensitive and secure

data [1]. Integrity is a quality of appeal established by the ethical

assurance and resolution. Availability, in the context of a computer

system, refers to the ability of a user to access information or

resources for a specified duration [1].

P.L. Gorski and L.L. Iacono propose a critical review based on

security of software [7].

Yasser M. Hausaw provide a framework for integrating and

assessing security during software development life cycle [9].

Security software is concerned with whether a system can

survive accidental or intentional attacks on it from outside. One of

the most important problems in security software is the multi-

criteria assessment of the security efficiency. A valuable approach

to evaluating and predicting the security of a system is Fuzzy

Analytic Hierarchy Process (Fuzzy AHP). The state of the software

application is considered from attaker’s point of view. It is useful to

include expenses as a factor of the evaluation of security. The

author presents fuzzy multi-criteria decision making theory to

assess the system security characteristics and alternatives.

Software security is concerned with whether software

applications can survive cyber attacks and unauthorized access on it

from outside.

System measures can be computed as solutions to programming

problems. Programming computations become impracticable when

a number of components in the system is large[2,3,10].

For computing total loses, probabilities of various type of

attacks or their possibilities have to be known. In presented paper,

the author applies the probability theory for computing the security

measures.

2. Security risk

The risk dimension to capital budgeting of software solutions is

a crucial factor in the valuation of assess. Acceptance of a profitable

but highly risky investment proposal in software systems may

increase the perceived riskiness of the software and result in an

actual reduction in the value of the security. Nowhere is the gap

between theory and practice wider than in the area of risk analysis.

This paper considers the important method to the analysis and

assessment of software risk within the multi criteria decision

technique and a description of the main statistical methods for

measuring security risk within multi-period. It commences by

defining the various forms of risk discussed in this paper and

examining experts’ attitudes towards risk. These fall conveniently

into methods intended to describe or highlight risk and methods

incorporating security riskiness within the programming code in

software applications. The paper concludes by examining the extent

to which the methods discussed are found in programming

languages C++, Python, and Java.

Perfect certainty arises when expectations are single-valued,

that is, a particular outcome will arise rather than a range of

outcomes. Some investments come fairly close to a certain

investment.

Risk and uncertainty are not synonymous. Risk refers to the set

of unique consequences for a given decision which can be assigned

probabilities, while uncertainty implies that it is not possible to

assign probabilities.

For most investment software decisions, empirical evidence is

hard to find. The decision makers utilise subjective probabilities

where objective statistical evidence is not available. They can

subjectively assess the software risks involved based on the

available information about the success of a software development

projects.

Because subjective probabilities may be applied to investment

decisions in a manner similar to objective probabilities, the

distinction between risk and uncertainty is not crucial, in practice,

and the two are often used interchangeably.

The software security assessment is presented to analyze

capabilities of software based on a tool proposed by the author of

the paper. In order to make multi-criteria decisions, all these

measures are combined. A method includes a wide variety of kinds

of uncertainty.

Risk identification and assessment is a crucial element of

software security analysis.

3. A multi-criteria decision-making method

The assessment of risk associated with software security

comprises attacks come through vulnerabilities in the code, and

threats that software applications faces. Criteria common to

information security assessment have been identified and proposed

in a Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDA) method.

Risk assessment of information security is an essential part of

development of secure systems.

It is important to recognize the distinction between the

prediction of likely events and the course of action that may stem

from such prediction. Different options gives rise to different

considerations and qualitative assessments. Relevant and useful

information is central in predicting the degree of risk surrounding

future events and in selecting the best investment software options.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

The problem of security of information systems and its solving

takes considerable effort.

The author of the paper uses the fuzzy method working with

triangular fuzzy elements described by Prof. Ramík [14, 15, 16, 27].

The FuzzyAHP is used to evaluate elements for decision-

making under risk to predict the outcomes. The end result will be

efficient to solve the problem presented through the tool.

The AHP realises the evaluation process connected with the

Multiple-criteria decision-making under risk. The study proposes a

new method for a risk assessment of software development.

The qualitative and qualitative criteria for risk events and

scenarios are used as preliminary lists for calculating the triangular

fuzzy evaluations and the risk assessment.

The weights of the criteria determine the relative importance

extracted from interviews with decision makers and risk analysis

experts. Therefore, with adjustments they can serve as risk

indicators for other multi-criteria decision making studies.

The statistic information is beneficial to propose sensitivity

analysis, and come up with a solution. They can be compared with

results obtained from other decision makers in different

assumptions of risk assessment [11,12,13].

University lecturers can use the proposed method to teach and

explain the FAHP technique for risk assessment in various studies

for software security.

The experts propose their choices in form of triangular fuzzy

elements in a pair-wise comparison matrix. In order to derive the

weights from a matrix and to calculate the consistency of the

information on decision maker’s preferences, the pair-wise

comparison matrixes with triangular fuzzy elements are used.

The author of the paper implements the approach described by

Ram´ık [16]. The mathematical theory described in this paper has

been implemented into a software tool.

The Fuzzy AHP (FAHP) method ranking elements includes the

following steps:

Step 1: The author of the paper proposes the eight criteria

presented in figure 1 named attacks, vulnerabilities, penetration

testing, threats, assets, security measures, unauthorized access, and

security alerts.

The weights of criteria of the pair-wise comparison matrix are

expressed by triangular fuzzy elements. It can be problematic for

the decision makers to compare certain pairs of criteria. In these

cases, the experts use the data not only in form of real numbers, but

also fuzzy numbers.

Fig. 1 Define criteria

Step 2: The list of alternatives that are estimated are Java,

Python, and C++.

Step 3: Contain the decision makers (experts).

The experts of the software security play crucial roles for

discovering, analyzing, and responding to security problems. They

maintain and preserve software from security vulnerabilities,

threats, and risks.

The assessment is performed by decision makers (experts). The

expert measures the importance of the criteria.

Step 4: Propose the scenarios

Scenarios 1: A flexible model – It is includes structured

language, strict syntactic rules, no errors, simplicity etc. Modules

are expanded and have scripting possibilities that can be

supplemented in other software systems.

Scenarios 2: Useful Libraries

The security library are utilized by researchers and ethical

hackers.

Scenarios 3: Clear Syntax

The clear syntax contributes cyber security professionals to

quickly specify and improve programming code and to find errors

in the software.

Scenarios 4: Increase capacity and functionalities of software

possibilities based on security demand. The programming code

must be suitable for testing and maintenance.

Scenarios 5: Adjusting to overhauls, new resources,

deconstructions and upgrades.

Upgrading security features integrate other possibilities to

improve and increase software usability.

All scenarios are united to reply to security challenges and to

prevent from future vulnerabilities and threats. They are presented

in figure 2.

Fig. 2 Define scenarios

Step 5: Elements of the matrixes are set. The fuzzy weights are

appear. The NI index is calculated. The result is presented in a

graph.

A matrix is of the following form:

where for all i. j =1,…,n:

, are real numbers such that

for a chosen fixed . ij = ij =

( implies that ji = . (reciprocity)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

is an n×n matrix with triangular fuzzy elements. The matrix

is reciprocal, if the following condition is satisfied:

ij=( implies that ji = , (reciprocity) for all

i,j = 1,2,...,n, i.e.:

where

The fuzzy weights , k=1,…,n, are then

derived in this procedure as follows [14,15,16,27]:

To measure the consistency of the pair-wise comparison matrix

with triangular fuzzy elements, Ram´ık proposed the following

index [14, 15, 16, 27]:

where

The value of the index ranges from 0 to 1, where 0 means that

the matrix is fully consistent.

Step 5.1: a pair-wise comparison decision-making matrixes with

triangular fuzzy elements are constructed. The experts determine

the weights of the elements above the main diagonal. The decision

makers propose each triangular fuzzy element as three numbers,

divided by a space. The triangular fuzzy elements are proposed by

multiple experts in figure 3(the assessments of Expert 2).

Step 5.2: The results estimated from the pair-wise comparison

matrix are displayed in form of a graph. The derived fuzzy weights

are presented and then the consistency through the NI index is

calculated. They are presented in Figure 4.

The MCDM technique derives fuzzy weights from a matrix and

then measures the inconsistency of the suggestions provided by the

decision makers.

Fig. 3 Define scenarios with the assessments of expert 2

The assessment of criteria is done by multiple experts in figure

Fig. 4 The assessment of criteria

Various scenarios (states of the world) are proposed together

with their probabilities and results in figure 5.

Fig. 5 Assessment of scenarios

The alternatives are then estimated for each of the scenarios.

6. Viewing the results

The resulting overall assessments are calculated for each of the

experts. When all pair-wise comparison matrices are made, the

resulting overall assessments of the elements can be considered.

The resulting assessments of the alternatives are presented for each

of the experts in figure 6.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Fig. 6 Assessment of scenarios

The developer of software need to be aware of the

vulnerabilities in the used programming language and execute

secure code. Secure programming is accepted to be practice to

minimize the risk from cyber attacks. Specific security scenarios

that must be used by a programmer to minimize security

programming gaps are proposed.

The method is utilized to assess security capability of three

languages: Java, Python, and C++. The results show that C++

programming language has the lowest security features. Python has

high-security capability.

The method for security software presented in this paper can be

applied by programmers and software security developers for

measuring the level of security capability of used programming

languages, and mitigate vulnerabilities and attacks on software

applications.

4. Conclusion

A review of security risk methods is provided in this report,

including Multi-Criteria Decision Making (MCDA) approaches. A

security risk assessment technique based on the AHP fuzzy method

is proposed.

This paper applies the probability theory for computing security

measures of systems and to generalize the probabilistic security

methods. From the presented results, it is concludes that the

obtained security assessments are non-trivial and intuitively

explainable. The security of the system is analyzed with information

about the probability distributions of attack, of costs, etc.

5. References

1. Agrawal, Manish, Alex Campoe, and Eric

Pierce. Information Security and IT Risk Management. Hoboken,

N.J: John Wiley and Sons, Inc, 2014.

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conference, Athens, Greece, pp. 54-57, ISSN: 1314-2100

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risk: an empirical analysis,‖ The Geneva Papers on Risk and

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Teixeira, A.; van Gelder, P. Integrated safety and Security risk

assessment methods: A survey of key characteristics and

applications. In International Conference on Critical Information

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6. Dey P.., Managing project risk using combined analytic

hierarchy process and risk map., Applied Soft Computing 10 (2010)

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7. Gorski, Peter & Lo Iacono, Luigi & Wiefling, Stephan &

Möller, Sebastian. (2018). Warn if Secure or How to Deal with

Security by Default in Software Development?.

8. Holeček P., Talašová, J.: A free software tool implementing

the fuzzy AHP method, Proceedings of the 34th International

Conference on Mathematical Methods in Economics 2016, Liberec,

Czech Republic, p. 266 – 271, ISBN 978-80-7494-296-9.

9. Hausawi, Y.M., & Allen, W.H. (2015). Usable-Security

Evaluation. HCI.

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Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Система за симулиране на кибератаки и събиране на данни за мрежовия трафик,

натоварването на процесора и паметта

System for simulating cyberattacks and data acquisition for network traffic and usage of processor and

memory of hosts

Система имитации кибератак и сбора данных о сетевом трафике и использовании процессора и

памяти хостов

Александър Христов, Румен Трифонов

Technical University Sofia, Bulgaria

Резюме: Целта на настоящата работа е създаването на прототип на система за симулиране на кибератаки с възможности за

събиране и съхраняване на данни от крайните устройства(хостове) за мрежовия трафик, натоварването на процесор и памет в

централно хранилище за последващо обработване и класифициране на същите като компрометирани или некомпрометирани,

използване на централизиран модел за управление, комуникация и съхранение на данни в системата, с удобен и лесен за употреба

уеб интерфейс, който служи за основен панел за управление и наблюдение на мрежата и хостовете, и визуализиране и

обобщаване на цялата събрана информация при наличие или отсъствие на кибератаки

Keywords: DENIAL-OF-SERVICE ATTACK, VMware ESXi HYPERVISOR, CACTI, HPING3

1. Въведение

В днешните мрежи откриването и реакцията на атаки и

пробиви е задача от първостепенна важност. Откриването на

пробиви се базира на методи, средства и технологии за

откриване и реагиране на компютърни атаки. Тези системи

включват функции като предпазване, възпиране, реагиране,

оценка, очакване на атаки, поддържане на информация за

пробиви. Системите за откриване на проникване (IDS)

наблюдават мрежовия трафик за подозрителна активност и

извеждат предупреждения, когато такава дейност бъде открита

[1,2]. Те използват софтуерно приложение, което сканира

дадена мрежа или система за зловредни дейности (нарушения

на зададените правила). Обикновено, всяко едно нарушение се

докладва или на администратор, или се съхранява на централно

място, използвайки система за информация за защита и

управление на събития (SIEM). Системата SIEM интегрира[10]

изходи от множество източници и използва техники за

филтриране на известия, за да разграничи злонамерената

дейност. Въпреки че системите за откриване на проникване

наблюдават мрежите за потенциално злонамерена дейност, те

също са склонни да извеждат фалшиви съобщения за проблем

при липса на такъв. Следователно организациите, които ги

използват, трябва да настроят своите IDS приложения при

пускането им в продуктивна среда. Т.е. системите за откриване

на проникване трябва така да се настроят, че да разпознават

[3,4,5] как изглежда нормалният трафик в мрежата в сравнение

със злонамерения такъв. В [6] е предложен подход за

идентифициране на компрометирани устройства в резултат на

кибератака, който се базира на мониторинг на използването на

процесорите, паметта и мрежата.

Целта на настоящата работа е създаването на прототип на

система за симулиране на кибератаки и събиране на данни за

мрежовия трафик, натоварването на процесора и паметта със

следната функционалност:

• събиране и съхраняване на данни от крайните

устройства(хостове) за мрежовия трафик, натоварването на

процесор и памет в централно хранилище за последващо

обработване и класифициране на същите като компрометирани

или некомпрометирани вследствие на кибератаки;

• симулиране на кибератаки и визуализиране и обобщаване

на цялата събрана информация при наличие или отсъствие на

кибератаки;

• използване на централизиран модел за управление,

комуникация и съхранение на данни в системата;

• удобен и лесен за употреба уеб интерфейс, който ще

служи за основен панел за управление и наблюдение на

мрежата и хостовете.

Разработената система да позволява събиране на данни във

времето за натоварването на мрежовия интерфейс, паметта и

процесора на крайните устройства (хостове), както при

отсъствие, така и при симулиране на (състояща се) кибератака.

В първата част на работата е направен анализ на някои

конкретни видове атаки. Във втора част са разгледани

архитектурата на системата и основните й компоненти и

инструменти, които са използвани за реализирането й. В трета

част са дадени симулирането на някои конкретни атаки и

първите получени резултати от работата на системата.

2. Анализ на някои конкретни атаки

Атака за отказ на услуга[6] (Denial-of-service attack, DoS

attack) е опит даден ресурс, предоставян от сървър (наричан

жертва), да бъде направен недостъпен за потребителите му.

Атаката може да бъде чрез изтощаване на ресурси или чрез

експлоатиране на грешка в софтуера на жертвата. Най-често

биват атакувани популярни уеб сървъри, като целта е те да

станат недостъпни от интернет. Атаката се състои в

претоварване на дадена машина (изчерпване на системния й

ресурс) чрез заливане със заявки като целта е да се предотврати

изпълнението на легитимните нови или на всички

потребителски заявки. Когато атаката е осъществена от повече

от един източници на трафик, тя се нарича дистрибутирана

атака за отказ на услуга (англ. Distributed denial-of-service

attack, DDoS attack “). DDoS атаките често се извършват срещу

уеб сайтове от ботове, заразени машини с malware, действащи

по инструкции от команден сървър на престъпни групировки, с

цел кражба, изнудване, и т.н. Пример за подобни действия са

атаките срещу сайтовете на VISA, Mastercard и Paypal от страна

на Anonymous през 2013г.

SYN flood е тип protocol-based DoS атака. За нейната

реализация се използват пропуски в имплементацията на TCP

three-way handshake. SYN flood атаката [11] създава

наполовина отворени TCP канали, които никога не се отварят

напълно. Злонамереното лице играе ролята на клиент, който

инициира комуникацията по договаряне със сървъра.

Проблемът възниква, когато сървърът изпрати SYN/ACK

пакетът и остава в изчакване за обратен отговор с ACK пакет

от страна на клиента. Хакерската машина никога не изпълнява

завършващия етап от TCP three-way handshake. Инициирането

на множество опити за създаване на TCP канал, без да бъде

напълно завършен, постепенно изразходва системните ресурси

на сървъра-мишена (за всяка наполовина отворена TCP връзка

се заделя буфер). Тези действия могат да доведат до

възпрепятстване на потребителите, които искат да се свържат

легитимно. SYN flood атаката може да бъде разпозната, ако се

следи мрежовият трафик на сървъра. Основен фактор, който

определя потенциална атака, е броят на стартираните процеси

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

по договаряне в секунда. Основен параметър, който трябва да

се наблюдава, е броят инициирани TCP пакети с SYN флаг в

тях, които клиентите изпращат към сървъра, за секунда.

ICMP flood е тип volume-based DoS атака, която се базира

на принципа на работата на ICMP протокола [11].

Съобщенията, които се използват за проверка на свързаността

между две устройства са ICMP Echo Request и ICMP Echo

Reply. ICMP flood атаката [2,3] използва тази комуникация, за

да създаде недоброкачествен трафик. В рамките на малък

период от време злонамереното лице генерира огромно

количество Echo Request пакети, които пренасищат атакувания

сървър. Мишената е длъжна да генерира огромно количество

ICMP пакети от тип Echo Reply и да ги изпрати към отсрещната

машина. В резултат целият този трафик задръства канала за

комуникация и отнема голяма част от ресурсите на сървъра. В

повечето случаи това води до прекъсване на достъпа до

предоставената услуга. ICMP flood атаката може да бъде

открита, ако се следят броят на ICMP пакетите от тип Echo

Request за секунда, отправени към сървърната машина. В

случай, че количеството значително превиши нормалното за

сървъра, трафикът се счита за злонамерен.

UDP flood е тип volume-based DoS атака, която се

осъществява в резултат на начина на функциониране и

имплементация на UDP протокола. За разлика от TCP

протокола, при който се създава TCP канал за комуникация,

UDP функционира без да се създава сесия между клиента и

сървъра. При нормални условия, когато клиентът иска да

достъпи конкретна услуга на сървъра, той изпраща UDP пакет,

с който проверява дали на даден порт се предлага търсената

услуга. В случай, че на конкретния порт не работи никакво

приложение, сървърът генерира и връща към клиентската

машина ICMP пакет от типа Destination Unreachable. UDP flood

атаката [2,4] представлява генериране на огромно количество

UDP пакети, които са насочени към различни портове на

жертвата. В резултат сървърът е длъжен да изпрати обратен

отговор на всеки пристигнал UDP пакет. Огромното

количество трафик, което трябва да приема и предава сървърът

обикновено води до заемане на всички системни ресурси и

невъзможност за отговор на легитимните клиенти, които искат

да използват дадена услуга. UDP flood атаката може да бъде

разпозната като се следи за възникнали аномалии в трафика на

UDP пакети. Можем да считаме, че е засечена потенциална

DoS атака, ако броят на UDP пакетите изпратени към сървъра е

значително по-голям от обикновено.

3. Архитектура на предлаганата система

Изградената система се състои от 3 виртуални машини:

клиентска машина, атакуваща машина и машина за събиране на

данни. Трите виртуални машини са свързани към един

виртуален комутатор. Топологията на предлаганата система е

показана на фиг. 1. За създаването на трите виртуални машини

и виртуалния комутатор чрез който те са свързани в локална

мрежа се използва VMware ESXi hypervisor [7, 8, 9]. На базата

на анализ на различни инструменти[4, 5, 10] за наблюдение на

мрежата е избран инструментът Cacti. Cacti е безплатен

широко използван инструмент, с удобен графичен интерфейс

(GUI) с богати възможности и позволява събиране на данни за

мрежовия трафик, натоварването на процесора и паметта на

клиентските машини в мрежата. Cacti използва стандартния

протокол SNMP- Simple Network Management Protocol. При

типично използване на Cacti, устройствата в мрежата следва да

са с активиран SNMP [8, 9] и да има отделен сървър за

наблюдение, където Cacti събира системните данни от тези

устройства. Трите виртуални машини са с операционна система

lubuntu 16.04 и параметри: 1 процесор; 1ГБ RAM памет; 10ГБ

диск; виртуален мрежови интерфейс 1Gbps.

Настоящата работа е разработена при (в рамките на) някои

ограничения поставени oт HyperVisor-a. Ограничени са

изчислителната мощност на използваните виртуални машини,

както и събраните системни данни (от системния монитор). В

процес на доразвиване и усъвършенстване на работата в реална

локална мрежа ограниченията следва да бъдат премахнати.

Фиг. 1 Топология на предлаганата система.

Първоначално е създадена клиентската виртуална машина,

като е инсталирана операционната й система. Клиентската

виртуална машина е копирана 2 пъти- първо за атакуваща

машина и след това за машина за събиране на данни. В

системата се използва инструментът Cacti за събиране на данни

за мрежовия трафик, натоварването на процесора и паметта на

клиентските машини. Cacti използва протоколът SNMP, за да

обменя с клиентската машина „мишена“ тези данни. Ето защо

на машината „жертва“ е необходимо да е активиран SNMP [8].

В [6] е даден конфигурационният файл, в който основно са

добавени редове, свързани с поведението на агента, работещ

върху SNMP протокола.

Kaкто бе споменато по- горе, атакуваща машина е копие на

клиентската виртуална машина, като за копирането е използван

инструментът VMware vCenter Converter Standalone [7, 8 ,9].

Тук за симулиране на различни видове атаки, се използва

терминалният инструмент hping3 [11], тъй като е широко

разпространен и лесен за употреба. Ето защо допълнително

върху атакуваща машина е инсталиран hping3 пакетът, което

става чрез командата:

$ sudo apt-get update && apt-get install hping3

На машината за събиране на данни се инсталира cacti и

необходимите за работата му пакети (MySQL, PHP, RRDTool,

net-snmp и уебсървър, който поддържа PHP, например Apache)

става чрез командата:

$ sudo apt-get update && apt-get install cacti

В появилите се прозорци за конфигурация на MySQL,

Apache уебсървъра и базата данни на Cacti се задават

съответните им параметри и пароли според [8].

След инсталирането, уеб интерфейсът на Cacti се достъпва

чрез IP адреса на машината за събиране на данни

(http://192.168.0.160/cacti). При първото отваряне на уеб

интерфейса се преминава последователно през екран за

приемане на лиценза, екран на който се избира “Нова

инсталация” като тип на инсталацията и екран за настройка на

пътищата до директориите на необходимите за работата на

Cacti пакети (MySQL, PHP, RRDTool, net-snmp и Apache).

Клиентската машина се добавя към устройствата, за които

Cacti събира данни и се задават параметрите й както е показано

на фиг. 2

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

фиг. 2 Добавяне на клиентска машина в Cacti

фиг. 3 Работен екран от Cacti с резултати

Създава се шаблон за графиките, които ще бъдат

генерирани от извлечените данни. След това с натискането на

бутона “Create graphs for this host” се създава графиката и се

избира мрежовата карта, на която ще се следи трафика. Следва

създаване на дърво от графики и задаване на параметрите на

това дърво.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Накрая, към дървото с графики се добавят графики за

мрежовата карта, на която ще се следи трафика, натоварването

на процесора и RAM паметта. Поради ограничения обем на

работата всички стъпки и работни екрани, както и файлове със

събрани данни са дадени в [6].

Графиките от събраните по SNMP данни могат да бъдат

видяни чрез натискане на бутона “Graphs” в горния ляв ъгъл на

уеб интерфейса (фиг. 3). Също така от тази страница данните

могат да бъдат свалени в CSV формат за по-нататъшна

обработка.

4. Симулиране на атаки и получени резултати

от работата на системата

За целите на настоящата работа е генериран зловреден

мрежов трафик като са извършени симулации на три вида DoS

атаки в контролирана среда. Трите типа DoS атаки са SYN

Flood, ICMP Flood и UDP Flood. Симулираните атаки са

извършени само и единствено в рамките на настоящата работа

с цел извличане на необходимата системна информация от тях.

Използвани са двете машини: едната, от които играе ролята на

атакуващ, а другата – ролята на мишена. Атакуващата машина

използва hping3 инструмент за симулиране на атаката. По

време на атаката върху машината жертва е стартиран SNMP

агент за събиране на данни. На фиг. 4 е изобразена схема на

извършената симулация. Атакуващата машина има IP адрес

192.168.0.153 и 24-битова маска, а машината жертва –

192.168.0.148 и 24-битова маска. Събирането на мрежови данни

(фиг. 5) се осъществява от третата машина, на която е

инсталиран и конфигуриран CACTI пакетът. Нейният IP адрес

е 192.168.0.160 и 24-битова маска.

фиг. 4. Топология за симулиране на атаки и събиране на данни

За стартиране на отделните атаки се използва терминалният

прозорец, в който са въведени три различни команди:

-За генериране на SYN flood атаката е използвана следната

команда:

hping3 -c 5000 -d 120 -p 80 --flood --rand-source 192.168.0.148

-За генериране на ICMP flood атаката е използваната

команда е:

hping3 -c 5000 -d 120 --icmp --flood --rand-source 192.168.0.148

- За генериране на UDP flood атаката е въведена командата:

hping3 -c 5000 d 120 --udp --flood --rand-source 192.168.0.148

където --rand-source задава случаен IP адрес за изпращача на

всеки пакет.

Командите се изпълняват многократно с различни

настройки като се променят параметрите „брой генерирани

пакети“ и „големина на генерирани пакети“, за да се създаде

разнообразно множество от събрани данни.

На фиг. 5 са показани първите получени данни за

натоварването на мрежовия интерфейс на машината «мишена»

в резултат на ICMP flood атака, стартирана в 20:05 часа. Видна

е разликата в натоварването на мрежовия интерфейс на

машината «мишена», при нормален и зловреден мрежови

трафик, т. е. по време на реализиране на атаката (между 20:05 и

10:10) и преди и след това (преди 20:05 и след 10:10 часа).

Поради ограничения обем останалите получени резултати от

работата на системата са дадени в [6].

фиг. 5 Нормален мрежов трафик и такъв при симулиране на атака

5. Заключениe

Разработена е система за събиране на данни със зададената

по- горе функционалност. Едно от многото приложения на

предложената система е събраните системни данни да бъдат

използвани за последваща обработка чрез достатъчно точен и

бърз алгоритъм, който да разпознава „нормалния“ трафик и да

класифицира разнообразните видове DoS и DDoS атаки.

6. Литература

1. Alomari E., Gupta B. B., Karuppayah S., et al. Botnet-based

Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) Attacks on Web Servers:

Classification and Art. International Journal of Computer

Applications July 2012, Vol. 49, No. 7(2012)

2. Aunraj N. S., Heigl M., Hable R., et al. Comparison of

Supervised, Semi-supervised and Unsupervised Learning

Methods in Network Intrusion Detection System (NIDS)

Application. ResearchGate, (2017)

3. Христов, В. Дистанционно управление на устройства

посредством SSH тунел, Българско списание за инженерно

проектиране, ISSN 1313-7530, брой 38 януари 2019, с. 21-

26 (2019)

4. Othman S. M., Alsohybe N. T., Ba-Alwi F.M., et al. Survey on

Intrusion Detection System Types. ResearchGate (2018)

5. Samrin R., Vasumathi D. Review on Anomaly based Network

Intrusion Detection System. International Conference on

Electrical, Electronics, Communication, Computer and

Optimization Techniques (2017)

6. https://github.com/sashkinaaa/cacti

7. https://www.xmodulo.com/install-configure-cacti-linux.html

8. https://www.cacti.net/info/downloads

9. https://docs.vmware.com/en/vCenter-Converter-

Standalone/6.2/rn/conv_sa_62_rel_notes.html

10. http://www.vce-download.net/study-guide/comptia-

securityplus-2.4.1-intrusiondetection-systems.html

11. https://study-ccna.com/icmp-internet-control-message-

protocol/

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Forensics investigation comparison of privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies

Marija Taneska, Jovana Dobreva, Vesna Dimitrova

Faculty of Computer Science and Engineering, University Ss. Cyril and Methodius

Skopje, Republic of North Macedonia

jovana.dobreva@finki.ukim.mk

Abstract: Digital cryptocurrencies especially privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies over the past years have experienced significant growth in

terms of usage. The increased usage of privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies due to the offered privacy and anonymity, allows a cybercriminal

to commit illegal transactions that are harder to trace back than Bitcoin. In this paper, we provide a forensic overview of the privacy-

oriented cryptocurrencies Monero, Verge, Dash, and Zcash. We analyse forensics experiments with these cryptocurrencies and make some

assumptions and conclusions related to the analysed experiments.

Keywords: cryptocurrencies, privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies, forensic, Monero, Verge, Dash, Zcash.

1. Introduction

Forensic is the science of collecting and examining data to

extract useful information related to the cases under investigation.

Digital forensic science is a branch of forensic science that focuses

on the uncovering, investigation, and interpreting of digital

(electronic) data related to (cyber)crime. The forensics investigator

is the person initially responsible for examing the evidence.

Blockchain forensics and cryptocurrency forensics accounting

involve both tracking and interpreting the flow of cryptocurrency

assets on blockchains.

Cryptocurrencies have no generally accepted definition in the

regulatory space. Prof. Dr. Robby Houben and Alexander Snyer

define cryptocurrency as a "digital representation of value that is

intended to constitute a peer-to-peer ("P2P") alternative to

government-issued legal tender, is used as a general-purpose

medium of exchange (independent of any central bank), is secured

by a mechanism known as cryptography and can be converted into

legal-tender and vice versa" [1]. Cryptocurrency should not be

confused with virtual currency which is a type of digital money that

is usually controlled by its creators or developers. Cryptocurrencies

work on a distributed public ledger called blockchain, which can be

defined as a transactional database. Blockchain is a particular type

or subset of so-called distributed ledger technology ("DLT"). DLT

is a way of recording and sharing data across multiple data stores

(also known as ledgers), which each has the exact same data records

and are collectively maintained and controlled by a distributed

network of computer servers, which are called nodes. A

cryptocurrency wallet is a software program that allows the users to

interact with the blockchain to control the balance of their

cryptocurrencies and to send or receive cryptocurrencies [2].

Transaction IDs are unique identifiers of transactions which can

identify a particular transaction made between users of the currency

and therefore an important forensic artefact.

Cryptocurrency is technical and financial innovation, that

becomes more popular every day, and because of that, it is no

surprise that more criminals are using cryptocurrency. According to

a study conducted in 2020, there has been a shift from Bitcoin to

privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies in the dark web markets [3].

Across all cryptocurrencies tracked by Chainalysis total transaction

volume grew to $15.8 trillion in 2021, up 567% from 2020’s totals.

According to the report of Chainanalys, thеre is the huge increase in

criminal balances in 2021 — at the year’s end, criminals held $11

billion worth of funds with known illicit sources, compared to just

$3 billion at the end of 2020. Also, there is mention of how much

stolen funds dominate, as of the end of 2021, stolen funds account

for 93% of all criminal balances at $9.8 billion. Darknet market

funds are next at $448 million, followed by scams at $192 million,

fraud shops at $66 million, and ransomware at $30 million.

Criminal balances also fluctuated throughout the year, from a low

of $6.6 billion in July to a high of $14.8 billion in October [4].

The criminal use of cryptocurrency is no longer confined to

cybercrime activities, but now relates to all types of crime that

require the transmission of monetary value. All criminals have one

common goal for using cryptocurrencies - to keep their non-legal

funds safe from authorities. Public-oriented cryptocurrencies do not

satisfy that goal, because any transaction on a blockchain is

transparent, visible to those who have access to it, and all

transaction details are traceable. Contrastingly, with private-

oriented cryptocurrencies all the transactions are hidden, and no one

except transaction parties can view them, and transaction details are

cryptographically protected and untraceable. Public

cryptocurrencies are slowly, but surely losing their popularity in

favor of private-oriented cryptocurrencies. Bitcoin is the most

widely used and popular cryptocurrency [5], consequently, many

studies and research on forensic analysis about Bitcoin and its

blockchain have been carried out. On the other hand, research on

privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies is not very common, and we

found few studies related to the analysis of them. One of these

studies is focused on the forensic analysis of Monero and Verge [6],

while the other one is focused on the forensic analysis of Zcash and

Dash [7].

The aim of this paper is to give a brief summary of the private-

oriented cryptocurrencies – Monero, Verge, Dash, and Zcash, from

a forensics perspective. There are three forensic investigations for

uncovering (transactions with) private-oriented cryptocurrencies:

blockchain, network, and wallet. Blockchains are publicly visible to

everyone, and the forensic investigator can most easily access the

information in them. Therefore, our focus in this paper is to

overview why successful blockchain investigation is almost

impossible. In Section 2 we explain technologies with which are

provided anonymity and privacy, and tracing solutions. Section 3

presents three types of investigation. First type is already mentioned

blockchain forensics. The next type of investigation is network

investigation, but it also is not forensically helpful. Wallet

investigation is the most useful because the most useful forensic

artifacts related to transactions can be found. But this type is also

the most unreal, because the chances are very small that the forensic

investigation will gain access to the criminal's wallet. More detailed

analysis for Monero, Verge, Dash and Zcash investigation is given

on Section 4. At the end we give some conclusion.

2. Privacy-oriented cryptocurrencies and tracing

solutions

The forensics investigator must have technical knowledge for

the technology under review, therefore we describe how popular

private-oriented cryptocurrencies work, how provide privacy and

anonymity, which are forensics challenges, and what type of

information can be found on the blockchain. Once the investigator

achieves obtaining the transaction ID, this can be used to gather

more information regarding the transaction on the blockchain.

Monero

Monero is a private, decentralized cryptocurrency, and as they

claim it cannot be traced. Monero was launched in April 2014, as a

fair, pre-announced launch of the CryptoNote reference code.

Monero technology stands for Security, Privacy, and

Decentralization. Since every transaction is private, that is a great

forensic challenge, because the sender, receiver, and amount of

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

every single transaction are hidden. Monero uses three important

technologies: Stealth Addresses, Ring Signatures, and RingCT [8].

The Stealth Address has underlying address info of two public

keys, and a one-time public key is used as a transaction destination,

to protect the recipient's privacy. Monero's Stealth Addresses are

the concatenation of a public spend key and a public view key. The

Stealth Addresses allow and require creating random one-time

addresses. For creating a unique one-time address, a Diffie-

Hellman-like exchange is applied to the user's address, for each

transaction output to be paid to the user. Even external observers

who know all users’ addresses cannot use them to identify which

user owns any given transaction output [9-11].

Ring signatures used in Monero are created from a combination

of the sender's account key with a number of public keys, using a

triangular distribution. This makes them private, because the

identity of the sender is hidden, as it is computationally impossible

to determine which of the group members' keys was used to

produce the complex signature. In a "ring" of possible signers, all

ring members are equal and valid. Furthermore, there are no

fungibility issues with Monero given that every transaction output

has plausible deniability (e.g., the network cannot tell which outputs

are spent or unspent) [12].

Ring Confidential Transactions (RingCT) is an extension of

CryptoNote protocol, and allows the amounts sent in a transaction

to be hidden. The Ring Confidential Transactions protocol provides

a strongly decentralized cryptocurrency (i.e., there is no privileged

party) that has provable security estimates regarding the hiding of

amounts, origins, and destinations. In addition, coin generation in

the Ring Confidential Transactions protocol is trustless and

verifiably secure [13].

Therefore, we described technologies used in Monero for

providing security, privacy, and anonymity. We can suppose that

Monero's claim for untracibility is correct, and that can be a huge

forensic challenge. But Monero is not untraceable, as they claim.

CipherTrace announced Monero Tracing solution. CipherTrace

takes Monero tracing capabilities to the next level with the ability to

follow the flow of funds backwards from the transaction of interest

to its source [14]. However, Monero transactions are

cryptographically secure using the latest and most resilient

encryption tools available, and because of that, it is still a huge

forensic challenge.

Verge

Verge is a multi-algorithm enabled proof-of-work based

cryptocurrency, it is one of the few cryptocurrencies to support five

hash functions combined on one blockchain. Verge was created to

bring tailored transactional applications and inherent privacy

implementations to strengthen user obfuscation. Verge creators

believe that every person deserves the right to privacy and with that

idea in mind, they pride themselves on being able to provide several

different available methods of transacting across the Verge network.

Each method provides users with a base level of obfuscation

through the TOR network as well as different obfuscation options

tailored for everyone’s specific needs. TOR's use is intended to

protect the personal privacy of users, as well as their freedom and

ability to conduct confidential communication by keeping their

Internet activities from being monitored. In short, when a user

connects into the TOR network, their internet traffic is then routed

through several global servers, each of which removes information

from the previous server such that the last exit node server ends up

being clueless as to where the network originated from. Verge has

three types of transactions: simple, stealth, and anon [15].

Anyone can see the balance and simple transactions of any

Verge address. Verge addresses are not themselves linked to a

person or entity and users remain pseudo-anonymous so long as

different addresses are used per transaction and or until the

information is revealed during a purchase or other transactional

circumstance [15]. This transaction works just like Bitcoin, so it is

not a huge forensics challenge.

Stealth transactions are primarily compromised by dual-key

stealth addresses, which are a method by which additional

obfuscation can be implemented to further protect the receiving

party when transacting with Verge. Stealth Addressing allows

senders to create an unlimited number of one-time destinations

addresses on behalf of the recipient without any interaction between

the parties. When multiple users send funds to a stealth address,

rather than these transactions appearing on the blockchain as

multiple payments to the same address, they instead appear as

multiple payments going to different addresses [15]. This makes it

near-impossible to link transactions to the recipient’s published

address or one-time generated addresses. That type of transaction is

a forensic challenge because it is designed such that the recipients

are protected and can maintain their privacy, although stealth

addresses do not provide anonymity and do not protect the sender.

Anon transactions use a combination of dual-key stealth

addresses and RingCT to preserve the anonymity of both the

sending and receiving parties. Ring Signatures make it harder to

trace transactions by obscuring the output of the true sender in a set

of other outputs on the blockchain, confidential transactions hide

the actual amounts being sent, and TOR hides both parties true IP

addresses i.e., IP obfuscation [15]. That type of transaction is a huge

forensic challenge because it is designed for those who are fully

looking to maintain their personal privacy.

Dash

Dash is the first cryptocurrency based on Bitcoin, with built-in

privacy functions, it was launched in 2014. Dash aims to be the

most user-friendly and scalable payments-focused cryptocurrency in

the world. The Dash network features instant transaction

confirmation, double spend protection, optional privacy equal to

that of physical cash, a self-governing, self-funding model driven

by incentivized full nodes, and a clear roadmap for on-chain scaling

to up to 400MB blocks using custom-developed open-source

hardware [16].

There are two main tiers: the miners and the master nodes. The

miners carry out similar functions to those in the bitcoin network, so

they are not a huge forensics challenge. Thanks to master nodes,

which is an innovative two-tier network, Dash can offer innovative

features in a trustless and decentralized way. Masternodes enable

few services, but only CoinJoin makes a forensic challenge for

investigating this type of tier. CoinJoin gives financial privacy

through a decentralized implementation of CoinJoin [17]. The most

notable privacy modification in Dash is its PrivateSend

functionality. PrivateSend is a branded implementation of the

CoinJoin protocol. When users take advantage of the PrivateSend

function, the mixing is carried out for them and coins are deposited

in new addresses. By the end of the process, the origin of the coins

is obfuscated. PrivateSend is optional, and Dash transactions are

unmixed by default. The general principle behind these mixing

services is that multiple people send funds into one big transaction

and each person receives the same amount of funds to a new

address that they control. It then becomes difficult to connect each

input to each output. For Dash’s PrivateSend transactions, a user’s

funds are broken down into standard denominations: 10, 1, 0.1,

0.01, or 0.001 DASH. These funds are then sent in mixing

transactions that only consist of that particular denomination. The

user gets the same total amount of Dash back, but it’s been mixed

together with other PrivateSend users’ funds. The outputs of these

mixing transactions can then be sent in PrivateSend transactions to

another user.[18]

According to Chainalysis, mixing transactions related to

PrivateSend make up roughly 9% of all Dash transactions, and the

percentage of Dash transactions that constitute actual transfers of

funds using PrivateSend is less than 0.7%. Mixing transactions are

very easy to spot and identify on the Dash blockchain. For the

reason that they are still public and transparent, the same techniques

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

that can be used to analyze CoinJoin transactions performed using

Bitcoin can be used on Dash. This means that while PrivateSend

does increase privacy for its users, successful investigations can still

be performed [19].

Zcash

Zcash is a privacy-protecting, digital currency built on strong

science. Zcash was first released in October 2016, and it was

originally based on Bitcoin’s codebase. The Zerocash protocol is

being developed into a full-fledged digital currency, Zcash.

Zerocash extends the protocol and software underlying Bitcoin by

adding new, privacy preserving payments. Zcash has its unique

advantage. Zcash’s anonymity relies on a shielded pool, where

partial transaction information such as input/output addresses and

the transaction value are no longer directly available from the

Blockchain. Zcash is a cryptocurrency that uses advanced applied

cryptography to provide enhanced privacy via shielded addresses.

Zcash is the first practical application of zk-SNARKs [20], a

specific type of zero-knowledge proof, a novel form of zero-

knowledge cryptography.

Zcash addresses are either shielded (z-addresses) or transparent

(t-addresses). Z addresses are private addresses and only the user

can see the balance in the wallet. Shielded addresses are the address

type that use zero-knowledge proofs to allow transaction data to be

encrypted but remain verifiable by network nodes [21]. Senders to a

shielded address may or may not include an encrypted memo.

Transparent addresses work similarly to Bitcoin addresses and do

not offer privacy for users [21].

Zcash has four basic types of transaction: transparent/public

transaction (t-address to t-address), shielding transaction (t-address

to z-address), de-shielding transaction (z-address to t-address), and

shielded/private transaction (z-address to z-address). In a

transparent transaction all transaction details are public (value is

revealed by both sender and receiver). This transaction works just

like Bitcoin, so it is not a huge forensics challenge. In shielding

transaction t address and its sending amount are public, z address is

encrypted. In de-shielding transactions t address and the amount, it

receives are public, and the z-address is encrypted. Recipients of a

shielded or de-shielding transaction do not learn about the sender's

address through the transaction receipt in their wallet. The receivers

only learn the value sent to their address(es) and if receiving to

shielded addresses, any encrypted memo that may have been

included by the sender [21]. Finally, in the most secure

shielded/private transactions the addresses, transaction amount, and

the memo field are all encrypted and not publicly visible.

Encryption is the main forensics challenge, so only the

shielded/private transactions are a forensics problem.

The Chainalysis solution can trace 99% of transactions.

According to Chainalysis, roughly 14% of Zcash transactions

involve one of Zcash’s two shielded pools in some way. But of the

transactions that interact with a shielded pool, only 6% are

completely shielded, i.e., sender, receiver, and transaction amount

are all encrypted. That’s only 0.9% of all Zcash transactions. So

even though the obfuscation on Zcash is stronger due to the zk-

SNARK encryption, Chainalysis can still provide the transaction

value and at least one address for over 99% of ZEC activity [19].

3. Types of investigations of the private-oriented

cryptocurrencies

Blockchain investigation

Monero is the only cryptocurrency that has only private

transactions, while in other cryptocurrencies privacy and anonymity

are provided by a choice, not by default. Public transactions are

identical to transactions with public cryptocurrencies, so all

(forensic valuable) information can be found on the blockchain.

With Zcash shielding and de-shielding transactions, parts of

information can be found on the blockchain, explained in Section 2.

Private transactions with private-oriented cryptocurrencies when

they are properly implemented, are hidden, and no one except

transaction parties can view them, and transaction details are

cryptographically protected.

Network investigation

All network traffic for all types of transactions is encrypted. As

we have already said, encryption is a big forensic challenge, so it is

almost impossible to discover useful forensic artifacts with a

network investigation. DNS traffic is unencrypted, as required by

the protocol, for Monero it's traffic from the OpenAlias mechanism

that is based on DNS. In Monero transactions destination IP address

is the donation public address of the Monero. IP addresses of Dash

seeder or nodes are destinations IP addresses in Dash transactions.

In Zcash transactions destination IP address is Amazon

Wallet investigation

The most useful type of investigation is because the most useful

forensic artifacts can be found. The transaction ID and amount can

be found in all wallets for all types of transactions. The wallet

passphrase in Monero wallet can be found after the creation of it, in

Verge wallet only when unlocking the wallet with the passphrase,

while in Dash and Zcash cannot be found. On the sender's side, the

recipient's public wallet address can be found in the Monero wallet,

the recipient's stealth address with a corresponding linked public

address or recipient's normal public address can be found in the

Verge wallet, and the recipient's private/public address can be found

in the Dash and Zcash wallets.

4. Forensics investigation for Monero, Verge,

Dash and Zcash

According to the previous section, if the transaction was private,

forensics investigators cannot find the valuable information on the

blockchain. The blockchain will show only general information

such as the date, the ID, and the fee. Forensics' valuable artefacts

can be found on the wallet, so if the investigator succeeds in

recovering, that would be good progress for the investigation. In

this section we analyze the investigations made by W. Koerhuis, T.

Kechadi, and N.-A. Le-Khac [6], and Juan Manuel Delgado García

[7].

Monero

Monero claims that a Monero account, or wallet, stores the

information necessary to send and receive Monero. In addition to

sending and receiving, the Monero Wallet software keeps a private

history of your transactions and allows you to cryptographically

sign messages. It also includes Monero mining software and an

address book [23]. The experiment done by W. Koerhuis, T.

Kechadi, and N.-A. Le-Khac confirms Monero's claim. In their

experiment, they created eight memory images: after the creation of

the wallet, after unlocking the wallet, after receiving one

transaction, after sending a transaction, after sending a transaction

with a full payment id, after receiving a transaction with an

integrated wallet address, after an OpenAlias resolve action, and

after the closure of the wallet. They found a wallet passphrase in

every image. It is valuable from a forensics perspective because

with a wallet passphrase forensics investigator can gain full control

over a wallet and all the funds inside. The public address of own

wallet was found in seven images (except the first one), it is

necessary information for receiving Monero. After the first

transaction there was a transaction ID and amount. In the next

images there was additionally a transaction(s) ID, which is a private

history of transactions. This refers to necessary information for

sending and finding a public receiving address. During the disk

analysis, they found out only two files monero-wallet-gui.log and

M0n3r0wall3t.address.txt (M0n3r0wall3t is the name of the wallet).

The first file is a general log file, and forensics artefacts were the

public address of own wallet, transaction IDs of all transactions, and

amounts of XMR received and sent. The second file contains only

the public address of the wallet. Also, they found an encrypted

{wallet_name}.keys file, this file contains the private keys, and can

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

be decrypted with the passphrase. The passphrase was not found on

the disk, but the memory image experiment revealed the passphrase

so this file can be decrypted [6].

Verge

W. Koerhuis, T. Kechadi, and N.-A. Le-Khac during the Verge

experiment discovered an interesting fact while sending a

transaction to a stealth address. When a sender initiates a fund

transfer to a stealth address, the sender's public one-time address is

saved in the transaction information. This one-time public address is

stored in the receiver's wallet and is viewable on the blockchain.

The one-time public address can now be linked to the recipient, and

if the receiver wants to spend the coins on that one-time public

address, that transaction can also be linked. After accepting the

transaction, the own linked normal public address to the

corresponding linked public address was discovered [6].

Dash

Juan Manuel Delgado García did Dash experiments. In

memory, the transaction ID was found under the keyword

AddToWallet, but no more information regarding this one was

shown. Only in the case with Instant Send showed some details

regarding the transaction. In general, correlating the ID, sending

address, and the amount would be difficult for the investigator since

this information is dispersed when analyzing the memory file

making no sense. In a case with Private Send in the memory file,

the MFT records showed evidence that the file dash.exe has been

used. Although this file is not a forensics artefact, it can tell the

forensics investigator that there exists the probability that in the

memory acquisition there is the mnemonic phare to restore the

wallet and access the complete information this contains. If the

wallet is encrypted the mnemonic phrase will not be present in the

wallet.dat file, and this option can be discarded. Disk artefacts are

useful since it is possible to see the addresses in the wallet.dat file.

The debug.log did not offer many details other than the transaction

ID. Network findings showed information limited to DNS queries

due to the traffic being encrypted by the application [7].

Zcash

Juan Manuel Delgado García made Zcash experiments. After

the download, installation of the wallet, and execution, the

structured analysis showed information about Master File Table

(MFT) record. Unstructured analysis showed information about the

transparent and private addresses. During the structured analysis for

shielded transactions, on the side of the receiver no valuable

artefacts were found, on the side of the sender, the MFT record was

shown of the creation of the file AddressBook.json, with a label

given by the user with its corresponding shielded and transparent

addresses. Unstructured analysis shows information about the

incoming/outcoming transaction, the transaction ID, the

sending/receiving shielded address, the amount, and the memo field

in hexadecimal format. For the de-shielded transactions, the

structured analysis did not show valuable information. Unstructured

analysis on the side of the receiver showed the incoming transaction

in JSON format, this includes the transaction ID, the destination

transparent address, the amount, and the timestamp in UNIX

format. On the other side, the unstructured analysis did not show the

transaction in JSON format and showed only the transaction ID.

Structured analysis for shielding transactions and transparent

transactions on the side of the sender did not show relevant

information, the unstructured analysis showed evidence of the

transaction in JSON format. As information in the shielding

transactions is given: the transaction ID, the amount, the fee, and

the timestamp in UNIX format. And, in the transparent transactions

are given the information: the fee, the amount, the recipient's

transparent address, and the transaction ID. Transparent and

shielded addresses from the local wallet were present in memory in

all cases [7].

5. Conclusion

Blockchains are publicly visible to everyone, and the forensic

investigator can most easily access the information in them. With

public transactions, all transaction information is accessible in

plaintext on a blockchain. While with the properly implemented

private transaction the blockchain shows only general information

such as the date, the ID, and the fee. Privacy and anonymity are

provided in a variety of ways, but all use encryption which makes

forensic investigation almost impossible. There are solutions for

tracking transactions, but not for disclosing transaction information.

All network traffic except the DNS traffic is encrypted, so network

investigation can hardly be useful. Wallet investigation is the most

useful, because there are many helpful forensic artifacts related to

transactions. But this type is also the most unreal, because the

chances are very small that the forensic investigation will gain

access to the criminal's wallet.

References

1. R. Houben, A. Snyers, Cryptocurrencies and blockchain -

Legal context and implications for financial crime, money

laundering and tax evasion (2018)

2. Blockgeeks, Cryptocurrency Wallet Guide: A Step-By-Step

Tutorial, available at

https://blockgeeks.com/guides/cryptocurrency-wallet-guide/

(2020)

3. E. Silfversten, M. Favaro, L. Slapakova, S. Ishikawa, J. Liu,

and A. Salas, Exploring the use of Zcash cryptocurrency for

illicit or criminal purposes (2020)

4. Chainalysis, The 2022 Crypto Crime Report (2022)

5. Coinmarketcap charts, available at https://coinmarketcap.com/

(2022)

6. W. Koerhuis, T. Kechadi, and N.-A. Le-Khac, Forensic

analysis of privacyoriented cryptocurrencies (2020)

7. J.M. Delgado García, Forensic Analysis of privacy-oriented

cryptocurrency wallets (2021)

8. Monero, What is Monero (XMR)? available at

https://www.getmonero.org/get-started/what-is-monero/

9. Monero, Moneropedia - Stealth Address, available at

https://www.getmonero.org/resources/moneropedia/stealthadde

ss.html

10. B. El Khoury Seguias, Monero's Building Blocks - Stealth

addresses (2018)

11. G. Yu, Blockchain Stealth Address Schemes (2020)

12. Monero, Moneropedia - Ring Signature, available at

https://www.getmonero.org/resources/moneropedia/ringsignatu

res.html

13. S. Noether, A. Mackenzir, and Monero Core Team, Ring

Confidential Transactions (2016)

14. CipherTrace, CipherTrace Announces Enhanced Monero

Tracing Capabilities for Government Agencies and Financial

Institutions, available at https://ciphertrace.com/enhanced-

monero-tracing/

15. Official Verge Blackpaper 5th edition, available at

https://vergecurrency.com/static/blackpaper/verge-blackpaper-

v5.0.pdf

16. Dash Documentation, What is Dash? available at

https://docs.dash.org/en/stable/introduction/about.html

17. Dash Whitepaper - Dash: A Payments-Focused

Cryptocurrency (2021)

18. Dash Documentation, Features, available at

https://docs.dash.org/en/stable/introduction/features.html

19. Chainalysis, Introducing Investigations & Compliance Support

for Privacy Coins Dash and Zcash, available at

https://blog.chainalysis.com/reports/introducing-investigations-

compliance-support-for-privacy-coins/ (2020)

20. A. Banerjee, M. Clear, H. Tewari, Demystifying the Role of

zk-SNARKs in Zcash (2020)

21. Zcash Documentation, Addresses and Value Pools in Zcash,

available at

https://zcash.readthedocs.io/en/latest/rtd_pages/addresses.html

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

ОТРАЖЕНИЕ НА ЕМОЦИИ В МУЗИКАТА –

ПСИХОЛОГО-ПЕДАГОГИЧЕСКИ АСПЕКТИ

REFLECTION OF EMOTIONS IN MUSIC – PSYCHOLOGICAL AND PEDAGOGICAL ASPECTS

проф. д-р Янна Павлова Рускова

проф. д-р Стефан Панайотов Русков

Шуменски университет „Епископ Константин Преславски“

гр. Шумен, България

ruskova@shu.bg

ruskov@shu.bg

Abstract: The article reveals the essence of the reflection of emotions as part of the system of functions of music. A range of emotional

psychological processes and hierarchical entities related to the perception and performance of music are argued: state, mood, emotion,

feeling, affect, experience. Their projections in the music-performing and music-pedagogical work are commented.

Keywords: MUSIC, MUSIC PEDAGOGY, MUSIC PSYCHOLOGY, FUNCTIONS OF MUSIC, EMOTIONS

1. Увод

Във всички актуални изследвания, отнасящи се до различни

аспекти на музиката, се разкрива система от функции,

отразяваща ролята и взаимодействието на музиката с

обкръжаващия ни свят, живот, култура. Нито една от тях не

може да бъде осмислена пълноценно и актуално извън

системната им връзка, взаимоотношения и

взаимообусловеност.

Независимо от разликите в систематизирането им, всички

изведени такива в научната литература имат своята

характеристика и оттам – очаквани проекции в съвременното

музикално образование. Познаването им, осъзнаването на

техните същности дават основни пълноценни ориентири при

определяне на насочеността на музикалното образование,

възпитание, развитие.

2. Същност на изследвания проблем

Според класификациите на функциите на музиката,

поддържани от повечето учени, важно място заема

първостепенната за философията и естетиката функция

отражение на действителността. Това отражение не се

разбира само като чисто субективно явление, а е свързано

косвено именно с обективната действителност, като отражение

на живота със специфични средства.

Съществуват и субективно-идеалистически философски

теории, защитаващи тезата за безсъдържателност на музиката,

радикално отричащи връзката на музиката като отражение на

живота на човека. Акцентирайки върху особената абстрактност

на музикалното изкуство, австрийският музикален критик

Едуард Ханслик през XIX в. говори за това, че музиката нищо

не изразява и не може да изразява (Vom Musikalisch-Schönen,

1854). Красотата на музикалното произведение специфично е

музикална, т.е. тя е иманентно съчетание на звукове,

независими от немузикалния кръг от идеи. Езикът, както и

музиката, са изкуствен продукт, за тях не съществува прототип

от външната природа; музиката е продукт на ума, който няма

предшественик в природата и у хората; чисто музикалните

характеристики на композицията предизвикват отражение у

хората; тълкуването на музиката, основано на чувствата, не

може да бъде приемливо нито за музиката, нито за науката

[https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Beautiful-in-Music;

http://www.koelnklavier.de/quellen/hanslick/_index.html].

За тълкуване на този проблем и неговото значение по

отношение на съвременната музикална педагогика се приема,

че цялото многообразие на отражаемото днес е целесъобразно

да се групира в три оси: отражение на идеи, отражение на

емоции, отражение на предметния свят [Холопова 2014: 8].

Отражение на емоции

За отражението на емоции още Хегел е писал, че

музиката е изкуство на чувства, което непосредствено се

обръща към самото чувство; че музиката има за свой предмет

звучащата душа… [Хегел: 99]. Най-широко обсъжданият

философски въпрос и днес относно музиката и емоциите е защо

(философия) и как (психология) самата музика може да

изразява емоции, защо и как ние хората реагираме

емоционално на музика. В много последни научни статии дори

се прокрадва и въпросът дали въобще музиката изразява

емоции…

Музиката престава да бъде музика, каквото и значение

да се предава на музикалните образи, ако тя не е изразител на

чувства – това е основната идея, застъпвана от много автори.

Основното съдържание на музикалната творба е развитието,

разкриването на човешките чувства и отношения към света,

който ни заобикаля [Атанасова-Вукова 2014: 45]. „Музиката –

пише Б. М. Теплов – е път за опознаване на огромния и

съдържателен свят на човешките чувства. Лишена от своето

емоционално съдържание, тя престава да бъде изкуство”

[Теплов 1945: 431]. В музикалната психология емоциите,

емоционалността са в основата на разглеждането на същностни

психологически процеси и явления: взаимодействие „човек –

изкуство“, художествено общуване, преживяване на музика,

способности в структурата на музикалността (емоционалният

компонент присъства при всички автори) и др.

Изразяването е нещо, което хората правят, а именно

външното проявление на техните емоционални състояния. А

експресивността е нещо, което притежават произведенията на

изкуството. Очевиден начин за свързване на изразителността с

експресията е твърдението, че музикалните произведения или

техните изпълнения са израз на емоция – не емоциите на

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

произведението или на изпълнението, а по-скоро тези на

композитора или на изпълнителя. Като че ли има два основни

проблема с тази „теория на изразяването“. Първият е, че нито

композиторите, нито изпълнителите често изпитват емоциите,

които музиката им изразява, докато се „произвежда“. Също

така не изглежда малко вероятно композиторът да създаде или

изпълнителят да изпълни произведение, изразяващо емоция,

която никога не е изпитвал. Ако композиторът не успее да

изрази емоциите си в произведението, тогава музиката, която

пише, е изразителна независимо от емоцията, която той

изпитва. По този начин изразителността на музиката не може

да бъде обяснена чрез директно изразяване. Вторият начин за

свързване на изразителността на музиката с действително

изпитваните емоции е чрез публиката. „Теорията на възбудата“

твърди, че изразителността на музика се равнява на

склонността й да възбужда тази емоция у разбиращия

слушател. По същество това е разбирането, че за да може

слушателят да реагира адекватно на музиката, той трябва да

различи емоцията, изразена в нея. Отговорът на слушателя

зависи от изразената емоция и по този начин изразителността

на музиката не може да зависи от този отговор [Matravers 1998:

145–224, Matravers 2011].

Емоционалният диапазон от психологични явления и

състояния, свързани с музиката, е доста разнообразен: при

възприемане и създаване на музика в нейното съдържание и в

съзнанието на слушателя, изпълнителя, по-често от всичко

друго се откриват емоции, настроения, преживявания, афекти,

чувства. Те, според мнението на редица авторитетни автори (Р.

Декарт, Е. Курт, Б. Асафиев, Б. Теплов, А. Атанасова-Вукова и

др.), са основното съдържание на музиката, нейният

„интониран смисъл“. Ако не се противопоставя емоционалното

съдържание на интелектуалния смисъл, осмислен по

рационален начин в понятия, преценки, идеи; ако се види в

емоциите и чувствата пътят към интуитивен, предлогичен

интелект, тогава музиката е може би най-краткият път към

развитието на такъв интелект у възприемащия музика

[Торопова 2010: 48]. И други психолози говорят за опасността

от подмяна на същността на познанието на чувствеността на

света чрез музиката с познаването на възможни абстрактно-

логически начини за изучаване на същността на композицията

на музикалната творба. Какво са емоциите, чувствата и други

„психични енергии“, които съставляват самодостатъчното

съдържание на музикалните явления?

Музикалната психология разкрива следните

емоционални процеси и същности в йерархия, свързани с

възприемането и изпълнението на музика: състояние,

настроение, емоция, чувство, афект, преживяване [Атанасова-

Вукова 2014: 43 – 44].

Психическите състояния се определят като личностни

и ситуативни, т.е. зависещи от отношението на личността към

даден тип музика, към определен изпълнител, както и от

ситуацията, в която се намира в момента. В същото време те се

определят и от доминиращите психически процеси –

интелектуални, волеви, емоционални и т.н., като се има

предвид, че емоционалността е основно състояние при

взаимодействието на човека с музикалната творба. За

различните хора, както и при различните музикални ситуации и

условия те могат да са с различна степен на задълбоченост

(повърхност), кратковременни или продължителни,

положителни или отрицателни, повече или по-малко осъзнати.

Към психическите състояния може да се отнесе музикалната

готовност, музикалната заинтересованост, приятните

емоционални преживявания, настроение, от които зависи

твърде много включването в музикалната дейност, както и

успешното протичане на взаимодействието с музикалното

изкуство. Творческото вдъхновение е също психическо

състояние, което е сложен комплекс от интелектуални и

емоционални компоненти. То се изразява в творчески възход,

повишени способности за пресъздаване или създаване на нови

оригинални идеи. Вдъхновението е винаги единство на талант,

знания, емоции и труд.

Настроенията са повече или по-малко устойчиви и

продължителни състояния, окраска на всички други

преживявания и на дейността на човека. Затова и те най-леко се

откриват и дават общия емоционален профил на всяко

музикално произведение. Настроенията се отнасят също до

емоционалния свят на личността, но те са по-продължителни,

протичат във времето, както и музиката. Самите композитори

говорят често за настроенията като съдържателна

характеристика на музикалното произведение и индивидуалния

му стил. Настроенията са „главна същност на музикалните

впечатления…, пълни с мисъл и образи…“ [Римский-Корсаков

1911].

Емоцията е високо интензитетно състояние, на силна

краткотрайна възбуда, временно и краткотрайно психическо

състояние, а чувството може да бъде продължително,

дълготрайно психично субективно-оценъчно отношение към

определен обект.

Емоциите са непосредствено преживяване на

значимостта на действащите на индивида явления и ситуации

[Назайкинский 1972: 65]. Не знанието за значимостта,

получено по логически или друг рационален път, какъвто

педагогическият, а непосредственото, неопосредствано с думи

за емоциите цялостно преживяване е същността им. Това

означава, че това е чувствена дорационална оценка от субекта,

възприемащ явленията – музиката или ситуацията на

възприемане, обучение, изпълнение. Функциите на емоциите са

именно да дават оценка и регулация на психическата дейност и

поведение на субекта, в случая в образователна среда –

обучаваните. Тази мигновена оценка е на нивото „харесва ми –

не ми харесва“, „заплашва ме“, „възмущава ме“, „вълнува ме“,

„безразлично ми е“... Такава оценка, действаща до анализа,

опираща се на интуиция и минал опит, е необходима на човек,

за да оцелява и да взаимодейства с околните и средата, поради

което се нуждае и от трениране на тази функция, включително

чрез изкуство. И това е в основата на съвременните актуални

технологии за развитие и формиране на емоционална култура,

интелигентност и компетентност. Базови емоции в

психологията са радост, тъга, страх, гняв, удивление,

безразличие. От тях произтичат редица настроения и най-малки

нюанси на преживявания.

Музикалните емоции са процес, резултат, образ и опит

да се преживее музиката от човека. В живота емоциите, които

човек изпитва в различни житейски ситуации, се разполагат

между положителния и отрицателния полюс. Те често имат

амбивалентен характер. Художествените емоции, за разлика от

житейските, са винаги положителни, тъй като човек дори

когато съпреживява тъгата, скръбта, заложена от автора в

художествената творба, изпитва известно естетическо

удовлетворение, което води до положителни емоции. Няма

музика, лишена от емоционална окраска. Емоциите,

положителни или отрицателни, са неизменен феномен на

музиката и винаги носят удоволетворение [Атанасова-Вукова

2014: 193]. Вундт предлага схема с полярни емоционални

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

характеристики: удоволствие – неудоволствие, напрежение –

разреждане, възбуда – успокоение [Рубинщейн 1946: 458].

Други психолози ги разделят на активни (радост, гняв) и

пасивни (тъга, печал) [Холопова 2014: 116]. При определянето

на емоциите като индивидуални качества в психологическата,

езиковедската, филологическата, философската литературата

се очертават граници на многовариантност от 3 до 143 броя.

Обща закономерност между тях е, че числото на отрицателните

емоции надделява над положителните и неутралните.

Например при К. Изард [Изард 1980] емоциите са седем

отрицателни – мъка, гняв, отвращение, презрение, страх, вина,

срам, две положителни – интерес, удоволствие, една неутрална

– удивление. Що се отнася до въплъщението на житейските

емоции в музиката, известен в тази насока е трудът на В.

Морозов [Морозов 1998: 173; 163 – 165]. Изследването му

показва, че изпълнителите най-добре, най-изразително са

интерпретирали мъка, страх, безразличие, гняв, а не така стои

въпросът с радостта. Слушателите показват същите резултати

при възприемане на емоциите – най-точно са оценили същите

отрицателни емоции. Светът на музикалните емоции обаче се

формира не на принципа на копиране на жизнените емоции, а в

съответствие с общата позитивна функция на музиката и

равновесието между положителното и отрицателното,

хармонията между ценностите (Рене Декарт – Compendium

Musicae, 1618) [Холопова 2014: 120, 121]. През следващите

години и векове ясно се затвърдява тенденцията към

положителни, прекрасни емоции (теории за афектите –

душевни преживявания в музиката: Атаназиус Кирхер, 1650;

Йоханес Валтер, 1732 – Музикален речник) [Хрущева 2020:

105]. Осем са основните музикални афекти – радост, любов,

страдание, гняв, състрадание, страх, бодрост, изумление, като

надделяват положителните. По-късно Теодюл Рибо пише в

своята „Психология на чувствата“, че музиката предизвиква

най-много емоции: радост, печал, нежност, спокойствие,

яснота, безпокойство [Рибо 1896: 100]. Независимо че

музикалната естетика след XVIII в. се променя, особено през

XX в., приоритетът на позитивното начало в музиката се

запазва.

Класификация на емоции в музиката от различни

гледни точки предлага В. Холопова: като чувства от живота,

като фактор за саморегулация на личността, като възхищение

от майсторство в изкуството, като субективна реакция на

музиканта практик – композитор, изпълнител, като

изображаеми в музиката (въплътени в музикалния образ),

специфични за музиката (произтичащи от нейната природа –

вокална или тембрална, моторно-ритмическа, речева)

[Холопова 2014: 124].

Всички така изредени емоции са неизбежно

присъстващи в много конкретни моменти в заниманията с

музика: пресъздаване на богата палитра от житейски

емоционални състояния, преживяване на музикалната творба в

емоционален контрапункт или с полифоничност с лични

жизнени преживявания, надскачане на лични преживявания

чрез емоционално музикални такива, оценка при

съпреживяването на творбата – чрез изпълнение или

възприемане, възхищение от творческия резултат на

композитора и изпълнителя, творчески вълнения при

изпълнение и предизвикани от тях емоции (сценична треска,

вълнения за успех, какво ще кажат „критиците“ – аудитория,

учител…) и др. Умелата роля на учителя в тези процеси е

гарант за успех.

Чувствата са една от основните форми на

преживяване от човека на своето отношение към това, което го

заобикаля. Те са сложни цялостни образувания, които се

организират около определени обекти или предмети на

изкуството. В психологията чувствата се определят като

интелектуални, нравствени и естетически [Атанасова-Вукова

2014]. Естетическите чувства се проявяват в естетическото

отношение и естетическите оценки, касаещи произведения на

изкуството или красотата в природата, обществото, света.

Приема се, че всеки човек има своя палитра от чувства, чрез

която той взаимодейства с музикалното изкуство, чрез която

приема света.

Афектът е кратка, бурна, интензивна емоционална

реакция; изключително силно, внезапно настъпващо, но бурно

протичащо краткотрайно чувство, предизвикано от определени

причини, своеобразен емоционален взрив. Афективните

състояния се характеризират с нарастващо постепенно

емоционално напрежение. При възприемане и изпълнение на

музика човек изпитва емоционална възбуда, импулсивност,

устойчивост, емоционална впечатлителност и особено

емоционална отзивчивост, която се приема като основен

признак на музикалността.

Преживяването в музикалната психология се определя

като „действително динамична единица на съзнанието“

[Выготский 1987], „къс от собствения живот на индивида,

негова кръв и плът“ [Рубинщейн], способност – условие за

успешна дейност [Теплов 1945], задължително условие в

триадата „познание – преживяване – оценяване“ за отношение

към музикалното изкуство, вътрешна активност на индивида

[Атанасова-Вукова 2014: 70; 71]. Музикалното преживяване е

резултат от възприятието на музикалния образ и отношението

към него, единство на афект и интелект (Виготски), особена

форма на невербално знание (Ярошевски), притежава

имплицитна интелектуална наситеност (Торопова),

специфично спрямо емоциите и чувствата, тъй като за неговото

възникване човекът се опира на специфична „звукова тъкан”

(усетa за музикалното време – ритъм, за музикалното

пространство – музикалните интонации, музикалния лад,

музикалната хармония и т.н.), а не на житейски сетивни

координати [Атанасова-Вукова 2014: 94]. При възприемане на

музикалната творба се създава перцептивен образ, който,

благодарение на музикалния и житейски опит на

възприемащия, се разбира от него в някаква степен и му

позволява да се ориентира и в света на емоциите (основни и

специфични според А. Атанасова), т.е. активизира се

музикално преживяване. Съпреживяване е друг

психологически процес – при възникване на конкретна

художествена емоция непроизволно (неволно) автоматично се

активизира аналогична житейска емоция. „Възприемането на

изкуството не се свежда до образно мислене, но в основата му

стои интелектуалното, а емоционалното е съпреживяването на

художествения образ, съпреживяване на самия себе си – човек

възприема, определя и преживява емоционалния тон (тъжно,

весело, смешно и т.н.), има определени критични оценки

(интересно, скучно, лошо, добро и т.н.), т.е. тълкува и разбира

преживяванията на твореца“ [Атанасова-Вукова 2014: 194].

Емоции, чувства, настроения, предизвикани от музиката

(естетически по своята същност), не съществуват в чувственото

поле на човек до момента, в който сам човек, увлечен от своето

отношение и своята работа като следствие на художествено

задание, не изпитва вътрешна потребност с помощта на

специален език и речников запас да „опише“ своето състояние

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

с особени, ефимерни, неустойчиви признаци [Ражников 2013:

55]. Която и да е творческа позиция в изкуството (автор,

изпълнител, слушател, критик, експерт…) рано или късно

изисква описание на резултатите от своята дейност, дори с

елементарни художествени образи-настроения. Ситуацията

става обаче художествена, когато в пристрастно украсената

дейност „се вмъкват елементи от нематериалните символни

структури, образи, които не са локализирани в материални

обекти и физиологични органи“ [Ражников 2013: 58]. В нашето

образно мислене именно тях обозначаваме като художествено

настроение – онези специални настроения със специфична

енергия, свойствена само на художествената действителност,

породена от музиката.

Съществува твърде голяма корелация между

възприемането на музика и личния житейски и музикален опит

на личността. Това дава основание на Г. П. Овсянкина да

поставя въпроса за възприемането на музикалната творба и

тезаурус на възприемането. Според нея формирането,

създаването на тезаурус е свързано със слушателския опит на

човека. Тезаурусът е своего рода речник на музикалната

култура на личността, това е набор от запаметени,

„запечатени” следи от минали впечатления, действия, връзки и

отношения, които могат да се възстановят, да се активизират

при слушане наново на даденото музикално произведение.

Според Г. П. Овсянкина от една страна тезаурусът възниква и

се попълва благодарение на общуването с музиката, а от друга

– тезаурусът е този интелектуален фундамент, който определя

спецификата на музикалното възприемане на един или друг

човек [Овсянкина 2007: 85].

3. Заключение

Така аргументираният диапазон от емоционални

психологически процеси и същности в йерархия, свързани с

възприемането и изпълнението на музика (състояние,

настроение, емоция, чувство, афект, преживяване) e част от

разкриването на системата от функции на музиката.

Познаването им позволява пълноценно търсене на проекциите

им в музикално-изпълнителската и музикално-педагогическата

работа, което е предпоставка за успешен музикално-

педагогически процес.

Литература

Атанасова-Вукова, А. Музикална психология. УИ „Еп. К.

Преславски“, 2014.

Выготский, Л. Психология искусства. М., 1987.

Изард, К. Эмоции человека. М.: Изд-во МГУ, 1980

Морозов, В. Искусство и наука общения: невербальная

коммуникация. М., ИП РАН, Центр „Искусство и наука“, 1998.

Назайкинский, Е. О психологии музыкального восприятия.

М., 1972.

Овсянкина, Г. Музыкальная психология. Изд. Союз

художников, 2007.

Ражников, В. Постижение сущности эстетических эмоций и

художественных переживаний (авторский словарь и методика

его применения). Музыкальное искусство и образование, 4,

2013. с. 54 – 63.

Рибо, Т. Психология чувств. СПб, 1896.

Римский-Корсаков, Н. Музыкальные статьи и заметки. О

музыкальном образовании. СПб., 1911.

Рубинщейн, С. Основы общей психологии. М., 1946.

Теплов, Б. О музыкальном переживании. В: Сборник,

посвещеный 35-летию научной деятельности Д. Н. Узнадзе.

Тбилиси, 1945.

Торопова, А. Музыкальная психология и психология

музыкального образования. Учебное пособие. ГРАФ-ПРЕСС,

2010.

Хегел, Г. Лекции по естетика или философия на изкуството.

Том 1-2. Изток-Запад, С. 2004.

Холопова, В. Теория музыкального содержания, музыкальной

герменевтики, музыкальной семантики: сходство и различия. //

Журнал общества теории музыки, № 3, 2014/ 1, с. 20 – 42.

Хрущева, Н. Метамодерн в музыке и вокруг нее. М., 2020.

Matravers, D. Arousal Theories. // Gracyk & Kania 2011: 212 –

222. https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/music/.

Matravers, D. Art and Emotion, Oxford: Clarendon. 1998.

http://www.koelnklavier.de/quellen/hanslick/_index.html

https://www.britannica.com/topic/The-Beautiful-in-Music

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Technological education - an essential dimension of education in Romania

Monica Moraru

Ovidius University of Constanta, Faculty of Psychology and Educational Sciences, Constanta, Romania

E-mail: andrada_mira@yahoo.com

Abstract: One of the skills considered "key" in the world we live in is to know, understand, evaluate and use technology. Like it or not,

technology marks both the state and evolution of human society and everyday life and students' interest in the challenges and its products is

explosive and can no longer be ignored by the school. The present study aims to approach in an essentialized way the specifics of

technological education in the Romanian school, in the context of an increasingly advanced technology society. The introduction in 1992 of

the new discipline "Technological education" in secondary education was one of the solutions adopted by Romania in this regard. Also called

"applied intellectual education", technological education promotes the values of APPLIED SCIENCE in all areas of social life. The general

pedagogical objective: the development of the theoretical and practical professional / technological awareness, of the capacity to apply the

scientific knowledge in different social contexts of economic, political and cultural nature.

KEYWORDS:TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION, CURRICULUM, TECHNOLOGICAL EDUCATION AND PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

1. Introducere

One of the skills considered "key" in the world we live in is to

know, understand, evaluate and use technology. Like it or not,

technology marks both the state and evolution of human society and

everyday life and students' interest in the challenges and its products

is explosive and can no longer be ignored by the school. As Gardner

put it, "the powers that technology has given us are too great to be

left to fate or greed" [2, 63]. Thus, technological education is self-

evident in a world marked by science and technology. Among the

factors that determine the existence of this educational concern, we

list [1, 146-147]: contemporary technical and technological

mutations; the need to understand, know and master the technology

and technological products; gaining pragmatic autonomy, including

by acquiring skills, technical skills; career guidance, by knowing

the world of professions and its dynamics, etc. The present study

aims to approach in an essentialized way the specifics of

technological education in the Romanian school, in the context of

an increasingly advanced technology society.

2. Educatia tehnologică – dimensiune esențială a

educației

Also called "applied intellectual education", technological

education promotes the values of APPLIED SCIENCE in all

areas of social life.

The purpose of technological education is not to make a

finished product, but to get to the heart of technological

problems, developing curiosity, the ability to understand a

technological problem, to define data, to find solutions, to

structure knowledge, to stimulate the activity of divergent

thinking, responsibility, assumption, exploration, to build the

environment and to build oneself by building it.

The general pedagogical objective: the development of the

theoretical and practical professional/technological

awareness, of the capacity to apply the scientific knowledge

in different social contexts of economic, political and cultural

nature.

Specific pedagogical objectives:

 assimilation of the theoretical foundations of

contemporary technology, by mastering the concepts,

models, principles and rules of application of scientific

theory;

 school and professional orientation, defined as a set of

pedagogical, social, medical actions and influences that

are continuously exercised in order for individuals to

achieve school and professional options in accordance

with the particularities of their personality and the

requirements of the social context in which they are

reports, in turn, considers the following objectives:

knowledge of the aptitude and aspirational profile of

students; informing students about the specifics of the

professional world; training skills specific to professions

in a continuous dynamic;

 initial and continuous professional training through the

formation and development of practical skills and

abilities in order to carry out productive activities:

creativity and technical thinking (sketches, plans,

diagrams), spatial perception, motor skills, manual

dexterity, skills and practical skills (read a sketch, a

plan, to assemble / disassemble, to measure, to cut);

 cultivating a positive attitude towards work, forming a

responsible behavior, the spirit of organization and

initiative, the courage to do something, taking the risk.

Therefore, the purpose of technological education lies in the

formation of intellectual abilities, emotional availability and

practical skills through the assimilation of technological

knowledge, with the aim of facilitating the autonomous

behavior of adapting the person to the technological

specificity of daily life.

The favorite forms of technological education are: laboratory

work in various fundamental disciplines, conducting

experiments in physics, chemistry, biology, etc., manual

activities provided in the programs, practice in school

workshops or in production, activities in the circles

techniques (mechanics, electrical engineering,

aeromodelling, computer science, etc.), visits, trips in model

technological environments, etc. [1, 147-148].

3. Technological Education Curriculum in Romania

In 1992, through the Curriculum of lower secondary

education, the discipline „Technological Education”

officially entered the compulsory educational offer, marking

the break with the traditional „Manual work”. In the

following years, the orientation towards the connection of the

school of life was accentuated by the introduction of the

discipline „Technology” in the high school education and of

the discipline „Practical skills”, in the primary education.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

The curriculum for Technological Education and Practical

Applications is a common core curriculum for grades V-VIII

in middle school. The discipline is provided in the

curriculum approved by the O.M.E.N.C.S. with no. 3590 /

05.04.2016, in the curricular area Technologies, having a

time budget of 1 hour/week, during each of the four school

years.

This curriculum reflects the deeply interdisciplinary and

practical-applicative nature of the subject, ensures the

continuation of the approaches from the discipline Visual

Arts and Practical Skills studied in primary education and

aims at the competencies from the training profile of the 8th

grade graduate.

Among the key competences that define the training profile

of the high school student, necessary for lifelong learning,

the discipline of Technological Education and Practical

Applications focuses on mathematical and basic skills in

science and technology, initiative and entrepreneurship.

The study of Technological Education and Practical

Applications helps the high school student to explore trades,

to discover his inclination, his calling, to a certain field,

trade, activity and to make informed choices about his own

educational and professional path.

The Technological Education and Practical Applications for

Secondary Education program takes into account the context

of the challenges in contemporary society regarding the need

to increase workforce skills and employability, in conditions

of competitiveness and sustainable development. From this

perspective, the curriculum contributes to the training profile

of the graduate by proposing learning activities that structure

the basic skills of students on efficient management of

resource consumption, promotion of eco-efficient

technologies and interest in smart specialization areas.

competitive potential.

In this context, through the set of competencies, the learning

examples and the proposed contents, the discipline

Technological Education and Practical Applications

contributes significantly to:

- formation of practical skills by the execution by

students, individually or in teams, of useful products,

creative works by using materials, tools, instruments,

devices in the application of technologies, in an

organized context of technological processes

corresponding to different economic branches;

- creating the skills to achieve a quality product / service

through the efficient use of human, material, financial

and time resources, as well as the formation of a rational

and informed consumption behavior, based on priorities;

- creating contexts that favor the formation of responsible

attitudes towards health, environment, work by applying

work safety measures, fire prevention and extinguishing

rules, workplace ergonomics, by reducing energy

consumption, by rational use of material resources

necessary to make a product;

- amplifying the creative capacities and the availability for

innovation and invention necessary for personal

development and subsequent integration into work;

- use of new information and communication technologies

(applications, technical educational software, etc.) for

documentation, design, learning; - supporting students in

the decision-making process regarding the continuation

of studies both by informing about the

activities/occupations/trades specific to different fields

of economic activity and their associated services,

including by accessing information from COR -

Classification of Occupations in Romania, and by

working directly with various materials, in the projects

of practical realization of useful products or creative

works.

The structure of the school curriculum includes, along with

the Introductory Note, the following elements:

- General competencies

- Specific skills and examples of learning activities

- Contents

- Methodological suggestions

The general competencies for Technological Education and

Practical Applications aim at the student's acquisitions for

the entire study interval of the discipline during the

gymnasium. These are defined as follows [3, 4]:

1. The practical realization of useful products and / or

creative works for current activities and their

capitalization.

2. Promoting a technological environment conducive

to sustainable development.

3. Exploring the interests and skills for occupations /

professions, professional fields and

entrepreneurship in order to choose the school and

professional path.

Specific competencies are derived from general

competencies. They represent stages in their acquisition and

are formed during a school year.

Specific competences - 5th grade [3, 5-6]:

1.1 Execution of simple creative products / works based on a

given technology sheet, selecting the appropriate raw

materials, materials, tools / utensils / devices / apparatus.

1.2 Identifying data, quantities, relationships, processes and

phenomena specific to mathematics and science in making a

product.

1.3 Analysis of products based on mutually agreed criteria.

2.1 Rationale for the use of hygiene rules, occupational

health and safety measures, fire prevention and

extinguishing, specific to real working conditions.

2.2 Selection of products and technologies from the

perspective of maintaining the quality of the environment and

health.

3.1 Identifying professional models in the fields explored.

3.2 Demonstrate the ability to work individually and in teams

to solve problems.

Specific competences - 6th grade [3, 8-9]:

1.1 Execution of simple products / models starting from a

technological file made with the support of the teacher.

1.2 Using the basic acquisitions in mathematics and science

to make a product, in conditions of efficiency.

1.3 Assessing the quality of products made from the

perspective of reinvesting the benefits obtained.

2.1 Selection of occupational safety, fire prevention and

extinguishing measures applicable in various business

contexts.

2.2 Identify ways to save resources and reuse waste.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

3.1 Argumentation of personal preferences for activities /

trades / professions explored through direct experience.

3.2 Carrying out innovative activities / products based on the

decomposition / recomposition / creative reuse of the

elements of some given initial products.

Specific competences - 7th grade [3, 10-11]:

1.1 Execution of useful and / or creative products through

project-type activities, based on a technological file prepared

by the student with the support of the teacher.

1.2 Solving problems in making a product using symbols and

terms specific to technologies and acquisitions in

mathematics and science.

1.3 Promoting products made on the basis of quality criteria

in order to make the best use of them.

2.1 Transfer in specific contexts of specific occupational

safety, fire prevention and extinguishing measures.

2.2Critical analysis of the consequences of technological

development on the health and well-being of individuals,

communities and the environment.

3.1 Analyzing the impact of technological development on

current and future occupations / professions / occupations in

the labor market.

3.2 Critical analysis of the activity of employees and

entrepreneurs on consumers, the community and the business

environment.

Specific competences - 8th grade [3, 13-14]:

1.1 Carrying out projects as appropriate answers / solutions

to a series of family / school / community problems /

challenges.

1.2 Evaluate the usefulness and effectiveness of products

based on applications in mathematics and science.

1.3 Evaluation of projects and their implementation

processes based on agreed criteria.

2.1 Assessment of a context of activity in order to select the

specific measures of safety at work, prevention and

extinguishing of the fires to be applied.

2.2 Implementing initiatives in school / community to support

a healthy environment.

3.1 Critical analysis of the characteristics of some trades /

professions / occupations in real contexts, according to

chosen criteria.

3.2 Promoting innovative ideas that benefit the community.

Specific competencies are linked to examples of learning

activities.

The learning content operates a relevant selection from the

perspective of structuring skills and reflects the main areas of

economic activity: agriculture, textile industry, food industry,

food and tourism, trade, construction, power, transport,

environmental protection, woodworking, metals and related

services . The contents are informational means by which the

achievement of the competencies is pursued. They are

organized into the following areas:

- Technologies;

- Design;

- Quality, economy and entrepreneurship;

- Sustainable Development;

- Activities / occupations / trades.

The curriculum provides examples of products that can be

executed through project-type activities. The specificity of

the Technological Education and Practical Applications

program consists in proposing activities for the practical

realization of useful products that can be used at home, at

school and in the community. These can be physical products

(kitchen apron, hanger, etc.) or intellectual products (project

budget, travel budget, business plan, etc.).

Methods of approaching technological education activities:

observation, experiment, demonstration, discovery, problem

solving, exercise, case study, teaching game, etc.

4. Conclusion

Technological / vocational education is interdependently with

the other fields / dimensions of education: with intellectual

education, because technology is a dimension of scientific

knowledge - its praxiological dimension, and the content of

technological education consists of notions, principles, laws

and scientific theories fundamental; with moral education,

because it appeals to norms, rules, principles, attitudes, moral

competences; with aesthetic education, because it appeals to

notions, but also behaviors, aesthetic values; with physical

education, because it is based on and contributes to the

quality of body development and functioning, etc. [4, 80].

Technological education thus facilitates the process of socio-

professional integration of the individual, as well as guidance

in the professional field, permanent adaptation to changes in

the field of work, full socio-professional employment,

activation of technical skills of the person.

5. References

1. Cucoș, C. (2014). Pedagogy. Iasi: Polirom Publishing

House.

2. Gardner, H., Csikszentmihalyi, M., Damon, W. (2005).

Job well done. Bucharest: SIGMA Publishing House.

3. M.E.N. (2017). Curriculum for Technological Education

and Practical Applications Grades V - VIII. Bucharest.

http://programe.ise.ro/Portals/1/Curriculum/2017-

progr/116-

Educatie%20tehnologica%20si%20aplicatii%20%20pra

ctice.pdf

4. Păun, E., Șerbănescu, L. (2008). Representative

educational fields. New education. Formal, non-formal

and informal in education. Educational alternatives.

Interdependencies, in Potolea, D., Neacșu, I., Iucu, R.B.,

Pânișoară, I.O., Psychopedagogical training. Handbook

for graduation and teaching degree II. Iasi: Polirom

Publishing House. p. 80.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Didactic texts shared via the internet

MPH Bartošovič, Michal

DTI University, Dubnica nad Váhom, Slovakia

bartosovic@dti.sk

Abstract: Sharing of experience acquired by teaching has always belonged to common teachers’ activities. Formerly, teachers shared

experience mainly by sitting in on colleagues’ classes and by sharing experience in professional journals. Thanks to the development

of informational technologies in the 21st century, teachers now frequently use the Internet for sharing of experience. Yet there has not been

any unified standard in Slovakia for indicating the quality of those published didactic materials.

Keywords: DIGITAL MATERIAL, TEACHING, DIDACTIC TEXT, INTERNET, EDUCATION

1. Introduction

Thanks to the development of information technology, are

experiences shared in the 21st century much more often trough

internet websites. Teachers can publish not only assignments and

activities with worksheets for students, comprehensive examples of

good practice, individual digital teaching materials and

methodological advice for other teachers, but also video sequences

from lessons or explanatory videos.

Many of the teaching materials available on the Internet

have been created in Slovakia in recent years as part of the projects

co-financed by the European Union. The publication of these

materials (methodological procedures, inspirations for teaching and

teaching materials intended for teachers and students) is one of the

conditions for the implementation of these projects. The aim of this

publication is to emphasize the importance of different aspects of

the evaluation of teaching materials, which can help the general

pedagogical public to navigate through huge range of teaching

materials and obtain valuable information on how to proceed in

creating their own teaching materials.

In Slovakia, teachers are "self-taught" in creating such

shared materials. Therefore, when searching for available teaching

resources or creating their own teaching materials, teachers often

learn from their own mistakes. Therefore, the proposal to assess the

quality of the teaching material is only a logical outcome. We

performed an analysis of the internet websites using the established

criteria.

2. Prerequisites and means for solving the problem

There is a wide and diverse range of teaching materials

associated with technical development, which presents teachers

with a new challenge: to select from this offer materials that would

effectively contribute to the achievement of teaching objectives and

not just be a flashy enrichment. At the same time, the teacher is

given the opportunity to choose suitable teaching materials, e.g.,

from the commercial offer of several companies or from internet

sources, as well as in accordance with their own creative approach

in the implementation of "tailored" teaching materials, i.e., adapted

to the own didactic elaboration of the curriculum and the used

methodical teaching procedure [1]. Analyzing various aspects of the

quality of teaching is the domain of mathematics, science and

language in particular [2], which means the quality, that in a

favorable circumstance leads to a high level of education for

students. The approach for processing and memorizing didactic

information transmitted by the teaching material is explained in

current concepts of cognitive psychology and psycholinguistics as

the interaction between the properties of the text (knowledge

structure, stimulating characteristics) and the subject (cognitive and

language competence) [3]. The information transmission has three

phases: information selection, sorting and linking. The teaching

material, including the digital, should be designed in such a way

that all three phases are interconnected. A solid structure that is

chosen for content processing can help better process information

and store it in long-term memory. The probability that information

will reach knowledge increases. Brain research shows that, structure

must be consistent with content, relationships must be explicit and

clear, and students must have support in deriving concepts or facts

[4].

An experienced teacher often draws form several

resources, and in this respect, quality online materials can

contribute to understanding and mastering the curriculum. What

should quality online learning material look like? The basic

condition is its factual correctness and quality didactic processing,

as is the case with printed textbooks [5]. The most important

requirements for quality text include:

• expertise (conformity between the curriculum with knowledge

in the given scientific discipline),

• didactics (approval of the curriculum, correct choice of

knowledge),

• methodological (choice of adequate resource),

• logic (comprehensive knowledge structure),

• linguistics (language accuracy).

3. Solution of the examined problem

The possibilities of teaching while using the Internet are

extensive. The user can find websites with different topics and

in various situations - whether in interpreting and practicing a

new subject, as well as consolidating the curriculum, testing

students or preparing teachers and students for class.

As part of the questionnaire survey, the author

investigated how high school teachers see the issue. The aim of

the survey was to verify whether teachers search the Internet for

presentations, texts or worksheets for a given lesson. Teachers

do not look for didactic manuals and advice. The sample

consisted of 325 teachers of which 49% were looking for

presentations and worksheets, 25% searched for bases and

procedures for their own material and the remaining 26%

searched for collections of tasks, textbooks, logic tasks and

animations.

The target of the second set of questions was critical

points (weak spots?) of teaching materials on the Internet. A

total of 85 teachers responded and the most recurring are

expressions, terms, word puzzles, meaning of words and

equations.

The intent of the last part of the survey was the criteria for

teaching text and materials on the Internet.

4. Results and discussion

It can be stated that teachers use internet browsing mostly

to search for scribed teaching materials, pictures and animations,

which they use directly in teaching, in their presentations or

worksheets for students.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

As criteria for the quality of selected teaching materials,

teachers chose didactics, professional accuracy, reliability of

resources, creativity support and independence of students,

individuality of teaching, application to life, etc. Among the basic

shortcomings of materials written by authors teachers enclosed the

formulation clumsiness, the use of incorrect words or characters, a

general description of the theory without incorporation of

application and activating methods, test creation without knowledge

of didactic test conditions, absence of creative work of students,

factual errors and unsubstantiated claims as well as failure to

mention the authors of the works.

5. Conclusion

The findings show that teachers are not looking for teaching

materials but simple texts, presentations or pictures. They are aware

of the need for validity and reliability of texts as well as the basic

requirements that their preparation for the lesson includes. However

due to lack of time, poor professional didactic training during their

studies or insufficient evaluation of their work, they do not produce

quality texts, only repeat the mistakes of others.

The COVID19 pandemic forced teachers to develop

online materials to replace traditional teaching, but as the after

covid period shows, the school materials used by teachers were

poor quality and consequently they need to catch up on the

curriculum or explain it to the students again.

6. References

1. Lepil,O. Teorie a praxe tvorby vyukovych materiálů . Olomouc:

UP v Olomouci, 2010.

2. Janík, J. Knecht, P. Najvar, P. Nástroje pro monitoring a evaluaci

kvality vyuky a kurikula . Brno: Masarykova univerzita, 2010.

3. Průcha, J. Pedagogick slovník. Praha: Portál, 2003.

4. Reints, A. What works and why? Educational publishing between

market and educational science. In Textbooks and Educational

media in a digital age Reints. Ostrava: Univerzita v Ostravě –

Pedagogická fakulta, 2015

5. Robová, J. Webová podpora vyuky matematiky na střední škole .

In Jak připravit učitele matematiky. Sborník celostátní konference.

Praha: Matfyzpress, 2010.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Educational and philosophical dimensions of the social identity

Lora Radoslavova,

The University of Rousse “Angel Kanchev”, Bulgaria

E-mail: lradoslavova@uni-ruse.bg

Abstract: The purpose of this article is to emphasize to the importance of the process of formation of social identity, both in relation to the

individual and in relation to the surrounding school and social environment. Тhe modern pedagogical process is characterized by rapidly

evolving technological models, teaching aids and tools and with a changing educational space. These factors of the social reality, due to the

pandemic situation, determine the formation of the social identity of the students. The present material focuses on the substantive aspect of

the concept of social identity and on the factors that influence to its formation. The article implements an integrational and multidisciplinary

approach for the purpose of building a scientific construction of the interpretation of the phenomenon of sociall identity and its position in

educational scientific systematic apparatus. The process of identity formation is analyzed and interpreted from different scientific

perspectives - philosophy, pedagogy and psychology.

Keywords: EDUCATIONAL PROCESS, SOCIAL IDENTITY, PSYCHOLOGY, PHILOSOPHY, SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT.

1. Introduction

The main characteristics of modern science include

interdisciplinarity, humanism and multiculturalism. In modern

conditions it is impossible to consider the process of the education

and upbringing of a person without taking into consideration his

individual and socio-cultural peculiarities. The social identity

overcomes the most fundamental opposition -the opposition of the

individual and its continuation in the social, political, economical,

cultural and all other spheres of human life.

2. Discussion

In the field of contemporary social psychology, there is no single

theory of socialization. There are several theories, each

characterized by their strengths and weaknesses. Proponents of the

psychoanalytic theory of identification originating from Freud

believe that a person unconsciously identifies with the images of a

mature human being significant of child’s life.

L. Kohlberg's cognitive-genetic theory emphasizes the cognitive

side of this process, especially the role of self-consciousness in

forming the individual social identity. (Kohlberg, L. 1963, p. 56-

93)

S. Thompson identifies three stages in the development of

identification: the child realizes that there are different social

models; the child is included in one of the social models; based on

self-determination, it begins to guide its own behavior.

Loris Malagutsi believes that “the education should offer

development to all parts of the whole. At the heart of his

philosophy is the idea of the 100 different languages through which

children communicate. The children are perceived as fully capable

of growing and constructing their own knowledge. They have not

only the need, but also the right to interact with other children,

adults and the environment, full of ideas and desires and interests."

(Georgieva, G., 2014, p. 135)

The socialization of individuals contains terms and processes,

characterizing the complex relationships that might arise in a

group:

- Social identity - implies identification of a person with a

particular society and assimilation of its rules and norms;

- Social ideology - perceptions in society, concerning the qualities

which are preferred;

- Social segregation - predominantly communicating with others

and limiting contacts with individuals from the “opposite” side;

- Social situation - characterizes the environment in which the

individual is presented;

- Typical social behavior - characterizes the actions and gestures

inherent in the current society;

- Atypical social behavior - characterizes the actions and gestures

inherent in the opposite society. (Radoslavova, L., 2021, p.39)

It turns out that there could be interrelationships, represented in

various scientific researches both in the field of social issues and

in the field of philosophical and pedagogical sciences, basing on

the consideration of social identity and socialization as a well-

differentiated part of general and social pedagogy.

From a fundamental point of view, the philosophy of education has

been established as a branch of the philosophy of science. The

main nature of research can be concentrated in the following

frameworks: (Klepko S.F. 1998, p. 360)

- The philosophy of education, considered as a field of

philosophical knowledge is using general philosophical ideas and

approaches to analyze the role and basic laws in the development

of the educational process. (Hegel, John Dewey, Carl Jaspers,

Martin Heidegger, I. Ilin, N. Berdyaev, B. Bibler, Šchedróvidskiy,

Kurganov).

- The positive understanding of the philosophy of education, as the

knowledge that is applied by analogy of theoretical pedagogy, in

the structure of meta-pedagogical knowledge. (R. Lochner, B.

Bresinka, I. Scheffler, Hearst, Peters)

- The philosophy of education as a philosophical metaphysics, a

broader field of knowledge, compared to social philosophy and

philosophical anthropology.

The philosophy of education is institutionalized in the nineteenth

century (thanks to the work of John Dewey) as a mandatory

criterion for competent and responsible practices in education. The

variability in the dimensions of the philosophy of education in the

West, gives impetus to existential debates about what science itself

really is - a field of knowledge, a field of research or an academic

discipline. Thus, the relationship between "philosophy" and

"education" is based on the philosophy of education as a field of

research.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

The emotional and mental state of the individual, as well as the

immediate roles in which he is placed are a powerful source of

theoretical research in modern philosophy. In the context of this

philosophy, the main element in determining the specifics of

postmodernism in general is the human personality.

The movement of contemporary philosophy and the philosophy of

post-structuralism are both an attempt to overcome the binary

vision of the world and the dichotomous construction of one's own

philosophy. The alternative of the universality of the individual

through the prism of his identity, social identity, possibilities and

realities, the old and the new perceptions in modern philosophy

contributes to the formation of a new style in philosophical

thinking. The relationship between social identity and the problems

of philosophy is very encouraging in the field of research.

The school as an institution of socialization officially presents to

students same knowledge and patterns of behavior, but in a result

there are significant differences between the success of students,

such as learning achievements and patterns of behavior that are

perceived by individual students.

One of the main areas of research, which is conducted within the

socio-psychological and pedagogical knowledge is the analysis of

the hidden curriculum (hidden curriculum), identified "... with

meta-communication as a language aimed at social control

"(Yarskaya-Smirnova, E. 2000, pp. 295-301).

The concept of "hidden curriculum" was introduced in the

academic community by representatives of critical pedagogy,

aiming to overcome inequality and injustice in the education

system:. "... Schools should be a source of social transformation"

(Vuyzov, I. D. 1998, p.57). Several dimensions of the hidden

curriculum can be differentiated: in terms of the organization of

the educational institution and the stratification of identity in

teaching, in terms of the content of the subjects and in terms of the

style of teaching.

Although it has not been scientifically proven that in the modern

educational system there is hidden discrimination or tolerance of a

particular social model or role, which is suggested in one form or

another, there are studies (Breslav G. - B.Khasan. 1990. p.66 -67),

which show that the situation in the modern school is "hostile" to

individual students to varying degrees and by different criterias.

This is the reason for the need of a detailed study of the

implementation of all activities, technologies and approaches,

involved in the educational process. The search for opportunities

for the implementation of special individual approaches is being

tailored to the needs of students in relation to their individual

socio-cultural and psychological characteristics, which contribute

to the successful solution of socialization problems to the school

environment and building a meaningful individual social identity.

The latest streams of critical pedagogy aim to create a teaching

methodology in which there are no social inequalities.

Reorganizing the knowledge and changing the angle of perception

of the individual identity is of fundamental importance for

overcoming the social prejudices and emphasizing the need of

personal intellectual identity researches. The theories of the

philosophy of education position the personal identity as a central

in the process of learning. (Hooks, B., p. 199) "The learning

process - this is an area in which we have …the opportunity to

work for freedom, to demand from ourselves and our friends an

open mind and heart, to find an opportunity to move against

borders."

Post-structuralism (and its representatives- Michel Foco, Jacques

Derrida, Gilles Delöz, Jean Bodriar) emerges from the

understanding that subjectivity is something that is not

fundamentally whole and fixed. From this point of view, there can

be no unity of norms and values that apply to traditional thinking

and culture.

The educational process should be observed as a branch of the

sciences of education that examines the processes of learning and

training as organized forms of building social equality, social

identity, social roles in the individual student’s personalities,

based on the academic, social and the physical environment, as

well as the surrounding community.

The school system and its management, the social policies and

practices are the objects of research of the indicated pedagogical

field. Emphasis is placed on the forms and methods of teaching

and education, teaching materials, classroom interactions, and the

management of the academic process - a socially responsive

learning environment.

In the context of modern pedagogical knowledge, these

characteristics have their real reflection in the overall educational

process. The methodological foundations relay on philosophical

ideas about the specifics and dialectics of social identity; theories

of differentiation based on the achievements of biology and

anthropology; the main conceptual theses in ethno pedagogy and

ethno psychology.

3. Conclusion

In deference with the individual consciousness, the public

consciousness does not emit enough signs of readiness to abandon

social identity stereotypes. The current cultural environment

strengthens public protection mechanisms and reproduces them

through the media and social attitudes. The individuals are not

accustomed to selective permeability and critical analysis of the

information that reaches them. Particularly dangerous are the

trends in the field of education, where the concepts of social

identity are not only not ready to take effect, but also meet

resistance.

The meeting point of the considered scientific positions is an

object (in fact a person), which has a diverse social identity. We

can accept the existence of many perspectives in the analysis of

the problem, which contribute to new trends in the field of

philosophy and education, support the formation of identity.

In pedagogy and real pedagogical practice it is necessary to

emphasize the process of formation of social identity and to

expand the search for methodological foundations of the issues in

education.

4. References

Breslav G. - B.Khasan. (1990). Differences and modern

school education, Philosophy Questions, No3, pp.66-67.

Georgieva, G. (2014). The child-environment-adult

interaction in Reggio Emilia schools. Collection of reports, RU

"Angel Kanchev", p. 135-140, ISBN: 978-954-712-633-6.

Hooks, B. Education as the Practice of Freedom, New

York, London: Routledge, p.199.

Klepko S.F. (1998). Integration of the World and

Polymorphism of Knowledge., Kiev, 1998, p. 360.

Kohlberg, L. (1963). A cognitive — developmental analysis

of children's sex-role concepts and attitudes / L. Kohlberg //

Maccoby E.E. (ed.) The development of sex differences.

Stanford University Press.

Radoslavova, L. (2021). The Process of Forming the Social

Identity Through Education. Proceedings of University of

Rousse, volume 60, book 6.2, p. 39.

Vuyzov, I. D. (1998). Critical Pedagogy. Philosophy

questions. No12, p.57.

Yarskaya-Smirnova, E. (2000). Gender inequality in

education: the concept of a hidden curriculum. Gender Studies,

No5, pp. 295-301.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Organisation of early childhood education and care in Romania, Greece and Bulgaria

Galina Georgieva

University of Ruse ―Angel Kanchev‖, Bulgaria

gggeorgieva@uni-ruse.bg

Abstract: The article presents a comparative analysis of the organization of the early childhood education and care in three countries from

the Balkan region – Romania, Greece and Bulgaria. The analysis focuses on the following aspects of preprimary education: access to early

childhood education and care; organisation of centre-based ECEC; educational guidelines; organisational variations and alternative

structures in ECEC.

Key words: EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION AND CARE, ROMANIA, GREECE, BULGARIA, COMPARTIVE ANALYSIS

1. Introduction

The subject of comparative education consists in research,

systematization, analysis and forecasting of the regularities and

tendencies in the development of formal and non-formal education

in different countries. Early childhood education and care (ECEC)

is a component of each country’s education system. The provision

for early childhood education and care has been a focus of analysis

and a priority of the Council of the European Union in terms of

initiating reforms leading to improvement of access,

professionalization, early years' curricula, policies and funding in

the European countires.

The aim of this article is to present in a comparative way the

current state of organization of Phase 2 of Early childhood

education and care in three countries from the Balkan region –

Romania, Greece and Bulgaria focusing on access, centre-based

organization, educational guidelines and alternative structures.

According to the Council recommendation on High-Quality

Early Childhood Education and Care Systems, ECEC should be

comprehended and referred to as ―any regulated arrangement that

provides education and care for children from birth to the

compulsory primary school age — regardless of the setting,

funding, opening hours or programme content — and includes

centre and family day-care; privately and publicly funded provision;

pre-school and pre-primary provision‖ [1].

1.1 Problem discussion

2.1. ECEC provision in Greece, Romania and

Bulgaria

In the three Balkan countries, ECEC is organised in two

phases. Table 1 presents the age differentiation, the settings,

providing the service and the responsible authority.

Table 1: ECEC organization in Bulgaria, Greece and Romania

Phase 1

Phase 2

Greece

For children under age 4

-Infant care (responsibility of

Ministry of Interior)

-Private preschool education and

care settings (responsibility of

Ministry of Labour and Social

Affairs)

For children at age 4-5

-Preschool education

(nipiagogeio) – part of primary

education (responsibility of

Ministry of Education and

Religious Affairs)

Romania

For children from 0 to 3 years

of age

-Ante-preschool education –

crèches, kindergartens, day-care

centres (responsibility of

Ministry of Labour and Social

Justice)

For children from 3 to 5/6 years

of age

-Preschool education organized

in kindergartens (gradinita) (joint

responsibility of the Ministry of

Education)

Bulgaria

For children from 3months to 3

years of age

-Nurseries (responsibility of the

Ministry of Health)

For children from 3 to 7 years of

age

-Kindergartens

-Primary schools (for 5-7 years

olds) (responsibility of the

Ministry of Education and

Science)

Phase 1 of ECEC in the three countries is not compulsory.

Phase 2 is compulsory for different ages of children in preprimary

stage of education. In Greece, education is compulsory for 4 years

olds, whilst in Romania Phase 2 is still not obligatory, although

steps towards reforms have taken place. The last preprimary year

for 6 years olds is compulsory from 2019. From 2023 the starting

age of compulsory education will be lowered to 4 years olds; from

September 2030, it will be lowered further to 3 years olds. In

Bulgaria, the last two years of kindergarten have been compulsory

since 2010 and from 2023-2024 it will be lowered to all 4 years olds

[4].

With regards to affordability to the ECEC service in Bulgaria

compulsory preschool education for children from 3 to 7 years is

free of charge. From September 2022-2023, 3 years olds will also

be entitled to free education. In Romania, ECEC for 3 to 7 years

olds is free of charge, but parents still pay fees for the meals for full

time attendance or weekly programmes. In Greece, compulsory

preprimary education for children at 4-5 years is free and in

addition to that, there is an optional full-day programme with an

extended timetable providing 20 additional weekly hours, also free

of charge [5, 6, 7].

2.2. Organisation of centre-based ECEC Phase 2 in

Greece, Romania and Bulgaria

In terms of admission requirements and choice of ECEC

settings, the three countries follow similar procedures. In Romania

the admission criteria are established by each preschool educational

setting and endorsed by the local educational authority. In Greece

admission is region-based. Each pre-primary school belongs to a

specific school region therefore address registration is essential.

Boundaries of the school regions are set by the local primary

education responsible authorities. Every child is admitted, since

ECEC Phase 2 is compulsory in the country. In Bulgaria, the local

educational authority sets admission to ECEC, but criteria may vary

in the different municipalities. In two of the three countries,

Romania and Bulgaria, except general criteria, there is also social

criteria established for admission to preschool settings. The general

criteria in the three countries is the same with some exceptions. It

includes: proof of permanent address; health booklet of the pupil or

any other documentation that proves that the pupil has received the

recommended vaccinations; personal health assessment paper;

child’s birth certificate. In Romania (for full time attendance in

kindergarten) and Bulgaria parents’/guardians’ employee certificate

is required. In Bulgaria if the child has a parent/s who is a full-time

university student that brings additional points when applying for a

preschool setting. With regards to the social criteria, specified in the

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

admission regulations in Bulgaria and Romania, what is considered

is: if the child has a parent who has died (or a parent whose working

capacity has been permanently reduced by over 70% in Bulgaria);

the child has a sibling in the preschool setting (or the child is from a

family with three or more children the child in Bulgaria); the child

has one unknown parent or a parent who has been deprived of their

parental rights; the child has been placed in a foster care; the child

is at risk [4, 5, 6].

The organization of the groups in kindergartens and

nipiagogeio in the three countries is according to age levels:

 In Greece, there are two age groups in nipiagogeio -

children of 4 years and children of 5 years;

 In Romania, there are three groups in kindergarten: the

junior group – children at the age of 3-4 years; the middle

group - children at the age of 4-5 years; the senior group -

children at the age of 5-6 years. There is also a school

Preparatory group, based in schools, which is part of the

primary school organization;

 In Bulgaria’s kindergartens children are organized in four

age groups as follows: -first age group - children at the

age of 3-4 years; second age group - children at the age of

4-5 years; third age group - children at the age of 5-6

years; fourth age group - children at the age of 6-7 years.

In Bulgaria and Romania admission rules allow a group of 2-

year-olds to be organized in kindergartens if the number of children

is sufficient (and if conditions are met for a child to start attending

kindergarten at the age of 2 years in Bulgaria) - if not, 2-year-olds

can be included in the group of 3 years olds. Mixed aged groups

organization is also allowed in the two countries when the number

of children is not enough to establish homogeneous groups [5, 6, 7].

The regulations on size of groups in Phase 2 of ECEC in the

three countries is different. In Bulgaria, the maximum size of

groups could be up to 28 children. For full time groups two teachers

working on shifts and an assistant tutor are responsible for the

group. In Romania, the maximum number of children is 20 per

group. One teacher is responsible for a group of 20 children. In long

hours or weekly programmes two teachers are appointed and work

in shifts of 5 hours per day. In Greece, the number of children in a

group is up to 25. Responsible teachers for the group can be two or

more depending on the ratio of children to teachers [5, 6, 7].

In Phase 2 of ECEC in Bulgaria, Romania and Greece

children’s attendance in preschool education settings is organized

differently on a full time, part time, hourly and weekly basis. In

Greece, it is compulsory for children to attend 4,5 hours a day

nipiagogeio (8.30 – 13.00). Non-compulsory all day programmes

extend to 16.00. In Romania there aren’t obligatory hours in

kindergarten as Phase 2 is not compulsory. Three types of

programmes are offered: regular hours (up to 5 hours a day), long

hours (10 hours a day) and weekly programme (from Monday to

Friday). In Bulgaria, preschool education in kindergartens can be

organized on a full-time (12 hours per day), part-time (6 hours per

day) and hourly basis (3 consecutive hours per day). Most common

is the full-time attendance.

With regards to the school year organization certain

similarities and differences can be pinpointed. School year starts

earlier in Greece (1 September), while in Bulgaria and Romania the

beginning of the school year is 15 September. The end of the school

year in Greece and Bulgaria is similar: 31 August and 14

September, the following year, whilst in Romania there is summer

break in kindergartens. Study time in Greece includes the period

from 1 September to 15 June, in Bulgaria – 15 September – 31

May, in Romania – 15 September – 15 June. The school year is

divided in three terms in Greece and in two terms in Bulgaria and

Romania [5, 6, 7].

2.3. Educational guidelines for ECEC

In Bulgaria, the Preschool and School Education Act [8] and

the Ordinance 5 of 3 June 2016 on preschool education [7]

determine the educational guidelines for kindergartens (ECEC

Phase 2). The Ordinance determines the state educational standard

for pre-school education, as well as:

1. The organization of the activities in the pre-school education;

2. The requirements to the application of a program system;

3. The mechanism for interaction between the participants in the

process of the pre-school education.

The overall aims of preschool education in Bulgaria are:

intellectual, emotional, social, spiritual, moral and physical

development and support of each child in accordance with their age,

needs, abilities and interests; preservation and affirmation of the

Bulgarian national identity; early detection of the talents and

abilities of each child and promotion of their development and

realisation; overall development of the child’s personality and

acquisition of a set of competencies – knowledge, skills and

attitudes – necessary for the child’s successful transition to school

education, development of sustainable attitudes and motivation for

lifelong learning; development of tolerance and respect for the

identity of every citizen [7].

Similarly, in Romania, there is a preschool curriculum,

developed in 2019, setting educational guidelines for the whole

ECEC structure. Fundamental principles of the Curriculum are

child-centered education; respect for children’s rights; active

learning; integrated development; interculturalism; equity and non-

discrimination; education as interaction between educators and the

child [6].

In contrast to Bulgaria and Romania, in Greece, the

primary school curriculum sets the educational guidelines for

children attending nipiagogeio. The Cross Thematic Curriculum

Framework for pre-primary school and the relevant National

Curriculum determine the guidelines for preschool education

programmes [5]. The aim of the programmes is to ensure children’s

physical, emotional, social and cognitive development.

The areas of learning in preschool education in the three

countries cover the cognitive, emotional, social, spiritual, moral and

physical development of all children (see Table 2).

Table 2: Educational areas in ECEC (phase 2) in Bulgaria, Greece and

Romania

Bulgaria

Greece

Romania

Areas of learning and development

-Bulgarian

language and

literature;

-Mathematics;

-Knowledge and

Understanding of

the World;

-Fine Arts;

-Music;

-Design and

Technology;

-Physical Culture;

-Language;

-Mathematics;

-Environmental

Study;

-Creation and

Expression;

-ICT;

-Physical

development, health

and personal

hygiene;

-Socio-emotional

development;

-Cognitive

development and

knowledge of the

world;

-Development of

language,

communication and

the premises for

reading and writing;

-Learning skills and

attitudes.

Specifically, in Bulgaria, the competences that the child is to

acquire are defined in terms of expected results, achieved through

participation in pedagogical situations as a main form of

pedagogical interaction. The Ordinance on preschool education sets

a minimum number of pedagogical situations per week for each age

group. In Greece, subjects are not distinguished into compulsory

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

and optional. There is no specific syllabus, as in primary and

secondary education [5]. In Romania, the learning activities

mentioned in the ECEC curriculum for preschool education are

structured in a syllabus with a specific time allocation, for the age

spans concerned [6].

The assessment of early childhood education in the three

analyzed countries is similar. It is based on standards included in

the Educational Preschool Laws in each country. The main purpose

of assessment is to provide feedback on the educational process,

aimed at improving the education provided. Assessment in

Bulgaria, Greece and Romania in ECEC is initial, ongoing and end-

of-year. Assessment results aim at setting goals for achieving

individual competences. In Bulgaria, Greece and Romania,

children’s achievements are reflected in their portfolio [5, 6, 7].

2.4. Organisational variations and alternative

structures in ECEC

ECEC organizational variations and alternative structures are

organized in two of the three analyzed countries – Bulgaria and

Romania. In Bulgaria, in correlation with one of the main

educational principles for innovation and effectiveness in

pedagogical practices, the state, municipal and private kindergartens

may follow innovative educational curricula in compliance with the

state educational standard for preschool education [4]. In Romania,

with the approval of the Ministry of Education, it is possible to

organize alternative ECEC structures with autonomous organisation

and function. ―Teachers who teach educational alternative groups or

classes have the right to their training and in-service training -

delivered by the organisations, associations and federations that

manage the development of the alternative concerned - to be

nationally recognised by the County/Bucharest school inspectorate

and by the Ministry of Education‖ [6]. In Greece, there are no

ECEC alternative structures.

3. Conclusions

According to the European Council ―investing in early

childhood education and care is a good investment only if the

services are of high quality, affordable, inclusive and affordable‖

[1]. The research on the current ECEC organisation (phase 2) in

Bulgaria, Greece and Romania, show that responsible authorities

take into consideration the recommendation of the European

Council on improving the ECEC service. In all three countries, it is

evident that admission criteria support families and children to have

better access to the service. Educational guidelines are issued,

regulated and monitored by the Ministry of education in each

country. In 2021, the European Commission issued a report [3],

drawing attention to the attractiveness of the teaching profession in

the ECEC sector, which will lead to reforms in the initial teacher

training and the professional development of the core preschool

practitioners in Europe in order to ensure that high quality early

childhood education and care is provided to all children and

families in all countries in the European Union.

4. References

1. COUNCIL RECOMMENDATION of 22 May 2019 on

High-Quality Early Childhood Education and Care

Systems (2019/C 189/02). Official Journal of the

European Union. C 189/4, (5.6.2019)

2. European Commission/EACEA/Eurydice. Eurydice Brief:

Key Data on Early. Childhood Education and Care in

Europe. Luxembourg: Publications Office of the

European Union, (2019)

3. European Commission. ET2020 Working group. Early

Childhood Education and Care. How to recruit, train and

motivate well-qualified staff. Luxembourg: Publications

Office of the European Union, (2021)

4. Eurydice. National education systems. Bulgaria.

Retrieved from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-

policies/eurydice/content/bulgaria_en (Accessed 27 April,

2022)

5. Eurydice. National education systems. Greece. Retrieved

from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-

policies/eurydice/content/greece_en (Accessed 27 April,

2022)

6. Eurydice. National education systems. Romania.

Retrieved from https://eacea.ec.europa.eu/national-

policies/eurydice/content/romania_en (Accessed 27 April,

2022)

7. Ordinance 5 of 3 June 2016 on preschool education,

issued by the Minister for Education and Science

8. The pre-school and School Education Act (promulgated

in State Gazette No. 79 of 13 October 2015, in force since

01.08.2016, amended and supplemented, SG No. 99 of

December 12, 2017)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Изследване функционалността и възможностите на някои платформи, използвани за

присъствено обучение в електронна среда

Янева Светлана 1, Денчева Снежина2

ТУ-София1,2

svetlana_ianeva@tu-sofia.bg1, snejitooo16@gmail.com2

Анотация: В доклада са разгледани някои платформи, използвани за присъствено обучение в електронна среда.

Изследвани са функционалността и възможностите им, описани са техните предимства и недостатъци. Направен е анализ и

съпоставка на получените резултати.

Ключови думи: обучение в електронна среда, електронни платформи, microsoft teams, discord, google meet, zoom, moodle

Exploring the functionality and capabilities of some platforms used for face-to-face learning

in an electronic environment

Yaneva Svetlana 1, Dencheva Snejina2

Technical University of Sofia 1,2

svetlana_ianeva@tu-sofia.bg1, snejitooo16@gmail.com2

Abstract: The report examines some of the platforms used for face-to-face learning in an electronic environment. Their functionality and

capabilities have been studied, their advantages and disadvantages have been described. An analysis and comparison of the obtained results

was made.

Keywords: face-to-face learning, electronic environment, electronic platforms, microsoft teams, discord, google meet, zoom, moodle

1. Въведение

В условията на Световна пандемична обстановка, породена

от върлуващия COVID-19, се наложи в кратки срокове голяма

част от студентите да преминат от присъствено обучение,

провеждано в учебните зали на университетите към т. нар.

присъствено обучение в електронна среда. Преподаватели и

студенти бяха изправени пред предизвикателството да се

адаптират изключително бързо към така създалата се ситуация.

Процесът на преминаване от единият вид обучение към другия

доведе до необходимостта от избор и използване на електронни

платформи, подходящи за целите на учебния процес. Наложи

се използване на алтернативни методи за обучение, както и

преструктуриране на съществуващите и разработване на нови

учебни материали за студентите, с цел адаптиране и

осъществяване на пълноценна комуникация и взаимодействие

между преподавателите и студентите, както и между самите

студенти.

В доклада са разгледани и съпоставени платформите:

 Google meet;

 Microsoft Teams;

 Discord;

 Zoom;

 Moodle,

използвани за присъствено обучение в електронна среда по

отношение на тяхната функционалност и възможности.

2. Електронни платформи, използвани за присъствено

обучение в електронна среда

2.1. Google Meet

Платформата Google Meet е създадена за осъществяване на

онлайн връзки през 2017 г. от компанията Google. Платформата

използва същите защити, които Google прилага за предпазване

на информацията и поверителността на потребителите.

Видеоконференциите в Meet се шифроват при пренасянето, a

наборът от мерки за безопасност постоянно се актуализира за

допълнителна защита. Поканените участници могат да се

присъединят към онлайн видеоконференция от компютър, чрез

всеки съвременен уеб браузър, без да се инсталира

допълнителен софтуер, както и от мобилно устройство чрез

използване на приложението Google Meet. [1]

Платформата предлага много възможности: провеждане на

групови и индивидуални срещи; видео и аудио конференция в

групи и по отделно; чатове; възможност за възлагане на

групови и индивидуални задачи; лесно сътрудничество между

участниците; работа в реално време с файлове на Word, Excel,

PowerPoint и др.; възможност за споделяне на екран;

възможност за споделяне на видео; възможност за качване и

споделяне на различни учебни материали, както и лесен достъп

до тях; възможност за използване на облака Google Drive;

безпрепятствена комуникаци и обратна връзка между

преподавателят и обучаващите се. Налице са функция

„Въпроси“ и функция „Анкети“ в Google Meet за устройства с

iOS; превод на реч на английски език с преведени надписи;

създаване на стаи с разбивки на групи чрез Google Календар;

преместване на участници автоматично от стаи с разбивки на

групи; заглушаване или заключване на звука на всички

участници; заключване на камерата на всички в среща; вдигане

на ръка; възможност за получаване на отчети за присъствието

на потребителите; използване на бяла дъска; блокиране на

анонимни потребители; оформление тип „мозайка“ за по-

големи обаждания; смяна на фона; замъгляване на фона;

поточно предаване на живо между различни домейни; добавяне

на надписи към потоци на живо и пр. Някои от функциите на

платформата са достъпни само при закупуване на определен

лиценз, например записите в Google Meet са налице за учащи в

Education Plus, както и за Teaching and Learning Upgrade.

Платформата има разработени специални планове за сферата

на образованието (Education, Education Plus, Teaching and

Learning Upgrade).

На фиг. 1 е показан началния интерфейс на програмата

Google Meet, от който може да се създаде нова среща или да се

присъединим към вече създадена такава.

Фиг. 1 Създаване на среща в Google Meet

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Фиг. 2 показва екранът на Google Meet при започнала

среща.

Фиг. 2 Интерфейс на Google Meet

2.2. Microsoft Teams

Платформата Microsoft Teams е създаден на 2 ноември 2016

г. като универсална услуга за комуникация на компанията,

която позволява работа от разстояние, без усещане за

отдалеченост и изолираност. Тя е естествено интегрирана с

познатите приложения на Office и по начало е проектирана за

глобалния, защитен облак на Office 365. [2] Програмата

предлага богат набор от възможности на своите потребители,

като: провеждане на групови и индивидуални срещи; видео и

аудио конференция в групи и по отделно; чатове; възможност

за възлагане на групови и индивидуални задачи; календарен

график за дейности и задачи; създаване на различни екипи,

лесно сътрудничество между отделните екии и между

участниците; работа в реално време с файлове на Word, Excel,

PowerPoint и др.; възможност за споделяне на екран;

възможност за споделяне на видео; възможност за качване и

споделяне на различни учебни материали, както и лесен достъп

до тях; възможност за използване на облака One Drive;

възможност за препратки и използване на допълнителни

учебни пособия, приложения и сайтове; известия; уведомления

за нова задача и за предадена работа; вдигане на ръка;

възможност за получаване на отчети за присъствието на

потребителите; възможност за запис на срещите; възможност за

гледане записите на срещите по всяко време от всички

потребители; оформление тип „мозайка“ и тип „зала“ за по-

големи обаждания; смяна на фона; замъгляване на фона;

безпрепятствена комуникация и обратна връзка между

преподавателят и обучаващите се и пр. Програмата може да се

използва както на компютър, така и на мобилно устройство,

чрез регистрация и инсталиране на приложението Microsoft

Teams.

На фиг. 3 е показан интерфейс на Microsoft Teams със

създадени екипи.

Фиг. 3 Интерфейс на Microsoft Teams

2.3. Discord

Началната версия на Discord се появява на 13 май 2015г.

Платформата е била създадена за геймър общностите и става

една от най-популярните програми по това време, с нейното

приложение за гласов и текстов чат. По настоящем

платформата се използва и за провеждане на различни

обучения, семинари, конференции и работни срещи.

Платформата е организирана в тематични канали, които

събират на едно място срещи, ресурси, чатове и социални

разговори. Има възможност за настройване на частни канали за

лидерство, категоризиране на членовете в роли, модериране на

пространството. [3,4]

Discord предлага възможност за отдени комуникационни

канали за всяка дисциплина; неограничен брой участници в

срещите; неограничено време на връзката; възможност за видео

и аудио връзка; възможност за възпроизвеждане на аудио;

възможност за споделяне на екран; възможност за получаване

на известия; функцията за автоматично коригиране на думи;

възможност за смяна на потребителския интерфейс.

Платформата предлага търсачка за по-лесно намиране на

комуникационен канал, когато те са много; функция „търсене“,

чрез която може да се осъществи търсене на дадена дума, фраза

или обяснение, търсене по зададен период напр. определен

месец от годината и пр. Discord може да се използва както на

компютър, така и на мобилно устройство, чрез изтеглеяне на

съответното приложението.

На фиг. 4 е показан интерфейс на чат в един

комуникационен канал на Discord.

Фиг. 4 Интерфейс на Discord

2.4. Zoom

Първата версия на Zoom се появява на 22 август 2012г.

Zoom е услуга за видеоконферентна връзка, базирана в облак,

която може да бъде използвана, за целите на обучение, за

провеждане на конференции, семинари и други форуми. Zoom

поддържа дистанционни и хибридни среди за обучение за

начални, за средни училища и за университети. [5]

Платформата дава практическа възможност за чатове и среща

с група хора в реално време - чрез аудио връзка, чрез видео

връзка, или и чрез двете; предоставя възможност за създаване

на поредица от срещи, с различни периоди на повтаряемост;

добавяне на срещите към календар; използване на парола и код

за достъп на отделните потребители; възможност за влизане на

участниците в т. нар. „изчакваща стая“; предоставя възможност

на организатора на срещата да избере дали да допусне даден

участник в срещата или не; възможност за „заключване на

срещата“ (недопускане на повече участници); възможност за

записване на срещата; споделяне на екран; общ и индивидуален

чат за всички участници в срещата; възможност за изпращане

на Word, Excel, PowerPoint, PDF и други файлове в чата;

възможност за сваляне на отчети за присъствието на

потребителите; оформление тип „галерия“ за по-големи срещи;

възможност за автоматично показване на екрана само на

говорещ участник, смяна на фона; замъгляване на фона и др.

Програмата изисква регистрация за титуляра на срещата,

всички участници могат да се присъединят само чрез

последване на линк, без да е необходимо да се регистрират.

Съществен недостатък на безплатната версия на програмата се

явява времевото ограничение на срещите от 40 мин. Zoom

може да се използва и на мобилно устройство чрез изтегляне на

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

съответното приложение. Съществуват различни платени

планове, при всеки от които се предоставят допълнителни

функции на потребителите.

На фиг. 5 е показан интерфейс на Zoom преди влизане в

среща.

Фиг. 5 Интерфейс на Zoom

2.4. Moodle

Moodle е безплатна, свободна за инсталиране и open-source

програма. Това е модулна, динамична, обектно-ориентирана,

хибридна, електронно базирана учебна среда. Това е безплатна

програма, която служи като онлайн система за преподаване и

компютърно интегрирано обучение. Тя е написана на PHP.

Системата първоначално е разработена от Мартин Дъгиамас от

Австралия, който е отговарял за технологиите в Университета

„Къртин“. Моделът използва система с отворен код за

управление на курсове, известна също като система за

управление на обучението (LMS) или виртуална среда за

обучение (VLE). Системата не изисква инсталиране на

допълнителен софтуер от потребителя. Тя включва

възможности за представяне на учебни материали, провеждане

на тестове, дискусионни форуми за общуване със студенти,

учители и други. [6]

Програмата има възможност за „моделиране“, предлага

създаване на неограничен брой курсове; неограничен брой

участници в срещите; възможност за задаванен на “роли“;

групиране на участниците; неограничено време на виртуалните

връзки; аудио и видео връзка чрез т. нар. „Big blue botton”,

които могат да бъдат отворени по всяко време или в

определено такова; възможност за споделен екран; възможност

за използване на бяла дъска; чат; възможност за структуриране

на задачите по периоди; възможност за качване на обявлвния;

възможност за качване на различни учебни материали, под

формата на файлове, архиви, линкове и др.; възможност за

изпращане на известия от преподавател до участниците;

възможност за комуникация между участниците без наличие на

преподавател; възможност за известия за нова или приключена

задача; възможност за обратна връзка между преподавател и

студент, чрез редактиране и оценяване на предадените работи;

възможност за архивиране на курсове и пр.

На фиг. 6 е показан интерфейс на Moodle, в избран курс. [7]

Фиг. 6 Интерфейс на Moodle

В табл. 1 са обобщени и съпоставени някои от

възможностите на разглежданите платформи.

Таблица 1.

Програми Google meet

Microsoft

Teams

Discord Zoom Moodle

Генериране на

среща

чрез линк

чрез специален

канал

чрез специален

канал

чрез линк чрез линк

Възможност за

повтаряемост

на срещата

възможно

отделен

предмет

отделен

предмет

възможно възможно

Необходимост

от регистрация

необходимо е необходимо е необходимо е

не е

необходимо

необходимо е

Брой

участници

до 100

участници

при безплатен

план и между

150 и 500

участници

при закупен

план

до 100

участници при

безплатен план

и до 300

участници при

закупен план

неограничен

до 100

участници при

безплатен план

до 500

участници при

закупена

добавка за

"голяма

среща"

неограничен

Времетраене

на срещата

неограничено

до 60 минути

при безплатен

план и

неограничен

при закупен

план

неограничено

40 минути при

безплатен план

и неограничен

при закупен

план

неограничено

Функция за

запис на

срещите

аудио и видео аудио и видео

записва само

аудио, но не и

видео

аудио и видео аудио и видео

Съхранение на

записите от

срещите

в Google

Drive

в платформата,

достъпни за

участниците

на компютъра на компютъра

платформата,

недостъпни

за

участниците

Комуника-

ционен канал

неограничен неограничен неограничен неограничен неограничен

Съхранение на

файлове

след края на

срещата

всички са

недостъпни

съхранява

файловете в

платформата

запаметяват се

комуникацион

ния канал, но

са трудно

достъпни

след края на

срещата

всички са

недостъпни

съхранява

файловете в

платформата

Аудиовръзка

между

участниците

възможно възможно възможно възможно възможно

Видеовръзка

между

участниците

възможно възможно възможно възможно възможно

Видеовръзка +

споделен екран

възможно възможно възможно възможно възможно

Споделяне на

екран

възможно възможно възможно възможно възможно

Бяла дъска няма има няма няма има

Чат

общ чат за

срещата

общ чат за

срещата и

индивидуален

с всеки от

участниците

общ чат за

срещата и

индивидуален

с всеки от

участниците

общ чат за

срещата и

индивидуален

с всеки от

участниците

общ чат за

срещата

Възможност за

изпращане на

файлове в чата

възможно възможно възможно възможно не възможно

Възможност за

обратна връзка

между

участниците

не възможно възможно възможно не възможно възможно

Работа в

платформата

извън срещата

възможно

само при опр.

лицензи

възможно възможно не възможно възможно

Възможност за

известия за

нова или

прикллючена

задача

не възможно възможно възможно не възможно възможно

Възможност за

провеждане на

напълно

синхронно

обучение

възможно възможно възможно възможно възможно

Възможност за

провеждане на

ограничено

синхронно

обучение

не възможно възможно

възможно, в

чата

не възможно възможно

Възможност за

провеждане на

асинхронно

обучение

не възможно възможно възможно не възможно възможно

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

От табл. 1 е видно, че отделните платформи имат

съществени прилики по отношение на своите възможности и

характеристики, но имат и определени различия. Всяка от

разгледаните платформи предлага неограничен брой срещи,

възможност за споделяне на екран, възможност за споделяне на

видео, както и функция за общ чат по време на срещата. При

Google meet, Discord и Moodle времетраенето на срещите е

неограничено. При безплатната версия на Zoom срещата е

ограничена в рамките на 40 минути, след което връзката между

участниците автоматично се прекъсва. Производителят дава

възможност за закупуване на пълната версия, при която

срещите не са ограничени времево. Срещите в безплатната

версия на Microsoft Teams са с продължителност 60 минутни,

при закупуване на план това време става неограничено. В

платформите Google meet и Zoom изпратените файлове са

недостъпни след края на срещата, в Microsoft Teams и Moodle

всички файлосе се съхраняват в самата платформа и са

достъпни за участниците по всяко време. В Discord се

съхраняват в чатовете, но са трудно достъпни, тъй като има

много информация в тях и трудно се намират. Google meet,

Zoom и Microsoft Teams предлагат срещи, в които могат да

участват 100 абоната при безплатната версия, при закупуване

на план този брой може да достигне до 500 при Google meet,

Zoom, и до 300 при Microsoft Teams. Discord и Moodle

предлагат неограничен брой участници в срещите.

Платформите Discord и Zoom не предлагат работа с т. нар.

„бяла дъска“, Zoom имат такава, в сайта си. Единствено

платформата Zoom позволява да бъде използвана от

участниците (не и от модератора на срещите) без регистрация,

само с последване на линк. В две от платформите срещите се

генерират чрез създаване на линк - Google meet и Zoom,

останалите - Microsoft Teams, Moodle и Discord предлагат

специални комуникационни канали.

Всички програми, освен Discord, предлагат аудио и видео запис

на срещите. Discord предлага само аудио записи. Google meet

запазва записите си в Google Drive, Microsoft Teams ги запазва

в платформата и може да бъдат гледани отново, след края на

записа в Discord има опция за свалянето им на компютър,

записите от Zoom се запазват на компютъра. В платформите

Microsoft Teams и Moodle всички учебни файлове се запазват в

платформата, докато при Google meet и Zoom всички файлове,

използвани по време на срещата са недостъпни след края й.

Файловете, използвани в Discord са трудно достъпни след

срещата, поради големия брой съобщения в един и същ чат.

Google meet и Zoom не предлагат възможност за работа след

края на срещата в платформата, нямат възможност и за

изпращане на известия или уведомление при приключена

задача. Всички от разглежданите платформи имат възможност

за напълно синхронно обучение. Microsoft Teams и Moodle

предлагат възможност за провеждане на ограничено синхронно

обучение, както и асинхронно такова, като в Discord това може

да се извърши само в чата.

3. Извод

В заключение може да се отбележи, че всяка една от

разгледаните платформи може да бъде използвана в процеса на

присъствено обучение на студенти в електронна среда. С оглед

на функционалност и възможности предлагани с безплатен

достъп, Moodle взема превес над останалите четири

платформи. За целите на обучение на големи учебни

институции, като университети и училища е оправдано

закупуването на платените версии на платформите Microsoft

Teams и Google meet, които дават повече възможности за

синхронно и асинхронно използване на различните ресурси, за

обратна връзка, комуникация и работа в екипи, както между

отделните обучавани, така и между обучаваните и

обучаващият.

4. Благодарности

The authors would like to thank the Research and

Development Sector at the Technical University – Sofia for the

financial support.

Финансирането на доклада е осигурено със средатва по

Договор № 221ПР0007-06 - Изследване влиянието на

присъственото обучение в електронна среда върху

успеваемостта на студентите, обучавани в технически

специалности.

5. Литература

1. https://apps.google.com/intl/bg/intl/bg_ALL/meet/how-it-

works/ , посетена на 01.04.2022 г.

2. https://www.microsoft.com/bg-bg/microsoft-teams/education,

посетена на 07.04.2022 г.

3. https://discord.com/college, посетена на 07.04.2022 г.

4. https://www.androidsis.com/bg/discord-es-una-nueva-

aplicacion-de-chat-directa-hacia-el-gaming/, посетена на

07.04.2022 г.

5. https://zoom.us/, посетена на 09.04.2022 г.

6. https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moodle, посетена на

16.04.2022 г.

7. https://fmmoodlebg.tu-sofia.bg/course/view.php?id=635,

посетена на 19.04.2022 г.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Generation Alpha and the education

Dima Spasova

University of Ruse “Angel Kanchev”, Bulgaria

dspasova@uni-ruse.bg

Abstract: The children of the new age went to school. These are the children of the generation Alpha who do not receive information through

traditional channels. These are the children who play, learn and interact through technology. They do not want to and do not read in the

traditional way. From a very young age, they have been in contact with information technology, successfully working on it, even before they

have spoken. Alpha children are independent and curious, they have their own view of the world, which is different from that of their parents

and teachers. Communicating with them requires an approach that is based on negotiation and compromise on the part of adults. Parents

and teachers should understand, accept and support them more and criticize and educate them less violently. All this raises the question of

whether teachers are prepared to teach and take into account these new features of the alpha generation, which has already started school

and interacts with the education system. Conflict situations often arise between teachers and children, in which educators fail to respond

adequately and professionally to parents

Keywords: GENERATION ALPHA, EDUCATION, PARENTS, TEACHERS

1. Introduction

The role of the school in the education and upbringing of

children is a key point in the field of pedagogy. This issue has come

more and more to the fore in recent years as technology has

developed rapidly. They have become accessible to a larger

proportion of the population and have entered people's lives from a

very early age. Already, children from a very young age are being

introduced to and beginning to spend part of their daily lives with

digital devices. They play games, watch videos and movies,

communicate with their friends through their tablets and phones. It

is this development of technology on the one hand, and the mass

use of it by people on the other, that is leading to the emergence of

Generation Alpha children.

This is the generation born between 2010 and 2024, the

generation that handles technology much better than most adults.

Communicating with them requires an approach based on

negotiation and compromise on the part of adults. Parents and

teachers need to be more understanding, accepting and supportive.

All of this raises the question of whether teachers are prepared to

teach and take into account these new characteristics of the Alpha

generation who have already started school and are interacting with

the education system. Conflict situations often arise between

teachers and children in which educators fail to respond

appropriately and professionally, according to parents.

The purpose of this report is to explore the attitudes of children

of the Alpha Generation towards school and education and to

consider the issue of whether schools can meet the development and

interests of children of this generation. There is not yet enough

research on this topic and, due to the age of the generation, we

cannot say with certainty how it will develop and what its strengths

and successes will be.

2. Problem discussion

A few decades ago, generations changed over an interval of

about twenty years. Modernity is shrinking our generational frame

to a dozen years. From there, the behavioral patterns and beliefs that

characterize generations change rapidly, and differences (especially

with a non-neighboring generation) become drastically disparate. At

the same time, these differences inevitably come together "under

one roof" in the home, education, work, and should be recognized

and accounted for. [3] In the 1990s, William Strauss and Neil

Howey concluded that being born in a particular period

predetermines people's skills, thinking, values and behaviour.

Scientists have been able to identify periods of time during which

most people hold similar values. They are formed in children under

12-14 years under the influence of social events, technical

opportunities, family upbringing. The child simply lives in certain

conditions and absorbs everything that happens. This is imprinted

on a subconscious level. As a result, each generation acts in a

certain way.

From 1963 to 1984, members of Generation X were born. 1984-

2000 was the time of Generation Y. After 2000, children of

generation Z began to be born. And now there is talk of the special

Alpha generation. About children caught in the whirlwind of rapid

technological development and social change. They were raised by

Generation X and Y parents.

The Alpha generation are the children of the Millennials, and

are often the younger siblings of the Zeta generation. The

generation's name was proposed back in 2005 by Australian social

researcher Mark McCrindle. While writing his book, "ABCs of

XYZ: Understanding Global Generations," it became clear to him

that a new generation would soon emerge, and there is as yet no

official name for it. McCrindle decides to conduct a poll to find out

what people think it should be named. In Understanding

Generational Alpha, McCrindle points out that "as a research

agency with a keen interest in generational analysis, we decided to

test a few names with a survey of Australians. When we asked what

they thought the next generation should be called, many people

suggested 'Generation A', as we had already reached the end of the

alphabet with Generation Z." But Generation Alpha represents a

whole new generation, born entirely in a new century. Going back

to the beginning of the Latin alphabet, this name did not feel

appropriate for this next generation. Furthermore, it all happened

right after the Atlantic hurricane season in 2005, when there were so

many storms that the normal alphabetic names were exhausted, and

so the Greek alphabet was used for the first time, starting with

hurricane alpha an, hurricane beta, etc." McCrindle goes on to say

in his work that he used the Greek alphabet instead of the Latin one

so that there would be no return of the old, but the beginning of

something new. The author attempts to predict future characteristics

by analyzing demographics - age of parents (older), cultural mix

(more diverse), socioeconomic (slightly wealthier), family size

(smaller), life expectancy (longer). In addition, there is research on

their parents - the millennials (or Generation Y), which gives us an

idea of what they will look like - more likely to move and change

jobs, be materially secure, technologically equipped and supported

in many aspects of their lives, such as childcare. Generation Alpha

will be the largest generation as we have a larger population than

ever before. They will live longer and be more culturally diverse

than previous generations. Technology is making them the most

globally connected generation. Generation Alpha is the first

generation to form in the age of portable digital devices, and for

many of them, their pacifiers are not a rattle or a set of keys, but a

smartphone or tablet. This is a generation born into the world of

iPhones, YouTube and Instagram. They consider themselves social,

global and mobile as they will work, study and travel between

different countries and pursue many professions. The Alpha

generation will develop much earlier in many ways: physical

maturity comes earlier, so adolescence for them will start earlier.

While adolescence begins earlier, it will continue later. Adult life

that was once measured in marriage, children, mortgages and

careers will now shift into later years. This generation will stay

longer in the education system and at home with parents.

Generation Alpha is defined by technology devices like

smartphones and tablets, video games, driverless trains, autonomous

cars and smart speakers that talk to you. These technologies have

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

been developed within their generation and it's all they know.

Technology is also being adopted faster than ever. While it took

radio 38 years to reach 50 million users, television 13, the iPod only

four, the internet three, Facebook only one, Pokémon Go took only

19 days to reach those users! Generation Alpha has been bred as

"screen users" to a greater extent than the fixed screens of the past

could facilitate. It's nearly impossible to tear Generation Alpha

away from their devices, which have been in their lives since the

day they were born. They have been using these devices since

before they could speak, so we have yet to see what the impact of

their interaction with the screens will be. Going forward, it is very

likely that the Alpha generation will never use a wallet, disposable

plastics, listen to a radio, participate in written exams, or set an

analog alarm clock. Parents are increasingly aware of the negative

consequences of too much time spent with technology - the

isolation and anti-social impact. However, there is also a view that

is positive about the use of technology toys - they increase

connectivity, facilitate communication and develop social and

global skills.

The Alpha generation may never see a camera that requires film

and they will never have to wait for it to be developed. The only

phones they've ever seen also take pictures, record videos, have

internet access, and capabilities to play games that are quite

different from landlines. Presumably their parents will steer them

towards a more formal education. In this way, from an earlier age,

the Alpha generation will have access to more information than any

generation before. It is also predicted that every second child of the

Alpha generation will receive a university degree. Generation Alpha

will outperform even the vaunted and sophisticated Generation Z in

terms of education, with 90% completing secondary education,

compared to 80% today, and the majority of them continuing to

study in some form. Many future occupations do not yet figure as of

yet, with 65% of those entering primary school today expected to

enter completely new occupations that do not yet exist. While

technology is replacing jobs, it is also creating many new ones.

Many of these students are now learning skills in robotics, coding,

social media marketing, app development, and big data analytics.

[4]

There are still too many unknowns in predicting the possible

development of the children of this generation. The difficulties are

compounded by the strong impact of the Kovid pandemic, which

has gripped the world for two years, and the volatile political

situation in Europe.

Parents, teachers and researchers are asking too many questions

that have yet to be answered.

3. Objective and research methodologies

As youth issues researcher Simon Schnetzer points out, as

quoted by Die Welt, an affinity for digital technology will be the

biggest challenge in dealing with the children of the Alphabet

generation. They are hyperflexible and find it difficult to conform to

temporal and spatial relationships, such as in special spaces like

kindergartens or schools. [9]

Parents of children of this generation express concerns that their

children spend extremely long periods of time on mobile devices.

This process has also increased as a result of the pandemic that has

swept the world and forced schools to switch to distance learning.

In Bulgaria, primary school students were less in a distance learning

environment and more in class.

In order to track parents' and children's attitudes toward

education, school, and teachers' authority, we conducted a survey

involving parents, grandparents, and other relatives associated with

raising and educating Generation Alpha children. The idea for this

research came about as a response to many parents sharing that their

children aged 3 - 11 are different, they can't tear them away from

their digital devices and they feel that learning at school is not

tailored to the characteristics of the new generation. Parents believe

that somewhere there is a disconnect in their communication with

teachers. Is this really the case or does it come from the specifics of

Generation Y parents. Flexibility and creativity are important in the

work and education of Generation Y members. They do not

recognize seniority, experience, qualifications. They believe that

they are entitled to a job with high status and a lot of free time

without putting in much effort. They work to have fun. Generation

Y support a return to family-oriented living. They are generally

very social, socially responsible, value relationships, seek work-life

balance, loyal and sensible, on the 't- with new technology. [7]

Education in moral and family values, better education based on the

modernization of the education system are at the core of the

understanding of the people of this generation. All these

characteristics of the parents of the Alpha Generation also explain

their demands on the education system, the dilemmas about

educational approaches they face when confronted with the children

of the next generation.

In this regard, we prepared the survey to find out whether

education is still a value for the children of the Alpha generation

and whether they continue to attend school willingly, and whether

teachers are still an authority among them.

When asked, "Do you think children of the Alpha generation are

different from other generations?" 62 percent of respondents

thought children of the Alpha generation were different from other

generations, 38 percent said no, just very over-satisfied.

Fig. 1 Diagram of for the percentage distribution of responses

to the question

To the question "Is he willingly attending nursery, kindergarten,

school?", 64 percent answered positively, 6 percent negatively, 28

percent - differently and 2 percent that he is bored there.

Fig. 2 Diagram of for the percentage distribution of responses

to the question

When asked, "Do you think teachers and educators are an

authority figure for your child?", 74 percent responded positively, 6

percent negatively, and 20 percent could not decide.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Fig. 3 Diagram of for the percentage distribution of responses

to the question

When asked, "Do you think the topics in the curriculum meet

the interests and developmental level of Generation Alpha

children?", 54 percent responded negatively, 24 percent responded

positively, and 22 percent could not decide.

Fig. 4 Diagram of for the percentage distribution of responses

to the question

The following main conclusions can be drawn from the study,

and the report does not claim to be exhaustive on the subject:

1. Generation Alpha children are eager to go to school, which

shows that this primal value - the desire for better

education of young people - has not changed despite the

development of technology and distance learning

opportunities..

2. Children have established friendly relationships with their

classmates. Building and maintaining friendships is

extremely important for a child's growth. As Assoc. Prof.

Dr. Bagriana Ilieva points out - school is an institution in

the school education system where children are educated to

acquire a degree, but also where they are educated and

socialized. In addition to these functions of the educational

institution can be superimposed the social one, since in the

period of primary education social groups and relationships

are formed. In groups, observance of rules is required,

which students learn under the guidance and responsibility

of the teacher. The social function thus learned can be

considered crucial and used in the later life of the now

adults. Pre-school and school education provides children

with knowledge, values and social skills that enable them

to integrate into society and behave adaptively there, and

not be part of interpersonal problems. In order to integrate

into the present complex society, each person also needs a

certain set of social skills to effectively control emotions,

to build normal human relationships, to communicate and

cooperate with others, and other structural components that

are part of the content of emotional intelligence. [1]

3. eachers remain an authority for children and their parents,

which should be fully utilized by both parties. Parents and

teachers should work closely together and organise or be

involved in the preparation of various joint initiatives in

order to foster in children a desire to participate actively in

the learning process, to inculcate common human values..

4. Adapting student teachers' curricula to the use of different

e-platforms, such as eTwinning, in conjunction with the

study of traditional subjects. The inclusion of these

platforms will emphasize the possibilities of integrating the

project method into the educational process in preschool

and primary school age through the use of digital

educational resources. Students will be able to become

familiar with a technological model for planning and

implementing project work, as well as the criteria for

evaluating the project presentation and project product. In

this way it is expected to make learning more attractive for

this digital generation. [2]

5. Students are motivated to attend classes, and this

motivation should be increased and sustained because it

depends on the interest in the information that is conveyed

and that underlies the cognitive activity. [8]

6. There is a need to bring about a change in education for the

Alphabet Generation, teachers should use modern methods

which, thanks to current advances in high technology,

provide a wide choice of technical products that can

support education at different levels. [6] Visual tutorials

could be created because more and more reliance has to be

placed on visual suggestion, to which the text has a

commentary and complementary function. This is a long

process, in which advertising clips, trailers, and other

forms that have been nurturing for decades a new visual

culture and a new attitude to the perception of the content

of the teaching material will take their place. [5]

7. In the curricula it is good to include, along with traditional

subjects, new subjects that, on the one hand, meet the

requirements of this digital generation, but on the other

hand, help them to form as individuals..

4. Conclusion

The topic of educating the children of the Alpha Generation will

continue to excite their parents, teachers and of course their future

employers. But the results of the survey, as well as a study of

materials about the children of this generation, give reason to argue

that however different these children may be, education in

traditional human values and ancestral traditions, communication

and time spent together should continue to be the basis of

interaction with them. Encouraging interaction with grandparents

will preserve the moral values that parents seek to educate children

to. Teachers and educators continue to have a meaningful and

formative role in the lives of young children, and so they must

continue to help the Alpha Generation establish itself in this new

world while maintaining its humanity. Their educators and teachers

must therefore help them to establish themselves in this new reality.

5. References

B. Ilieva, Conflict prevention in school through the

development of emotional intelligence, Science Conference of NMU

„V. Levski”, 360-370, (2021)

G. Georgieva, Project based learning in an intercultural

environment through etwinning, Proceeding 59th Science

Conference of Ruse University - SSS, 59, 116-119, (2020)

M. Pencheva, Generation differences and their implication on

learning process, Proceeding 59th Science Conference of Ruse

University, 55, 93-97, (2016)

M. McCrindle, A. Fell, Understanding generation Alpha, (2020)

R. Spasov, Bulgarian historical and cultural space (visualization

of learning Bulgarian as a foreign language), https://www.uni-

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

sofia.bg/index.php/bul/content/download/157515/1126403/version/

1/file/Avtoreferat_R.Spasov.pdf, (Accessed 26 April 2022)

R. Spasov, St. Demetrius Basarbovski and the visualization in

distance learning for the Bulgarian historical revival space, Changes

in the global world and the new solutions, 176-185, (2021

T. P. Chalakova, Adapting training styles as an opportunity to

enhance the professional qualifications of generations X, Y and Z,

DefTech, 407-414, (2021)

V. Vasileva, Formation of students' motivation for learning,

Motivation and interest in learning, 5-9, (2015)

/https://www.dw.com/bg/%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%86%D0%B

0%D1%82%D0%B0-%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%84%D0%B0-

%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE-

%D0%B4%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%

BB%D0%BD%D0%BE-

%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0

%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5/a-59746828/, (Accessed 26 April 2022)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

ТАНЦУВАЛНОСТТА В МУЗИКАТА – ЕПОХА, СТИЛ И МИСЛЕНЕ

DANCING GENRE - EPOCH, STILE, THINKING

Assoc. prof. PhD Zlatkova L.

K. Preslavski University of Shumen, Bulgaria

l.zlatkova@shu.bg

Abstract: Paper describes the problem of understanding the terms genre and stile on the base of entire knowledge. The basic genres song,

march and dance are shown as an example how future genre construction exist an give an information about the epoch, relations, cultural

changes, human thinking. This point of view may become a step to create an educational system directed to entire perception.

Key words: genre, stile, entirety, cultural epoch

1. Увод

И изкуството, и „обикновеният“ човешки живот със

своите дейности са подчинени на единни вселенски закони.

При всеки от тях има начало, процес на развитие и заключение,

край. В този смисъл и в изкуството, и в живота може да се

каже, че има съдържание, което е облечено в определена

форма. В изкуствознанието съдържанието включва

художествена идея, тема, фабула, конфликт и характери;

формата – стил, жанр, художествена реч, композиция.

Съдържанието и формата са в единство и хармония, от които

зависят естетическата завършеност и цялостта на

художественото произведение. Ако формата съответства на

съдържанието, то тя способства за неговото развитие. В

противен случай формата е остаряла и спира развитието на

съдържанието. [1 - 30] Музикалната форма е схемата, по която

се разработва дадено произведение.

Жанрът (фр. genre – вид, род) е елемент на формата. В

живота за обозначаване на конкретен вид не се използва

понятието жанр. То е характерно за сферата на изкуството като

вид с определени черти, отличаващи го от други видове. Това е

разновидност, към която спада определен текст, музикално

произведение, филм или друго творчество (употребява се в

много общ смисъл) по силата на своите характерни черти. [2].

Всеки жанр в едно изкуство се отличава със своя изразност и

конкретност, които дават облика на самото изкуство. Най-

общо под жанр се разбира комплекс от изразни елементи (в

което и да е изкуство), които имат общи характеристики.

Жанрът е начин за класифициране на всяко изкуство.

С общия израз „жанр“ в съвременната разговорна реч се

замества всяка типизация или разновидност от музикални

течения, стилове и смесици от стилове или дори видове

музикални произведения.

От гледна точка на музикознанието, жанр е основна

група от изразни средства (стилистични, хармонични,

изпълнителски и изразнотематични), чрез които дадена

музикална творба се числи към обща група. Музикалният жанр

характеризира родовете и видовете музикално творчество

според произхода, условията на изпълнение и възприятието.

Понятието музикален жанр отразява взаимната връзка между

творческите фактори извън музиката и чисто музикалните

характеристики.

За разлика от жанра, стилът е по-широко понятие и

може да се използва в тесен и широк смисъл. Най-общо стил

означава начин. В широк смисъл под стил се разбира начин на:

поведение, отношения между хората, на обличане, стил на

епохата, на народа, стил на хранене и пр. В тесен смисъл

стиловете са преди всичко свързани с изкуствата. В това

отношение говорим за национален стил, стилове в различните

изкуства, свързани с епохата на тяхното битуване. Този тип

стилово деление има определени разминавания във времето.

Чертите на един и същи стил не започват да се проявяват по

едно и също време в различните изкуство, т.е. формата, която

„заключва“ стиловите елементи се проявява в различните

изкуства с различно темпо. Най-рано признаците на един нов

стил са извикани в архитектурата, която е на прехода между

изкуство и наука (технология), след това преминават във

визуалните изкуства (изобразително изкуство, скулптура), по-

късно това се случва с литературата и най-късно стилът се

проявява в музиката и свързаните с нея изкуства. Тук не

говорим за останалите, свързани едно с друго изкуства

(синкретичните), като театър, пантомима, балет, а по-скоро за

първичните, на основата на които се създават останалите.

Музикален стил е понятие, отнасящо се до образната

система от изразни средства, обуславящи идейното съдържание

на едно музикално произведение и отразяващи неговите

естетически възгледи. Понятието има тесен и широк смисъл и

често погрешно музикалният стил се свързва с понятието

музикален жанр. В тесен смисъл музикалният стил е набор от

изразни средства присъщи на даден творец или музикална

епоха, напр. композиторския стил на Бетовен, или

стилистиката на Романтизма в музиката. В широк смисъл

стиловете са свързани с музикалните жанрове и отразяват

спецификата на времето, напр. туист е стил, възникнал в

началото на 60-те години и е стилова принадлежност към

жанра попмузика.

Музикалният стил е начинът, по който се изпълнява

мелодията, ритъмът, тембърът, динамиката, хармонията,

строежът и формата. Географският произход понякога има

въздействие върху музикалния стил, но някои географски

категории естествено включват голямо разнообразие от

подстилове. Много от музикалните стилове не са чисти като

произход, а са смесени и в един музикален стил може да

присъстват елементи на друг или само в някои произведения от

този стил да има подобни елементи, което понякога затруднява

категоризирането на стиловете.

2. Основна част. Жанр, стил, танцувалност

Жанрът и стилът са неразривно свързани. Всяко

стилово направление е в действителност един етап от

развитието на човека и мисленето му. В този смисъл може да се

приеме и че съдържанието, вложено в изкуствата (като знание)

са на по-високо ниво във всеки следващ етап на развитие. Това

означава и че формата, която пренася това съдържание е

необходимо да се промени. Тъй като жанр и стил са елементи

на формата, то те си взаимодействат в различни отношения.

В музикалното изкуство говорим за жанра в тесен и

широк смисъл. Жанровете могат да се разделят на първични

жанрове и такива, които в историческото развитие на музиката

са родени на основата на първите. За първични музикални

жанрове се приемат песента, танца и марша. Всеки един от тях

има своята роля в битието на човека, което по-късно дава

отражение и върху създаването на големите и малки музикални

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

форми, синтезиращи в себе си черти на един или няколко

първични.

Песента като първичен жанр е най-тясно свързана с

човешкия говор, а гласът е инструментът, който всеки

притежава. В това отношение, а също и от факта, че песента е

синтез между музика и текст, може да се каже, че тя е на

границата между материя и дух. Материалното може да се

свърже с конкретиката на текста, абстракцията на музиката – с

невидимото. Във фолклора тази симбиоза се допълва с още

един елемент – движенията, танца. Т.е. народната песен е

триединство, тя е изкуство на слово, музика и движения и носи

много силно енергийно въздействие.

Песенността е характерна за голяма част от

професионалната музика. Песенният характер на музиката е

свързан с езика, с темперамента на хората, а също така, но в по-

малка степен, зависи от избора на музикалната форма. Така

например руската и италианската музика притежават в по-

голяма степен песенен характер.1

Маршът има специфичен характер, от където

произлиза и неговата функция – да стимулира стремежа,

борбата, действието, да енергизира духа за победа. Неговата

музика е стегната, отсечена, отривиста. В марша се съчетават

музика и движения и поради посочения характер. Но в

развитието на изкуството и излизането му от анонимност този

първичен жанр придобива различни нюанси, които го

обогатяват, но и променят първоначалния му смисъл. Така

например, съществуват траурни маршове, в които темпото,

интонацията имат водещо значение за характера на музиката.

Маршовостта, като характеристика на

инструменталната и вокална музика също има отношение към

езика и наличието на повече звучни съгласни в него, което се

отнася повече до песните с маршов характер. Много често

песни с текст на език, в който съгласните са по-често срещани,

дори и да не е предназначена за маршируване и да е определена

като марш, чисто интонационно има такова звучене.

Танцът като първичен жанр зависи не само от епохата,

мястото на създаването си, но и от темперамента на народа,

който танцува, свързан е и с езиковото общуване, но най-много

с етапа на човешко развитие и всичко това – с мисленето.

Танцът е изкуство на движението и е обвързан с ритъма, като

природен принцип, а от там и с метроритъма в музиката.

Жюли Шарлот ван Камп определя танца като човешко

движение, което се изпълнява в определен стил или по

определен шаблон и създава ситуация на комуникация [3].

Танцът се характеризира с грациозност, елегантност, красота,

съпроводен е с ритмични звуци и има за цел да разкаже някаква

история или да изрази чувства, които се засилват от

пантомимата, костюмите, сценичните декори и избора на

светлина.

Танците са разнообразни в много отношения. Това

разнообразие е кодирано чрез Ритмичните им модели.

Ритмичният модел на танца е носител на информация за време,

място, хора, случване, действия. В много отношения е свързан

с бита и живота на човека, с взаимоотношенията му в

обществото, с позицията му там, както и с принадлежността му

към определена социална и родова група. Най-общо

Ритмичният модел е съвкупност от ритмически изразни

средства, заключени в два или четири такта (квадратност), има

характерно темпо и логически акцент за цялото построение

(модел). Това цяло се повтаря на принципа на остинатност.

1 Това твърдение е условно.

Танцът e неразривно свързан с музиката [4], като

нейното емоционално-образно съдържание намира въплъщение

в композицията му. Музиката, от своя страна, определя

характера на движенията и насочва тяхното развитие в процеса

на танца. Съчетаването на тези движения постепенно се

превръща в стъпки на танца. В много отношения ритмичните

модели и танцовите стъпки са аналогични, т.е. движенията и

стъпките отговарят на ритмичния модел на съответния танц.

Понятието танцувалност изразява проникването на

емоционална изразителност със самостоятелна художествена

значимост в жанровете на танцувалната музика.

Танцувалността се изявява и в сложните музикални форми на

редица композитори, като става техен неотменим дял [5].

Танцувалният жанр е симбиоза на музика и движения. В

този смисъл видовете танци подлежат на класификация по

различни критерии:

1. Според броя на танцуващите – индивидуални, с

партньор, групови;

2. Според предназначението на танца – ритуални,

концертни, битови, салонни, състезателни,

социални;

3. Според историческата епоха, в която танцът

битува;

4. Според метрическия показател на музиката.

Ритмичните модели в изкуството имат естествена

връзка със стила. Стилът е човекът, народът, времето. Стилът

показва цивилизационните промени, културните и

нравствените различия, развитието, концепциите, Духа. В

основата на стила стои ритмическа последователност от

елементи на даденото изкуство, а тяхното своеобразие от

комбинации е носител на белези, по които може да се

идентифицира националността и епохата на съществуване на

явление или артефакт на изкуството. С други думи, ритмичните

модели, като носители на белезите в едно изкуство, събират

най-важните черти, по които може да се разпознае стилът на

епохата, националността, авторът.

3. Заключение. Жанр и стил – стъпка към

цялостност в образованието.

Жанр и стил имат важно място в обучението и

възпитанието на децата и учениците, особено в началното и

средното училище. На тази зависимост може да се погледне от

няколко страни:

а) във връзка с учебното съдържание – понятията по програма

се въвеждат след ІV клас;

б) при обобщителните уроци, свързани с епохите в музиката и

изобразителното изкуство – в VІ, VІІ кл. и след това;

в) и двете понятия имат пряка връзка предимно с изкуствата.

Това дава възможност един и същ стил да се разгледа през

различни призми – от историческа, географска, друга научна

плоскост (във връзка с епохата и научното познание тогава);

стилът в отделните изкуства (музиката с изобразителното

изкуство и архитектурата в отделен времеви период).

Тези и още други свързаности имат отношение към

развитие и придобиване у децата на цялостен поглед по

отношение на един стил. Това позволява и различните отрасли

на науката и познанието, на изкуството да се видят като части

от една цялостност. По този начин става по-лесно и

разбирането на научни явления и процеси, и мястото на видни

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

личности в тях, както и образност и средства на изкуствата

тогава.

От гледна точка на разбирането и осъзнаването на

мястото на българската култура и нейните характерности, това

е път за по-ефективно възприемане и създаване на по-ярък и

пълноценен образ на времето, в което нашето народно изкуство

изкристализира и битува. Разглеждането на един стил с

характерните за епохата жанрове, ще помогнат на децата да

видят по-ярко исторически събития, бит и култура, отношения,

облекло, нрави и морал и да изградят в съзнанието си по-пълна

картина на една действителност. Това е и един алгоритъм за

учене и модел за изграждане на цялостен образ на което и да е

явление или процес в света.

4. Литература

1. Златкова, Л. Народното изкуство – ритъм, дух,

култура. Университетско издателство „Епископ

К. Преславски“, Шумен (2019)

2. Речник на българския език. БАН

3. http://aboutdanceworld.narod.ru/

4. www.Britannica.com

5. Julie Charlotte Van Camp – Philosophical problems

of dance criticism. PhD dissertation (1981)

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Achievements of computer technology in bulgaria in the second half of XX century

Boyan Aspruhov

University of Library studies and information technologies, 1784 Sofia, Bulgaria

Email : b.asparuhov@unibit.bg

Abstract : Еlectronics is the most progressive branch of mechanical engineering since the 1960s. Specific for the development of this industry

in our country is that each technological development or the creation of material conditions for its implementation in the period from 1960

by the end of the socialist period, it had received support at the highest state level, in the form of continuous promotion, smooth financing,

the provision of embargoed high-deficit technologies by special services and the wide opening of the economy to integration into production.

Significant for the development of the industry in our country is the specialization in the production of electronic computers, which was won

in a competitive competition between all member countries of the COMECON on the basis of previously achieved in Bulgaria high scientific

results in the field.

KEY WORDS : ELECTRONICS, COMPUTER, ECONOMY, INDUSTRY, HISTORY

Introduction:

The emergence and development of computer technology in our

country is primarily the merit of Bulgarian science, which

overcomes ideological prejudices in its development and after the

end of Stalinism flatly rejects the statements about the futility of

cybernetics. Achievements in the scientific field of computer

technology would not be possible without the continuous state aid

provided in this area.

It is evident in the decrees of the highest state bodies of the People's

Republic of Bulgaria, which determine the strategic decisions for

the development of the economy and in particular of mechanical

engineering. Evgeniy Kandilarov dwells on this moment in detail in

his research1. Kiril Boyanov praises the developed in our country

different in type and purpose electronic computers, focuses on the

technological specifics of some of the first devices, shares

interesting details about the moments of cooperation between

Bulgarian and foreign scientists and engineers, reveals the scale of

extensive production and the export of these new products, in which

very high added value is invested2.Milena Dimitrova examines the

understanding of business leaders in our country about the

importance of electronic technology3.A chronicle of the most

important achievements in the electronics industry is offered by

Snezhana Hristova in her essay on the 40-year history of CIIT4.

D. Dyakov5 and D. Shishkov6 also dwell on certain moments in the

development of this specific industry.

A more global view of the industry in the context of the historical

development of the economy in the second half of the twentieth

century, especially after the adoption of a strategic concept of

change in production to higher-tech industry gives longtime head of

engineering Ognyan Doinov in his memoirs7.

There is a huge amount of documentation related to the

development and activities of various economic entities in the

electronics industry, the information from which is not sufficiently

studied and is the subject of future research.To date, there is already

enough data on high achievements in Bulgarian electronics, which

ranked Bulgaria in the forefront of production and export of

electronic computers (EIM) in the COMECON in the 60s, 70s and

80s of the twentieth century, as many of our electronic products find

international recognition and realization in the western market.

Results:

The development and implementation in the production of

electronic computing equipment in our country begins at the crucial

stage of reorientation from extensive to intensive economy.The

country's economic policy is aimed at developing new high-tech

industries that have a low degree of metal intensity and do not

require significant energy resources, and this goes hand in hand

with the multiple increase in spending on research and technical

development. [Kandilarov, E. p. 8].

In 1960 the Chief Scientific Secretary of BAS Lyubomir Iliev

formed a team of young specialists for the development of

Bulgarian electronic-digital machine. Last year the first course in

numerical methods was opened at Sofia University, and with Decree

of the Council of ministers №698 / 29.04.1961 a Computing Center

was established at the Mathematical Institute of BAS and at the

Department of Higher Analysis at the Faculty of Mathematics of

Sofia University with director Acad. Lubomir Iliev4

In the research plan of the Computinc center for 1962-1963. the

development of a digital electronic calculator is included as part of

a cooperation agreement between the Bulgarian and Romanian

academies of sciences. The development is also included in the

National Plan for Science and Technical Progress. [Boyanov, K.,

p.16].

Work on the machine began on January 2, 1962, was completed

ahead of schedule in honor of the Eighth Congress of the Bulgarian

Communist Party and was put into operation in 1963. at the

exhibition "Bulgaria Builds Socialism", which is being held in

Moscow. Then it got its name - "Vitosha".The exhibition, opened by

Leonid Brezhnev and Todor Zhivkov, is a great success for Bulgaria

and is one of the reasons to insist a few years later on specialization

in computer technology in the production division in the

COMECON system [Boyanov, K. 2010, p. 21]. The Vitosha

machine is 4 meters long, 2 meters high and weighs 1 ton. At work

it consumes electricity with a power of 12 kW, has a capacity of

2000 operations per second and RAM of a magnetic drum with a

capacity of 4096 words. [Hristova, Sn.].In the main team developed

the machine "VITOSHA" are art. cor. Lyubomir Iliev (head), eng.

Ilyich Yulzari (responsible for technical implementation), eng.

Dimitar Rachev, assistant. Blagovest Sendov (responsible for the

mathematical part), Eng. Encho Karmakov, Eng. Rafi Aslanyan,

Eng. Kiril Boyanov, Eng. Georgi Alipiev, Eng. Maria Dimitrova,

Eng. Stefan Pashev, Eng. Dimitar Bogdanov, Eng. Ivan Stanchev,

constr. Petar Chervendinev, constr. Lubomir Balevski, a group of

masters and specialists and draftsmen. [ibid.].

In 1965 Another revolutionary idea was realized in the field of

Bulgarian science - the creation of an electronic calculator with

capabilities for arithmetic operations for commercial purposes. At

its meeting held on July 10, 1965. The Council of Ministers of the

People's Republic of Bulgaria adopts decision № 283 for mastering

the production of an electronic calculator in a shortened time.The

development of a prototype was assigned to the IC at the Ministry

of Education and Science of the Bulgarian Academy of Sciences,

together with MEI, the plants "Electronics" - Sofia and "Office

Equipment" – Silistra. It has been decided that the construction and

production of the tools necessary for the regular production of the

calculators will be taken over by the IC at BAS, Electronics Plant

and the Plant for Instrumental and Non-Standard Equipment at DSO

Radioelectronic and Communication Equipment, Sofia, and the

Ministry of Foreign Trade assistance to State Committee for Science

and Technical Progress for the supply of imported materials for the

production of prototypes.

The development of the mechanism of the electronic calculator was

decided to be based on diagrams and sketches of the IC at BAS.

[SCDSA, F.1836, des.2 a.u.3]. At that time, only three models of

electronic machines were known in the world, which have

capabilities for arithmetic operations. The English Anita, created by

Norbert Kitz in 1961, the Italian IME - 84, constructed by Massimo

Rinaldi in 1963. and the American EC - 130, introduced by Friden

inc in 1963. In 1965 The world's fourth electronic calculator is

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

released - the Bulgarian ELKA 6521, which surpasses the others

with its built-in rooting function. [ Hristova, Sn.].ELKA 6521 was

presented at the exhibition "INFORGA - 65" in Moscow and was

prepared for serial production at the plant "Electronics".

Before reaching this point, it took years of research and numerous

specializations in various institutes in Eastern Europe and the

USSR, through which Bulgarian engineers and specialists passed.

The Viskovni Institute in Prague, Czechoslovakia has been

developing since 1962. two generations of Epos digital electronic

calculators designed for 10,000operations, which were expected to

be put into production in 1966, as well as MSP and MDP machines

designed for scientific and production needs of energy systems and

for statistical purposes.

[SCDSA, F.1836, des. 2, а.u. 27].

The Tesla plant in Brno, Czechoslovakia, had a production

nomenclature almost identical to that of the Electronics plant in

Sofia. Between the two plants since the end of 1961. there was

cooperation in the specialization in the production of some

electronic measuring instruments.

[SCDSA, F.1836, des 2, а.u. 28].

Engineers from the Electronics Plant also visit the Institute of

Automation and Telemechanics in Kyiv and the Institute of

Cybernetics in Moscow, where digital electronic machinesKyiv,

URAL 2, Minsk 22, Dnieper 1 and Dnieper 2 have been developed,

after which work on analog-to-digital converters, elements for

digital devices, synthesis of digital devices and storage devices

[SCDSA, F. 1836, des. 2, а.u. 27].Our specialists have been

seconded to the Computing Center for State Planning in Moscow,

USSR to study the electronic-digital machines MARS - UB, MARS

-200R and URAL 2.The conclusions reached by our specialists after

careful observation are the clear intention to develop in our country

modules to be used for the construction of a digital computer for

accounting, which is not currently developed and produced in the

USSR. [ibid.]

In April 1963. Other Bulgarian engineers are also specializing in the

USSR, where they get acquainted with the methods and devices for

measuring germanium transistors and diodes and silicon transistors

- the future main components for the production of computers in our

country [ibid.]

These visits are crucial in gathering technological information and

gaining practical experience for the specialization of Bulgaria in the

production of electronic computing equipment. In 1964 a general

commission for cooperation on the problems of computer

technology of the academies of sciences of the socialist countries

was established. In our country State Committee for Science and

Technical Progress is responsible for the planning and management

of scientific activities in order to strengthen the relationship

between scientific and technical units and their implementation in

industrial production. [Kandilarov, E., Sofia 2004].

On June 24, 1964. the chairman of State Committee of Science and

Technical Progress Ivan Popov, the chairman of BAS L. Krastanov

and the chairman of the Committee on Mechanical Engineering

Mariy Ivanov submit to the Politburo a report "On the development

of electronic computing", according to which the production of

electronic computing equipment is very profitable due to the use of

relatively few materials, limited amount of ferrous and non-ferrous

metals, a lot of work and the ability to quickly return on investment.

The petitioners emphasize that in the near future, digital computers

will become the heart of automation.[CSA, F.1 B, des. 6, а.u. 5513].

In 1965 in Moscow, the Intergovernmental Commission met and

laid the foundations for cooperation in production between all

socialist countries. [Doinov, O. p.94].

A Council of Chief Designers has been set up to set technical rules

and standards. The Bulgarian representative in the Council of Chief

Designers A. Angelov was advised by Iv. Popov, at all costs to fight

to get a specialization in EIM. [ibid.] Bulgaria specializes in

computer production - CPUs, magnetic disks and storage devices,

magnetic tape drives, magnetic disk packs, printed circuit boards

and ferrite memories. [ibid.].

Large-scale construction is underway to deploy infrastructure that

provides production in promising areas. With descision of Ministry

Council №13 from 25.01.1966 the Central Institute of Computer

Science, CIIT was established in our country. In the same year the

development of ELKA 22 (with digital indication) and ELKA 25

(with printing device), shown at the exhibition "INTERORG-

TECHNIQUE" in 1966, began. in Moscow [Hristova, Sn.].

An agreement was reached to export the ELKA-22 to the USSR,

and the ELKA 25 turned out to be the only model in the world with

a printing device. [Kandilarov, E., p.15]. An integral part of ELKA

22 and ELKA 25 - are the germanium transistors developed at the

plant in Botevgrad, whose production began in 1965. ELKA 22 and

ELKA 25 were introduced in 1967 in the plant "ORGTEHNIKA" -

Silistra and at the end of the year exports of 300 pieces. ELKA 22

for the French company "JAPY". [Hristova, Sn.]

At the fair in Milan in 1968. Bulgaria presents ELKA 6521, ELKA

6522 and ELKA 6525. Various companies from Italy, Germany,

Austria and Switzerland have shown interest in the Bulgarian stand.

A Dutch company wants to re-export ELKA 6521 and electronic

calculators manufactured by DSO IZOT, provided that they change

the boxes of the devices. [SCDSA, f. 1836, des. 2, a.u. 31]

Unfortunately, Bulgaria fails to implement the technology of

printing devices in mass production and to reap the dividend.

[Boyanov, K. p.32] In 1969. A research and design institute for

electronic calculators was established, which increased production

and conquered many markets, not only in the socialist camp but also

in the west, with products exported to France, Switzerland and

Great Britain. [ibid.].In 1969 the plant in Botevgrad switches from

the production of germanium transistors to integrated circuits. At

the World Expo in Osaka in 1970. Many models of electronic

calculators are presented, only the Bulgarian ELKA - 42 has

integrated circuits, and ELKA 45 has a new printing device [ibid.]

The next series ELKA 50 and ELKA 55 have integrated circuits that

are entirely Bulgarian development. This series of calculators is

very successfully exported to Hungary, the USSR, Czechoslovakia,

the GDR, Poland, Cuba and others. In 1971 the first electronic

registration box ELKA 77 and the first calculator for scientific

calculations ELKA 99 are being developed [Hristova, Sn.]

In 1974 A series of pocket electronic calculators was developed by

order of a Swiss company - ELKA 101, 130, 135. 50,000 pcs. from

ELKA 101 are exported to Switzerland [ibid.]. Exports of this series

were also made to Italy, Great Britain and Germany. [Boyanov, K.

p. 34].From 1964 to 1974 Bulgaria holds a world level in the

production of electronic calculators, but the lack of sufficient

investment to develop its own production of integrated equipment,

leads to dependence on imports, and subsequently to the closure of

the Institute of Electronic Calculators [ibid.].

Electronic calculators are not the only products with which Bulgaria

celebrates achievements in the production of EIM. In 1965 The

SCSTP is preparing a decision of the Council of Ministers for the

development of computer and organizational equipment. We are

looking for connections with leading companies such as IBM, ICL,

Siemens, etc.They were the first to respond from the Japanese

company Fujitsu, where they bought 5 EIM Fakom 230/30, which

were implemented in the production of the Computer Equipment

Factory in Sofia under the name ZIT151.

Until 1970. 20 such machines were produced, which were provided

to many Bulgarian state institutions such as the Planning

Commission, the BNB and others. [Boyanov, K., p.37]. In

December 1969. an agreement was signed between the socialist

countries for cooperation in the development, production and

application of computer technology.

So far, the social camp produces about 30 types of CPUs and

peripherals that are incompatible with each other. The agreement

ensures the assimilation and development of EIM according to

uniform technical requirements and compatibility with optimal

specialization in development and production. [Boyanov, K. p.38].

A year and a half earlier in our country began construction of 8 new

plants in Sofia, Blagoevgrad, Ruse, St. Zagora, Plovdiv, Pazardzhik

and Shumen for the production of assemblies, parts, metal

structures, printed circuit boards and peripherals. One of the first

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

tasks was the joint development of the ES 1020 CPU between CIIT

and Minsk in 1969. The IBM 360/30 model is followed, but the ES

1020 firmware management is a Bulgarian-Soviet development.

The machine was introduced in 1971. at the fair in Plovdiv. Among

the guests are representatives of IBM. The two machines - IBM and

ES 1020 - exchange their programs, the Bulgarian one works well

on IBM 360, and the American one - on ES 1020. [Boyanov, K.,

p.46] After the success the serial production of ES 1020 is started.

In the Russian city of Brest, processors made in Bulgaria are

assembled, printing devices are prepared in Poland and the GDR,

and perforating devices - in Hungary. Magnetic tapes and

peripherals are also manufactured in our country. In 1970 The

intergovernmental commission is starting to develop a magnetic

tape storage device (ZUML).

The Bulgarian Ivan Arshinkov is the responsible designer. In 1971

the development of a magnetic disk storage device was adopted.

During the period Bulgaria overtook the USSR, Czechoslovakia, the

GDR, creating a storage device for magnetic disks ES 5052

(ZUMD).

Its application in the ES 1020 system is through a control device,

which is manufactured in the USSR and the GDR. In Bulgaria there

are already ready ZUMD, but control devices - not yet. In order to

end this "hostage", Bulgaria began to develop a control device for

ZUMD, and in mid-1971. a laboratory for control devices for

magnetic disk storage devices has been established at the CIIT.

[Boyanov, K. p.52]

It soon became clear that no prospects were emerging in the field of

control devices for the Eaves and specialists were turning to the

development of minicomputers. Angel Angelov brings to Bulgaria

from the USA a short technical instruction for operation of the PDP

8L minicomputer [Boyanov, K., p.53]

Without prototype and software in the summer of 1974. begins

work on the development of a minicomputer in Bulgaria. The

SCSTP sets a deadline for implementation of 4 months. At the

Plovdiv Fair this year Hungary presents its development of a

minicomputer based on the French Mitra 15, and the USSR - ASVT.

The Bulgarian IZOT 0310 receives a gold medal.

The emergence of IZOT 0310 raises the question of many

organizations to automate certain activities with the help of

computer technology. The first attempts were made at the CIIT,

where the idea of a system for automation of commercial activity

was realized. In cooperation with specialists from the Institute of

Internal Trade, a project for automation of a supermarket from the

trade network has been launched. [Boyanov, p.57]. The project was

successfully implemented. The minicomputer installed in the cash

registers successfully sends messages about the exhaustion of a

product from the store or sends a message to the manager that the

quantities in the warehouse are running out. Another function of the

computer is to monitor cash receipts in cash registers.

After the completion of the work on IZOT 0310, the consideration

of the possibilities for creating a 16-digit minimachine begins. The

realization starts in the small computing center organized by S.

Markov within the CIIT, where the engineers have the prototypes

PDP 11/34 and PDP 11/40.

In the process of development, special technological equipment was

created on the basis of IZOT 0310, with which to read the original

firmware memory of PDP 11/40.This is how the IZOT 2104 C

processor was created, which was implemented in the production of

the Electronics plant. 1200 such machines were exported to the

USSR [Boyanov, p. 60].

After 1970, dozens of main and auxiliary enterprises were built

throughout the country, which implement in production the

scientific and design solutions of CIIT.

In 1973 the main facilities for the production of computer

equipment were completed and put into operation. Good relations

are maintained with leading companies in the world in the field of

electronic computing.

In 1973, the Ministry of Electronics and Electrical Engineering was

established. In 1976 CIIT grows into a production complex

"Computing and Organizational Equipment" (IZOT) in the system

of MEE. Simultaneously with the construction of the material base,

the state transferred dozens of Bulgarian students to specializations

in Europe and Japan.From these cadres grew the scientific and

economic elite of Bulgarian electronics.A striking achievement of

the 1980s was the development of the IZOT 1014 supercomputer.

All Soviet geological and geophysical centers for oil and gas

exploration, and similar centers in China, India and Vietnam, are

equipped with these Bulgarian computers. [Kandilarov, E. pp.59-

60].

In 1989, the chief designer Vl. Lazarov, and later they come to us

from the computer center at the base in Los Alamos to make sure

that we have really created a supercomputer. [ibid.]

Conclusion

Since the design of one of the first EIMs, in the 1980s Bulgaria

became the main supplier of high-performance computer systems to

Soviet scientific, research, and industrial institutes. Our electronics

industry has the technological capabilities to design and

manufacture 80-85% of the components and components needed for

the production of finished products.In 1985 production is growing

to the extent that the export output of computer equipment from

Bulgaria is more than that of all socialist countries combined.

[Doinov, p.99]. For the period 1980-1988 over 50% of the trade in

the countries of COMECON is carried out by means of computer

equipment and devices, created in Bulgaria.

References:

1. Kandilarov, E. "Electronics in the economic policy of Bulgaria in

the 60's - 80's of the twentieth century", GSU-IF, Vol.96 / 97,

2003/2004, 431-503

2. Boyanov, K. "Strokes from the development of computer

technology in Bulgaria", Sofia 2010.

3. Dimitrova, M. "The Golden Decades of Bulgarian Electronics",

Sofia, 2008

4. Hristova, Sn. 40 years of CIIT, 2006

5. Dyakov, D. "Review of Bulgarian Electronics", 2006

6. Shishkov, D. "Star moments of the Bulgarian computer

technology and computer informatics" Sofia, 2002.

7. Doinov, O. Memories, Labor 2002

8. SCDSA, F.1836, des.2 a.u. 3, 27, 28

9. CSA, f.1 B, des. 6, a.u. 5513

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Стратегия за кредитиране на малка фирма в условията на криза

Strategy for lending to a small company in a crisis

Стратегия кредитования небольшой компании в кризис

Минева С. К. , България, Велико Търново, докторант НВУ“Васил Левски“

Abstract: The business development strategy of each company is an action plan to achieve high efficiency in its operation. The basics of

financial management in lending to small and medium enterprises are discussed. Basic strategies are proposed, mathematical analysis is

used and steps are taken to configure the loans in order to reduce the risk of losses. In order to provide the necessary financial resources for

the operation of the company during an emergency, it is assumed that the modern manager will respond, renegotiate or reinvest the amount

of expected repayments. For this purpose, the size of the loan is assessed in such a way that it is well justified so as to contribute to a positive

effect on the future of the company.

Keywords: MANAGEMENT, LOANS, BUSINESS, FINANCIAL RESOURCES

Увод

Управлението, мениджмънтът са една от най-широко

използваните функции в съвременните бизнес

взаимоотношения на всяка фирма. Управлението на фирмата за

кредитиране на малкия и среден бизнес

с_м

кр

е процес на

целенасочено въздействие, но не всяко действие в дейността на

фирмата се явява управление. Управленското въздействие е

насочено към целевата функция на бизнес поведението на

фирмата за кредити. И още, самото управление се отнася към

системи, които са сложни и динамични (имат поведение и

отношения), а не са статични.

1.Структурни реформи във фирмата при

кризисна ситуация

Реализирането на социално-икономическата политика

на фирмата в настоящата икономическа ситуация се отразява и

в промяната в пропорциите между нейните служители и

регионални звена, на територията на страната. За вземане на

ефективни решения от ръководството на фирмата поради

кризисната ситуация е необходимо да се определят

направления за провеждане на структурни промени във

фирмата. От особена важност за тази цел есе явява сравняване

на структурата и броят на отпусканите кредити като цяло и в

различни сходни периоди от нейното функциониране, като на

научна основа се определят динамиката на обхвата и

тенденциите на предвидените промени.

Предоговарянето трябва да се базира на конкретна

причина довела до искане за промяна на условията по текущия

кредит. Допускат се следните причини за предоговаряне:

Влошено здравословно състояние на клиент или член на

семейството на клиент; Фалит на бизнеса поради приложените

мерки при конкретните Ковид ситуации; Спад на оборотите с

минимум 40% - ОКС проверява вътрешната отчетност за

последните 4 м. и се уверява в спада; Загуба на

продукция/липса на реализация на продукция; Спад в

изкупната цена на продукцията; Забавена субсидия – прилага

се банково извлечение, от което да се установи, че лицето не е

получило субсидия при други причини, различни от

гореописаните, като се представя доказателствен документ,

който да потвърждава твърдението на клиента.

Съвкупността от принципи и подходи за работа с

потенциалните и текущи клиенти на фирмата като реакция на

конкретната икономическа ситуация е необходимо да има

статистически данни и последващ анализ на показателите за

поне два сравнявани периода. Резултатите от проведеният

анализ за дейността на фирмата по избраните показатели могат

да бъдат представени под формата на времеви редове,

например по тримесечия от годината или във фиксиран момент

от времето, например за шест месеца. Тогава зависимостта от

получените статистически данни по избраните показатели,

задължително се оценява: Как промените влияят върху

полученият ефект в нейното функциониране – получената

печалба във времето по един или няколко показатели; По какъв

начин персонала на фирмата по време на криза е допринесъл за

нейният просперитет в определен момент от време. И най-

важното, какви хора и какви качества те трябва да притежават

така, че колективите във фирмата да се справят с

предизвикателствата на настоящата икономическа ситуация.

Оценката в промяната на политиката на фирмата за

отпускане на кредити за определен период от време (месеци)

N.....3,2,1T 

може да се реализира чрез използването на система

от коефициенти, като:

кар

а) коефициент, който измерва промените във звената на

фирмата

фпр_с

за целия период на промените, от първият

месец до даден момент

Tt 

. Той се изчислява като сума от

абсолютните отклонения на всички елементи на ново

изградени промени във фирмата, период

N.....3,2,1T 

спрямо

базовата за сравнение месеци, година, започвайки от някакво

начало, например за първият месец. Тези сума измерва преди

всичко базовия темп на брутен растеж на печалбата на

фирмата. Ако всяка година се наблюдава висока интензивност

на промени и полученото изместване е незначително, тогава

състоянието е близко до първоначалното и изместванията са

предимно с колебателен, несъществен характер:

(1)



фпр_с)1(F)Tt(FС

Където

фпр_с

- коефициент за измерване промените във

звената на фирмата;

)Tt(F 

- промени за всеки момент от време

определен период от време;

)1(F

- промени от някакво начало

от първият месец.

б) коефициент за измерване промените във фирмата

пер_2

от два минали съседни периода за нейното

функциониране. Коефициента още показва степенна, големина

за настъпилото вече структурно подобрение в периода

N.....3,2,1T 

. Значението на коефициента

пер_2

може да се

определи по зависимостта:

(2)



пер_2 )нар(F)Tt(F2С

Където

фпер_2

- коефициент за измерване промяната

във фирмата в два съседни периода за функциониране ; -

)Tt(F2 

промени за всеки определен период от време

едновременно и в двата периода;

)нар(F

- големината за

настъпилото вече подобрение в периода

N.....3,2,1T 

Посоченият коефициент (2) използва миналият опит за

функционирането на фирмата за кредитиране и най-вече по

какъв начин се запазва стойността на получените печалби, чрез

преструктуриране на състава и политиките на фирмата. На

базата на този опит става възможно актуалното кредитиране и

рефинансиране, което да води по-голяма ефективност на

дейността на фирмата.

Ако във фирмата за отпускане на кредити в момент на

кризисна ситуация се изисква задължителна промяна, тогава

размерът на приходите на фирмата може да достигне

определена редуцирана стойност, а печалбата се предполага да

бъде по-малка.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Припомнете си, че подборът на фактори се извършва по

такъв начин, че последващите фактори включват все по-малко

и по-малко отклонение. Следователно не е изненадващо, че

първият фактор има най-голямо натоварване. Имайте предвид,

че признаците на факторни натоварвания са важни само за да

покажат, че променливите с противоположни натоварвания на

един и същ фактор взаимодействат с този фактор по

противоположния начин. Може обаче да умножат всички

натоварвания в колона по -1 и да се обърнат знаците. Във

всички останали отношения резултатите ще останат

непроменени.

2. Риск и управление на риска във фирма за

кредитиране

Дейността на всяка фирма и в частност фирмата за

кредитиране се съпровожда с два типа неопределеност:

неизмерима неопределеност и измерима неопределеност.

Неопределеността и от двата типа, винаги предполага

разглеждането на всяка икономическа ситуация

ик

, която се

развива в икономическата среда в състояние на криза или във

време на затихваща епидемия. Неопределеността също се

явява вследствие от трансформация на йерархия на

приоритетите за функциониране на фирмата при посочените

условия, вероятността за появата на всеки един от тях, може да

бъде определена с различна точност. В този случай всеки един

избран приоритет, който пряко или косвено определя

просперитета на фирмата се съпътства с вероятност за

настъпване на неблагоприятни събития

водещи на

определен риск

за прилагане в политиката на фирмата.

Следователно всеки

се явява своеобразна оценка на

ситуацията

ик

настъпила, както във фирмата, така и в

променената икономическа среда. Поради това риска

във

фирмата е явление, свързано с множество рискови ситуации, по

които се формулират алтернативни реакции, политики

функциониране на системи. Той, риска количествено и

качествено оценява „последствията” в определена размерност,

например загуби, получени при достигането на

предполагаемия, желаният резултат от дейността на фирмата.

В практиката за управлението дейността на фирмата

съществуват три основни гледни точки, признаващи

субективната, обективната, или субективно-обективната

природа на риска

. За природата на фирмата за предоставяне

на кредити управлението й се приема за обективно, защото

съпровожда задължителното му съществуване и отчитане, чрез

ик

във всички структурни звена изграждащи фирмата.

В този смисъл риска от различен род не се явява

предимство, но не се приема и за недостатък, защото той е

атрибут за функционирането на всяка една фирма във всеки

момент от време. При това - отсъствието на

изобщо в

природата на се приема като противоестествено състояние,

което отрича настъпването на неблагоприятни и

непредсказуеми опасности. Ето защо се приема, че постигането

на всяка цел във функционирането на фирмата винаги се

съпътства с

. Като количествена оценка, на тези последствия,

риска се „измерва” с категориите „заплаха” или „опасност” за

функционирането на фирмата. „Заплахата” и „опасността” –

това са начални фундаментални понятия, изразяващи

същността на

. Те са носители на определен „негативен

потенциал” изразяващ се в „условна вреда” или „условна

загуба” водещи до „реални загуби“ във функционирането на

фирмата по пътя на модификация или разрушаване

постигането на предвидените и цели. Поради появяване на

ик

във време

Tt

от функционирането на фирмата. При отчитане

на посоченото по горе, като определение на риска във фирмата

за отпускане на кредити се задава следното определение:

Определение 1. Под риск

във фирмата за

кредитиране се приема комплексна величина изразена в мярка

(метрика) - вследствие наличието на рискови ситуации -

ик

подбрани за функционирането й системи, ако стойността му се

измерва от:

a) величината на опасността за фирмата

Оп

и нейната

вероятност за възникване на

и последващи неблагоприятни

състояния в нейното функциониране вследствие на всяка

ик

в икономическата среда;

b) стойности на условни загуби

във

функционирането на фирмата, поради прието определено

решение от ръководството и вероятността за тяхното

реализиране в политиката на фирмата в определен момент от

време

Tt

(3)

)ЗОпPP(Рфф

ф

Определение 2. Под условни загуби, тежест на вредата,

последствията за функциониране на кредитната система,

степента за неблагоприятни последствия и др.

при оценка

на

ик

се приема количествена мярка, дефинирана като:

a) вероятност от неблагоприятен изход

при

функционирането на кредитната фирма спрямо прогнозираното

значение на множеството опасности

Оп

от

„невъзможността” за достигане крайните й резултати на

(невъзможност за изпълнение на финансовият желан резултат в

определена количествена мярка).

b)възможни условни загуби

– време, работен

персонал, параметри на печалба, устойчивост при

функциониране на фирмата за време

Tt

, а също така и

резултатите от финансови, конкурентни операции,

предизвикани от неадекватната реакция на бизнеса.

c)вероятността

за появяване на даден тип

ситуации

ик

, изразяващи степента на възможна опасност от

индивидуални, специфични или общи загуби

във фирмата,

протичащи от особеностите на структурните звена в тях във

възприети или специфични измерения.

d)ниво на финансови загуби

във фирмата

изразяващи се: 1) в невъзможност за достигне на поставената

цел при провеждане на определена финансова операция; 2)

неопределеността на прогнозируем краен резултат от

планирана финансова политика; 3) в последствията от грешки

от възприети подходи поради субективна дейност на част от

персонала на фирмата и др.

e)загуби от време

заг

за функциониране на фирмата

поради настъпване на неблагоприятна ситуация

ик

–

измерени като отклонение, закъснения, нарушаване на цикъла

за рефинансиране, невъзможност за събиране на отпуснатите

кредити и др. в етап, фаза или момент от време

Tt 

f)честотата

ик

за възникване на

ик

в определени -

етап, фаза или момент от

Tt

, включващи ритъмът за

излагане на опасност на фирмата, поради конкурентост и като

последствие получаване условните загуби

Или посочени елементи в условните загуби на фирмата

формират сумарните загуби, които могат де се определят по

зависимостта:

(4 )

)НTЗОпPP(Зф

икзаг

фф

сум

ф

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Загубите във функционирането на фирмата за отпускане

на кредити зададени чрез логичното уравнение (4) притежават

силна корелация в едновременното въздействието върху

икономическата сигурност на фирмата. Мултиплициращият

ефект от тази особеност предполага прилагане на форми и

подходи за управление на риска

Същността на управлението на риска на фирмата за

кредитиране се състои в това да се:

A. Анализира и оцени размера на риска

при

всеки отпуснат кредит на потребителите, групата потребители;

B. Внедрят ефективни практики за

минимизиране на риска

minРф

при одобряването и

отпускането на кредитите;

С. Постигне убеденост, че рисковете от отпуснатите

кредити се намират в допустими

допРф

рамки и остават

такива за определен период на време.

Следователно, управлението на риска, представено в

направленията включва основно два вида дейности на

управлението на фирмата, които в практиката се редуват

циклично:

Оценка, измерване на риска

при типовете отпуснати

кредити;

A. Избор на ефективни защитни средства за

намаляването на рисковете при кредитиране на потребителите.

Посочените по горе особености на риска във фирмата за

кредитиране на малък и среден бизнес се изразяват с

определени елементи, представени в таблица 1.

Таблица 1.

Елементи на управление на риска на фирма за

кредитиране на малък и среден бизнес

Рискът представен на Таблица 1 може да се управлява,

т.е. да се използват различни методи, позволяващи в

определена степен прогнозиране настъпването на рисковото

събитие при отпускането на кредити и да се вземат мерки за

снижаването на степента му.

3. Икономическа сигурност на фирмата

Известно е, че фирмата се явява една от основните

институции на модерната икономика и нейната същност служи

като център на трансформация и преразпределение временно

разполагаемите й икономически ресурси между множество

възможни алтернативи на техното целесъобразно използване в

близка перспектива. Това напълно се отнася и за фирмите

осигуряващи кредити на потребителите от различни

производствени направления. Междуфирмената конкуренция в

настоящия момент изисква от тях да използват най-ефективно

разполагаемите ресурси с цел получаване най-голяма печалба,

увеличаване на пазарния дял и др. направления. Разгледано от

прагматична гледна точка фирмата е съвкупност от

дългосрочни и краткосрочни, вътрешни и външни договори

между стопански икономически агенти, които имат за цел

увеличаване на собствената си икономическа сигурност [6].

Съдържанието на икономическата сигурност на фирмата може

да се зададе с няколко определения, част от които се явяват:

Определение 1. Икономическата сигурност на една

фирма

1ИСФ

е нейната способност да гарантира своята

икономическа стабилност и постъпателното и развитие,

оптимизация нейната структура и отделни елементи от нея, при

нестабилност на външната среда, както и при прояви на

опортюнизъм от страна на участниците на фирмата и заплахи

за човешкият фактор във вътрешната среда на фирмата.

Определение 2. Икономическата сигурност на фирмата

2ИСФ

е един от значимите критерии за нейното поведение и

зависи, както от двустранни спестявания в транзакционни

разходи по време на възникването на различни пазарни сделки,

така и административни разходи от стратегическото й

управление.

Определение 3. Икономическата сигурност на фирмата

3ИСФ

е способността на участниците на фирма да защитават

своите интереси и цели от възможни заплахи. Сигурността

трябва да гарантира процеса на създаване, формиране и

развитие на фирмата, нейната финансова стабилност и

платежоспособност.

Освен дефинираните определения (1-3) отнасящи се до

икономическата сигурност на фирмата в нейното съдържание,

се включват и система от критерии

Кр

, икономически

показатели

, параметри

, оценка на ефективността на

процесите

пр

, проекти, ресурсен потенциал

пот

и най-вече

временното ниво в даден момент от време

Tt 

на

конкурентоспособността й. Следователно икономическата

сигурност на фирмата

ИСФ

в даден момент

Tt 

може да се

дефинира със следното логическо уравнение:

(5)

)РЕППКр(

)3ИСФ2ИСФ1ИСФ(ИСФ

пот

пр

ф



Където

ИСФ

- Икономическата сигурност на фирмата.

Икономическата сигурност на една фирма зададена с (5)

е преди всичко система за непрекъснато събиране на

информация в системата от критерии и оценки на

икономическата й дейност и динамиката в нейното

функциониране във външна икономическа среда. Освен това,

разглеждайки икономическата сигурност на фирмата като

системата тя трябва да притежава доста уникален, своеобразен

и напълно съответстващ на политиката й бизнес. Системата,

ИСФ

също така трябва да обхваща всички значими аспекти на

бизнеса и да притежава достатъчна чувствителност към

промените съответно във външната и вътрешната среда при

функционирането на фирмата като се следва принципа на

разумната достатъчност.

Но икономическата сигурност на фирмата се определя

от уникалността на всяка икономическа ситуация. В

настоящият икономически период във функционирането на

всяка фирма трябва да се реализира адаптивен подход към

нейното управление, признаване важността на бързината и

адекватната честотата на реакциите към изменение на

пазарните условия. Честата промяната на външната и

вътрешна бизнес среда за функциониране на фирмата се

съпътства с проблеми на изграждането на система за нейната

икономическа сигурност [1,3]. Най-честите проблеми в

изграждането икономическата сигурност на фирмата в

съвременните условия се явяват:

А. Разрушаване политиката за функциониране на

фирмата поради значителните промени на пазарните условия;

Капитал

на фирмата

Какви кредитни финансови

ресурси трябва да бъдат защитени?

Заплахи за

фирмата

От какво е необходимо да бъдат

защитени кредитите?

Каква е вероятността заплахата

при отпусканите кредити да бъде

реализирана?

Въздействия при

отпускане на

кредити

Какви ще бъдат непосредствените

последици след реализация отпуснатите

кредити

Последств

ия от неправилно

отпуснати кредити

Какви ще бъдат дългосрочните

последици след отпускане на кредити,

например, загубване на репутация, загуби

или фалит на бизнеса и т.н.?

Мерки за

защита на

кредитите на

фирмата

С какви ефективни мерки трябва

да бъдат защитени отпуснатите кредити на

получателите?

Остатъчен

риск при

отпусканите

кредити

Приемлив ли е съществуващия

риск от броят на отпуснатите кредите

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

В. Фрагментация на структурните звена за

функциониране по териториален принцип - в градове с

различна големина. При това се занижава връзката между

различните звена на фирмата използващи един и същи

алгоритъм за функциониране;

С. Непълнота при отчитане на видове заплахи и рискове

за функциониране на фирмата. Тя включва грешки при

определяне йерархията и степента на влияние на всяка

непосредствена заплаха при нейното функциониране.

D. Статичност при функциониране на фирмата в даден

период от време

Tt

, където не се провежда качествен анализ

на промените в пазарната среда и отчитане относителното

тегло на заплахите.

Посочените проблеми (А-D) се отнасят до някои

основни компоненти влизащи в съдържанието на

икономическата сигурност на фирмата. Част от тях се явяват:

1) финансови; 2) юридически; 3) интелектуални – качеството

на персонала; 4) информационни; 5) технически и

технологични и др.

Посочените проблеми и компоненти водят до допускане

на грешки в стратегията за развитие на фирмата и неизбежно

водят до загуба на пазарен дял, отслабване на позицията на

фирмата и поражение в конкурентната борба със

себеподобните, дори до поглъщане или фалит[3]. Допуснатите

стратегически грешки поради временната ситуация на бизнес

средата при „пандемия“ и криза по правило не могат да бъдат

компенсирани с тактически средства използвани като

компенсация на пропуснатите ползи. За да редуцират

последствията от грешките на фирмата в динамиката на

промените на пазарната среда е необходимо да се провежда

тилбилдинг на служителите във фирмата чрез обучение по

определени направления и сплотяване на колектива. В общият

случай като най-удачен модел в обучението на персонала на

фирмата се очертава диференциален модел [5]. Нека да

приемем определен период от време актуален, за просперитета

на фирмата, като функция на обучение на персонала

TОф

пер 

или за краткост

пер

𝐿(𝑡). Тази функция може да описва,

възможностите на отделните категории персонал на фирмата в

условия на криза. Нека

maxОф

пер

𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 бъде максималната

възможна стойност на функцията за обучение

TОф

пер 

𝐿(𝑡).

Стратегията на фирмата за усъвършенстване на персонала се

подчинява на принципа - скоростта на обучение на всяка

категория от персонала е пропорционална на количеството

новости, форми и методи за достигане желаното качество за

цялостното й функциониране. Това за определен малък период

от време

t

може да бъде представено с диференциален

модел от вида:

(6)

)ОmaxО(k

dОф

пер

пер 

където 𝑘 - коефициент на пропорционалност, задаващ

нивото на получаване, скорост за получаване знания на

различните категории от персонала на фирмата.

Посоченото диференциално уравнение (6) при

нормализация на стойността

1maxОф

пер 

притежава решение от

вида: (7)

1Ce1О)kt(ф

пер 



Константата

може да бъде определена от като

първоначалното състояние, квалификацията и

професионализма на всяка категория от персонала на фирмата.

А параметърът 𝑘 e задава скоростта на обучение,

възприемането на новите знания и умения от персонала.

Вариант за определяне оптималното време за частичната

преквалификация на персонала на фирмата при различни

стойности на

и 𝑘 за се демонстриран на фиг.1.

фиг.1. Оптимално време за преквалификация на

персонала на фирмата в зависимост от временното състояние

на квалификацията

и скоростта за обучението 𝑘.

Времето за преподготовката на персонала във връзка с

промените в пазарната среда тясно кореспондира със

съдържанието на икономическата сигурност на фирмата.

Поради това продължителността на обучение по определени

направления на категориите персонал на фирмата трябва да

бъде различно. Така например при съществуваща

квалификация на категория персонал измерено в относителна

стойност

2.01C 

, то при продължителност на обучението от 5

дни ефективността на усвоения материал нараства от19 до 75%,

фиг.1. При по-значима квалификация

4.01C 

, то нарастването

съответно е от 50 до 82%, което се приема за оптимално за

преподготовката на персонала за повишаване основно

икономическата сигурност на фирмата и възможностите за

реализиране на печалби в близка перспектива, фиг.1.. С цел

поддържане на професионалното ниво на категориите

служителите на фирмата се препоръчва обучение от 1 до 2 дни,

(графика на ефекта нараства най-чувствително), фиг.1.

Непрекъснатата преподготовката и усъвършенстване

знанията на персонала на фирмата се явява условие за

икономическата сигурност на фирмата по време на кризисните

ситуации за формиране на печеливша стратегия при

постоянните промени на бизнес средата. Това се явява базова

политика на фирмата гарантираща впоследствие на нейният

просперитет.

Заключение.

За успешното функциониране на фирма за кредитиране

на малък бизнес в неблагоприятна икономическа ситуация е

необходимо точното определяне на вътрешните и външни

условия на ситуацията и вземане на мерки за редуциране на

неблагоприятните фактори за реализиране кредитната

политика на фирмата. Количеството на едновременно влияние

на неблагоприятните фактори пряко формира степента на риска

при кредитирането и разработената скала за целта, позволява

вземането на правилни решения от ръководството на фирмата,

позволяващи минимизиране на евентуални загуби и постигане

на успешно функционира.

Литература

1.Балканска, Е., Международни аспекти на кредитния

риск, ВСУ“Черноризец Храбър“, Варна, 2018- 9с.

2.Димитрова, Р., Кредитирането на малките и средните

предприятия в земеделието-предизвикателство, НБУ, София,

2019-85с.

3.Ивашковская И., Финансовые измерения корпорати-

вных стратегий, ИНФРА-М, 2019 -208с.

4.Маринов И., Проблеми на финансовия мениджмънт в

сектор „бързи кредити”, СА, Свищов, 2019г-25с

5. Плоткин Б.К., Делюкин Л.А. Экономико-

математические методы и модели в логистике, Учебное

пособие, Изд-во СПбГУЭФ, 2010. – 96 с.

6. Ansof I., Corporate Strategy, Evidence on Associations

with Stock Returns and Firm Values, 1997-58.

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

0.1

0.19

0.28

0.37

0.46

0.55

0.64

0.73

0.82

0.91

време за обучение при същ. квалификация С1=0.2

време за обучение при същ. квалификация С1=0.3

време за обучение при същ. квалификация С1=0.4

средна стойност на подготовката

време за обучение на персонала, дни

ефект в придобиването на знанията, 0-1

0.75

0.95

512

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Consequences of inappropriate detection and removal of outliers in statistics

Georgi Petkov

Institute of Population and Human Studies,

Bulgarian Academy of Science, Sofia, Bulgaria

Abstract: In statistics, the presence of outliers in the data set could wrongly distort the estimation of the mean. In addition, the extreme

values increase the variability and consequently, the power of the statistical methods decreases. However, there are disagreements in the

literature both about what the nature of outliers is, and about how to deal with them when doing further statistical analyses. A lot of

conventional procedures for both detecting and dealing with outliers are discussed. The effect of increase the probability of error of the first

order type is demonstrated with two simple simulations. The general conclusion is that an information outside of the data set is necessary for

a correct decision. This information could come only from the human expertise of the researchers of the specific domain of interest. The

importance of the topic for outliers is discussed, the need of deeper analyses, accompanied with many simulation studies, is argued.

Keywords: OUTLIERS, STATISTICS, DATA SCIENCE, SIGNIFICANCE LEVEL, STATISTICAL POWER

1. Introduction

In statistics, outliers are typically defined as data points that are

far away from the other observations (for ex. [1]). Often they could

produce large discrepancies between statistical estimations of some

parameters and their true values. There is a huge number of

scientific work analyzing the nature, the reasons for existence and

the possible tools for dealing with outliers (for ex. [2], [3]).

However, there are still controversies about the adequacy of some

of the technics for removing data, especially those widespread in

the social sciences.

The first problem is that there are not stable mathematical

definitions about what is outlier. One should rely on expert

knowledge in the specific domain in order to define which values

are impossible. In addition, some outliers could reflect imprecisions

of the measuring process. Thus, both the deep domain knowledge

and the expertise in the methodology for measurement are crucial

for correct detection and deal with outliers.

Some of the mistakes in data analyses reflect also a controversy

about the meaning of the concept of outlier. One interpretation is

that outlier are impossible values. For example, if one measures the

height of a sample of people and there is a value of 18.2 meters

somewhere in the data, this is obviously a product of a mistake.

18.2 meters is an impossible value for a height of a person. Maybe

it is a result of a typo error, or something else, but it is certainly an

error. However, a value of 2.40 meters is not necessarily an outlier.

According to a different understanding of the concept, however,

every value that differs significantly from the other data points is

defined as an outlier. Thus, even the value of 2.40 meters, which

could be possibly the height of a very tall person, should be

mathematically processed in the same way as the impossible values.

It is unproductive to argue for the word meaning, however it is

essential to have consistency between the understanding the nature

of the outliers and consequent decisions what to do with them. If

one think the outliers as impossible values, she should, of course,

remove them from the data set. In this case, the difficulty is in the

process of detecting them. One should prove strictly their

impossibility on the basis of a deep domain knowledge. Otherwise,

deleting valid empirical data would produce wrong conclusions.

From the other side, if one think outliers as just very extreme

values, it is easier to detect them mathematically but it is a question

how to deal with them.

2. How big is the impact of outliers on statistical

estimations and conclusions

There are two main types of problems that may arise from the

impossible and extreme values in the data set. First, the statistical

estimation of the parameters could become too imprecise. Second,

the statistical procedures for making conclusions could lose power

because of the increase of the variance of the observed variables.

The estimation of the mean of a set of values is sensitive to the

extreme values. For example, the mean of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5,

6, 7, 8, and 9 is 5 but if ther is a value of 100 in the data set, then the

mean (of the numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 100) becomes 14.5,

almost three times larger. Obviously, if the value of 100 has come

across by a typo error for example, our statistical conclusions would

be invalid if we do not remove it before doing analyses.

However, the second problem – increase of the variance of the

observed variables and the consequent decrease of the statistical

power of the used methods, could produce logical fallacy. One may

argue that increasing of the statistical power is always an honorable

goal, thus it is always right to use tools to do it. Therefore, it would

be better if we remove the extreme values from our data set. This is

a wrong conclusion. It is definitely better to use more powerful

statistical methods; there is no doubt on this. Otherwise, even

following strictly the standards for statistical significance (for ex.

p<0.05 in the behavioral and other studies), the number of the

wrong conclusions could produce very large problems, like for

example the replication crisis in social psychology (see for ex. [4]).

Increasing the statistical power, however, does not mean simply

removing some data points from our sample. It means improving

the procedures for collecting data; increasing the sample size, etc. It

should be done before the actual data collection. Otherwise, jest

decreasing artificially the variance of the observed variable would

definitely make worse both our estimations and the adequacy of the

used statistical methods. It will produce larger number of type one

errors (incorrectly rejection of the null hypothesis). This prediction

could be checked with a simple simulation.

Simulation 1

In order to test how decreasing the variance impact the first

order error type, a simulation on Python was performed. Two sets

form exponents of a same normal distribution N(0, 1) were

randomly generated. Then a t-test between the respective two

samples of numbers was performed and it was detected whether the

significance value p<0.05 or not. If p<0.05 then a wrong rejection

of the null hypothesis was recorded. The simulation was performed

10000 times thus stabilizing the first order error rate. The procedure

was repeated for various sample sizes (10, 30, and 100) and for

various criteria for removing data (removing all data above 2, 2.5,

and 3 standard deviations respectively).

Results:

The results from the simulation are summarized in Table 1:

It is seen from the results that deleting some data points above a

certain threshold for the standard deviation, undesirable increases

the probability for a wrong rejection of the null hypothesis (type I

error rate). It increases more when more data are altered, in

particular if use lower thresholds or when the sample sizes are

larger.

Summarizing, the increase of the statistical power by just

removing extreme values is a very wrong procedure. It is definitely

better to use large sample sizes and precise measuring instruments

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

in order to improve the statistical power, but this should be done

before collecting the data. Otherwise, this is not a valid procedure.

It causes artificial increase of the rate of the more dangerous error in

statistics – possible wrong rejection of the null hypothesis.

Table 1: Percentage of the incorrectly rejection of null hypothesis (first

order error rate) when varying sample size and the threshold for removing

data

Sample size 10

Sample size 30

Sample size 100

Removing

data above 2

st. devs.

0.1172

0.1214

0.1350

Removing

data above 2.5

st. devs.

0.1064

0.1060

0.1189

Removing

data above 3

st. devs.

0.0487

0.0965

0.1113

3. Methods for detecting outliers

After demonstrating the inappropriateness of just removing data

outside of a fixed number of standard deviations, let us turn back to

the various understandings of the concept of outlier. According to

[5], who follows the definition of an outlier as any data point, which

is far from the other data, there are three types of outliers: (1) typos;

(2) values for elements that are not part of the population of interest;

and (3) natural extreme values.

An example of a typo was already given – if one records the

height of people and there is a value of 18.2 meters, there is no

other reasonable explanation then it is wrongly typed.

It is often more difficult to detect a value that is incorrectly

recorded because the respective element is not from the studied

population. If, for example, one studies the effect of a certain

educational method on the student’s knowledge, it is possible that a

certain student with disabilities or with language difficulties had

been measured in one of the groups. Actually, the research question

had been probably about normal developed students only and in

such a case, the respective result could be logical treated as coming

from a different population, which is not under the research interest.

However, it is often difficult to precise such argumentation.

Anyway, the decision whether a certain outlier is from this type,

should be taken very carefully, in accordance with the domain

knowledge and without pure mathematical considerations.

Finally, some data points should be extreme by a definition. Is a

certain variable is distributed normally for example, about 2/3 of the

data should be outside the interval mean+1.st.dev; about 5% -

outside of the interval mean+2.st.dev, etc. They should not be

removed, otherwise, the estimation of the true variance would be

incorrect and as a consequence, the probability for the first type

error will increase (as demonstrated in Simulation 1).

Following [5] there are several methods for detecting extreme

values that could be thought as outliers:

(1) Just sort data and look on the both ends.

(2) Make a graph and look whether some outliers pop-out.

(3) Calculate the z-values, sort them and observe the numbers

outside (-3, 3).

(4) Calculate the quartiles Q1 (25%), Q2 (the median) and Q3

(75%) and then make fences around Q1 and Q2 with length

1.5*median and 3*median. All data outside the inner fences could

be thought as extreme values.

(5) Use hypothesis testing method, for example the Grubb’s test

[6].

The list above is sorted by complexity of the method. The

problem is that often as simple a method is, as reliable it is. For

example, The Grubb’s test requires initially to mark how many

outliers are expected. However, one can not know this, actually the

goal is to find them. Thus, the method does not work correctly with

an unknown number of outliers. At the same time, the list is sorted

inversely by automaticity of the decision. As simpler methods for

detecting the extreme values is used, as larger is the necessity of a

top-down domain knowledge in order to make a decision what to do

with the respective extreme value.

4. Methods for removing outliers

As was mentioned, depending on how one views on the outliers

– incorrectly presented data or just extreme values, the higher

difficulty is either on defining a certain value as an outlier, or on

deciding what do to with it. If the outlier is a wrong value, one

should prove that it is there either by a typo or that the respective

element is outside of the studied population. After the eventual

proof of this, the decision is simple – just remove it from the data

set. From the other side, if one think any extreme value as an

outlier, then its detecting is relatively simple but the decision how to

deal with it could be very difficult.

If we follow the second view, then may look what Frost [7]

proposes to do with the already detected outliers. First, it could be

very usable to analyze why it is an outlier at all. This could give us

a valuable information about the process of collecting the data and

as well about the sampling process. After that, it is time for a

decision.

(1) If this is obviously and undoubtable a typos, then remove it.

(2) If this is obviously and undoubtable a value from an

element, which is not a member of the studied population, then

remove it.

(3) If this is a natural extreme value that should be there, then

leave it and do not do anything more about it. The percentage of the

values above the thresholds of 1, 2, 3, and more standard deviations

could be easily estimated and could be compared with the

respective theoretically expected percentages. If one cannot decide

whether a certain value is naturally extreme, better leave it.

Removing should be done only after finding undoubtable reason for

it.

(4) Use alternative statistical methods for analyzing data. There

are three main types for this: use non-parametric tests, use

transformation of the data, and bootstrapping.

Non-parametric tests

Whereas statistical mean is very sensitive to extreme values, the

median is not. Then, if there are extreme outliers, which we cannot

remove because there is no obvious reason for it, it seems

reasonable to compare the medians of the respective studied groups,

instead of the means. However, the problem is that usually there are

not well defined theoretical sample distributions for the medians.

Anyway, almost all of the parametric tests have developed their

non-parametric versions. For full range, see Table 2 (adapted and

supplemented form [7]):

Table 2: Pairs of parametric and non-parametric tests for the same

research design

Parametric test using

means

Non-parametric test

based on medians

Estimation of one

mean

One-sample t-test

1-sample Sign, 1-

sample Wilcoxon

Comparing two groups

Two-sample t-test

Mann-Whitney test

Comparing more than

two groups.

One-way ANOVA

Kruskal-Wallis,

Mood’s median test

Looking for a

relationship

Pearson’s correlation

Spearman’s correlation

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

As it is seen, many of the analyses could be performed both by

using parametric and non-parametric tests and often different results

would be obtained. Isn’t this a problem?

Sometimes the mean is not a good estimation of the central

tendency but the decision of this is not a mathematical task.

Consider for example, the following small sample of monthly

incomes: 9 times 1 000 and a single 1 000 000 value. Nine people

receive 1000 each and one person receives 1 000 000. The last

single value is an outlier, following the “any extreme value”

definition. However, it is a possible (and probably true) value and

we cannot remove it from the data set. What is the better estimation

of the central tendency – the mean of almost 100 000 or the median

of 1000? The answer of this question is not obvious! The answer is

that it depends! It depends on the purpose for estimation the central

tendency. From the point of view of the social minister for example,

whose goal is to deal with misbalances of the income, the mean is

much misbalanced because of the outlier and he probably would

prefer to deal with the median. From the point of view of the

financial minister, however, who wants to predict the budged, the

mean is a perfect estimation of the central tendency.

Thus, the decision of whether to use parametric or non-

parametric test should be based mainly on the decision whether the

mean or the median is the central tendency measurement of interest.

But this is a task from the respective domain, it is not a

mathematical one. Thus, one should not choose to use non-

parametric test just because there are outliers in the data set.

Even if the mean-median choose decision is not restricted from

the specific domain, one should consider some additional

mathematical restrictions: For small sample sizes, usually the

parametric tests require normal distributions and equality of

variance, whereas the non-parametric tests are still sensitive to the

equality of variance but may deal with non-normal distributions.

However, for large sample sizes these requirements are not valid for

the parametric tests. The Central Limit Theorem cares about the

normality of the distributions, whereas the tests become less

sensitive to eventual inequality of the variance. As a conclusion, it

seems better to use non-parametric tests instead of parametric ones

only in the case of small sample sizes, non-normal distributions, and

equal variances. At the same time, it should be always preferable to

plan experimental designs with larger sample sizes, thus achieving

enough power for conclusions. It seems that a paradox arises if we

chose non-parametric tests solely on the outliers consideration. The

non-parametric tests are better only when the sample sizes are small

and the distributions are non-normal. But in these cases the

uncertainty of whether a certain value is outlier or not, also

increases.

Summarizing, the chose between parametric and non-parametric

tests should be based on the domain specific knowledge about

which measure – mean or median – is a better representatives of the

central tendency. There is no arguable reason to make this decision

on the basis of existence or absence of extreme outliers.

Transformation of data

One often use technique for data manipulation is to initially

perform some algebraic operations on the variables, most often non-

linear ones, for example to take logarithm or exponent. There are

domain-specific and mathematical consideration for this. For

example, it is well known in psychology that often the

psychological sensation of a certain stimulus is a logarithmic (or

exponential) function of the physical intensity of the respective

stimulus [8]. In such a case, it is reasonable to perform the

respective mathematical operation and to deal with the transformed

variable. From the other side, often the arguments for a certain

operation are purely statistical. For example, it is known that

reaction time is distributed non-normally with a long tail on right

[9]. That is why some authors [9] recommend to normalize such

distributions by simply logarithm. As a side effect, the influence on

the mean of any very big outliers will decrease.

It is questionable, however, whether this non-domain but purely

mathematically based transformation would not produce any

spurious statistical results. One doubt of the adequacy on

logarithmic reaction time pre-processing method is expressed in

[10]. This question is additionally tested empirically with the

simulation that follows in the same context. It is checked whether

the probability for wrongly rejection of the null hypothesis will be

affected by logarithmic transformation of the variables. The sample

size would vary.

Simulation 2

For the purpose of the simulation, performed on Python, two

sets of random variables were generated from a normal distribution

N(0, 1). Both they were taken with their absolute value in order to

avoid logarithms of negative numbers. On the next step, two

additional variables were created being natural logarithms of the

first two. Like in the previous simulation, a t-test was performed

and any incorrect rejections of the null hypothesis were recorded.

The simulation was repeated 10000 times and total percent of the

wrongly rejected null hypotheses was reported. The simulation was

repeated by varying the sample size – 10, 30, and 100.

Results

For sample size 10, the error type I rate was 0.63. For sample

size 30 – 0.550; for sample size 100 – 0.505. Thus, we may

conclude that the simple logarithmic transformation potentially

increases the type I error rate but this happen with small sample

sizes only.

Anyway, further investigation of the eventual mistakes that

could happen with arbitrary algebraic operations on data are needed.

Bootstrapping

One relatively rarely used in psychology and social sciences,

but seeming promising technique, is bootstrapping. Briefly

speaking, by using bootstrapping, we replace the theoretical sample

distribution with an empirically created one by using our data. For a

very simplified example, assume our data set consists of four data

points: 1, 2, 3, and 5. We may recombine these points with

replacement. Thus, some possible variations of the data set are: (1)

1, 2, 3, 5; (2) 1, 3, 3, 3; (3) 2, 3, 3, 5, etc. Of course, the method is

used mainly on relatively large data sets. Usually huge number of

permutations (tens of thousands) with replacement are used. Every

single permutation could be viewed as a possible data set and the

distribution of the parameter estimations among all these

permutations form our sample distribution.

The three conditions for bootstrapping are [7]:

1. The bootstrap method has an equal probability of

randomly drawing each original data point for inclusion in the

resampled datasets.

2. The procedure can select a data point more than once for a

resampled dataset. This property is the “with replacement” aspect of

the process.

3. The procedure creates resampled datasets that are the

same size as the original dataset.

There are a lot of advantages by using bootstrapping method.

There are no any restrictions and requirements for normal or

another distributions, for equality of variance, etc. There are not any

in advance expectations about the sample distribution. The method

works perfectly for confidence intervals estimations.

However, there are still some assumptions to be met in order to

obtain valid results from bootstrapping. The most important of them

is that our data represent well the population. Otherwise, if there are

some biases, they will reflect the results after bootstrapping as well.

This arises a logical question about the outliers. If a certain outlier

is due to typos or another type of mistake, then bootstrapping is a

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

good method to eliminate its impact. However, if it is a principal

problem in the way of collecting data (for example, if it is a bias to

do typos in non-random direction), or in the measurements

methods, or anyway in the design of the investigation, then the

bootstrapping method will probably not improve the results.

5. Conclusions

In statistics, the presence of outliers in the data set could

wrongly distort the estimation of the mean or other parameters. In

addition, the extreme values increase the estimation of the variance

of certain variables and consequently, the power of the statistical

methods used decreases. However, there are disagreements in the

literature both about what the nature of outliers is, and about how to

deal with them when doing further statistical analyses.

There are at least three main sources of outliers. They may be

due to typos and if one can prove this by arguing that such values

are impossible, then without doubt they should be removed from

further analyses.

The outliers may come from elements of the sample that doesn’t

come from the studied population. If such is the case, again, these

values could be removed together with all other values from the

same source.

Sometimes, however, there are extremely large or extremely

small values in our data set that could not be ignored without

reason. It is a bad research practice in some groups for behavioral

studies just to cut all data above 2, 2.5, or 3 standard deviations

from mean. This procedure is justificated by the seeking for higher

power of the statistical methods. It is true that low-powered studies

are one of the cornerstones for the replication crisis in social

psychology [4] for example, and without a doubt, they should be

avoided. The increase of the power, however, should be performed

with methods outside of the particular data. This means, the

procedure should be improved as much as possible; the measuring

instruments should be tuned; the sample sizes should be increased;

etc. All of these good research practices however should be done

before collection of data. After it, removing data points without

clear reason outside form the data themselves, has the same effect

as skew of the sample. Removing data is in fact a skew of the data

that happens after, not before collecting the data.

The effect of increase the probability of first order type is

demonstrated with two simple simulations. In the first one, the

simple removing data from two samples from the same distribution

– exponent of a standard normal one, causes significant increase of

the first order error rate. As much data are distorted, as higher the

increase. In addition, as higher the sample size, as higher the effect.

In the second simulation, it is demonstrated how another

widespread procedure for dealing with outliers – namely, taking

logarithm of the variable, causes also a small increase of the

probability for type I error.

A lot of conventional procedures for both detecting and dealing

with outliers are discussed. As a general rule of thumb, as objective

is a certain procedure, as less reliable it is. This is a widespread

phenomena. The correct detecting and dealing with outliers requires

domain knowledge outside form the data. Thus, it is better simply to

sort the values and to look them visually on a graph, than to use

hardcore procedures for detecting outliers. This is because the data

themselves doesn’t content information about the specific research

domain, nor about the procedure for obtaining them. Such

information, however, is necessary for a correct conclusion.

Three of the techniques require special attention – using non-

parametric tests, transforming the raw data, and bootstrapping.

Unfortunately, the general conclusion is that again just using

complex statistical methods cannot displace the expert knowledge

in the domain. The non-parametric tests seem mathematically better

than their parametric partners only when the sample sizes are small,

the distributions are non-normal, and the variances among the

groups are almost equal. However, exactly in these cases all

methods have relatively small power nevertheless of the presence or

absence of outliers. In addition, the main argument for choosing

parametric or non-parametric test should be again top-down

knowledge and good understanding of the research question,

Namely, it is a matter of interest whether the mean or the median

better represents the central tendency. This question is domain

based and is orthogonal from the pure mathematical considerations.

The same arguments could be said for any algebraic

transformation of the data like logarithm, exponent, etc. The choose

should depend on the domain specific knowledge, not of the

requirements of a specific statistical test. Obviously, if certain

requirements of a certain test are not met, one can not arbitrarily

distort data just to fulfill them. The methods use should be adapted

to the data, not vice versa.

Bootstrapping seems promising technique for estimations of

parameters, confidence intervals, etc. It doesn’t rely on prior

theoretical assumptions for the sample distribution. Thus, using

bootstrapping seems very good method for decreasing the influence

of a single extreme outlier. However, any biases embedded in the

research design or measuring process, would reflect the results from

bootstrapping too. Thus, again it seems that even bootstrapping is

good when we know about outliers (but in this case we can just

remove them), and is not perfect when we do not know them. But

knowledge should always come from the domain and outside of the

data set.

Finally, probably the worst possible bad scientific practice is to

use different methods for dealing with outliers and to report only

the “successful” ones. Obviously, in such a case, a huge number of

wrong rejections of the null hypothesis would be reported.

The topic for outliers seems promising for further deeper

analyses, accompanied with a lot of simulation studies. Improving

methodology, especially psychology and other social science, is of a

huge importance for establishment of uncontroversial knowledge.

References

1. Outliers (7 April 2022) In Wikipedia,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outlier

2. Ilyas, I. F., & Chu, X. (2019). Data cleaning. Morgan &

Claypool.

3. Kazil, J., & Jarmul, K. (2016). Data wrangling with python:

tips and tools to make your life easier. O'Reilly Media, Inc.

4. Wiggins, B. J., & Christopherson, C. D. (2019). The

replication crisis in psychology: An overview for theoretical

and philosophical psychology. Journal of Theoretical and

Philosophical Psychology, 39(4), 202.

5. Frost, J. (2022) Five Ways to Find Outliers in Your Data. In

Statistics by Jim. https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/outliers/

6. Grubbs, F. E. (February 1969). Procedures for detecting

outlying observations in samples. Technometrics. 11 (1): 1–21.

7. Frost, J. (2022) Guidelines for Removing and Handling

Outliers in Data. In Statistics by Jim.

https://statisticsbyjim.com/basics/remove-outliers/

8. Weber–Fechner law (29 March 2022) In Wikipedia,

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weber%E2%80%93Fechner_law

9. Lachaud, C. M., & Renaud, O. (2011). A tutorial for analyzing

human reaction times: How to filter data, manage missing

values, and choose a statistical model. Applied

Psycholinguistics, 32(2), 389-416.

10. Changyong, F. E. N. G., Hongyue, W. A. N. G., Naiji, L. U.,

Tian, C. H. E. N., Hua, H. E., & Ying, L. U. (2014). Log-

transformation and its implications for data analysis. Shanghai

archives of psychiatry, 26(2), 105.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

Complex functional dependence of temperatures on the pollutants and gaseous material

particles in the form of atmospheric aerosols

Mihai Petrov

University “Pr. Assen Zlatarov”, Burgas

Faculty of Real Sciences, Department of Physics and Mathematics

galantusgratus@abv.bg

Abstract: The state of ecosystems is dictated by a number of complex factors. The existence of vegetation that is considered the “lungs”

of the life of Earth is due to the presence of sunlight and favorable atmospheric temperature conditions for its existence. The modern

anthropogenic activity of humanity exists due to the satisfaction of the necessities for human existence. The technical-scientific revolution is

leading to the negative effects upon the ecosystems. These effects are described by the excess accumulation of pollutants in the form of fine

dust materials particles suspended in the atmosphere as well as various gaseous substances resulting from anthropogenic activity and

leading to variations in the values of atmospheric temperature with a negative impact on the normal state of the environment. A series of

studies and environmental centers of research describe the current state of the Earth's atmosphere with a tendency of the increasing of the

average atmospheric temperature as a result of the intensification of the green house effect. Recently, concomitantly with the existence of

green house effects, there is a decrease in the temperature of the upper layers of the atmosphere due to of the presence of aerosols of

polluting material particles. This can lead to the intensification of the temperature gradients with the frequent results of sudden temperature

variations and of the natural cataclysms. The quantitative description of phenomena in nature is a major problem and this study aims to

clarify quantitatively how temperature varies and what are the reasons of the variations of the atmospheric temperature by the application of

the laws of physics of physical phenomena. Decreasing of the pollutants in the atmosphere could have a reversible effect by normalizing of

the previous atmospheric conditions and by intensifying of the processes of widening green forest spaces in order to reduce the excess of

carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This study shows that the increasing the albedo values of the Earth-atmosphere complex system leads to a

decrease of the effective temperatures. This decrease is confirmed by the cooling of the upper layers of the atmosphere due to the presence of

aerosols in the form of polluting particles suspended in the atmosphere. An important parameter is described in this study which is called

latent specific heat. The respective values of the wavelengths of the outgoing longwave radiation emitted by this complex system increase.

Keywords: ALBEDO, POLLUTANTS, EFFECTIVE TEMPERATURE, SPECIFIC HEAT CONTENT, OUTGOING LONGWAVE

RADIATION

1. Introduction

When we talk about the ecosystem it is necessary to

characterize the state of its components: air, soils, forests, waters,

substances that are in permanent mutual interaction. It is also

important to mention the influence of pollutants on these

components and how their condition varies over time by describing

them with certain parameters that depend on time. One of these

parameters is albedo and the climatic state is dictated namely by its

value. The composition of Earth’s ground together with its

atmosphere in general is very complex by chemical structure point

of view and by macro components of the unique ecosystem in

general. [1] The atmosphere and the solar radiation are the most

important factors for the maintaining of the important functions of

the existence of ecosystem. [2] It is well known that the solar

radiation is the most important factor both for the process of

photosynthesis of the plant world and of the actual temperature of

the atmosphere. [2] The presence of pollutants with the green house

effect in the atmosphere leads to the increase of the global average

atmospheric temperature. [3], [4] One of the largest components

with the green house effect is carbon dioxide, which accounts for

75% from all pollutant gases. [4] The solar radiation that interacts

with the Earth's surface and atmosphere is described by "albedo".

[5], [6] ,[7] The increasing of pollutant green house gases leads to

the increasing of the albedo of clouds and in its turn to the

increasing of global albedo of Earth.[8]. The increasing of aerosol

concentration leads to higher cloud droplet concentration, smaller

cloud droplets, and higher cloud albedo.[9], [10].

2. The actual state of the description of Earth's

albedo

Each substance existing in terrestrial conditions has various

values of albedo depending on chemical composition. [11] The

sunlight carries energy to the planets of solar system. That sunlight

is absorbed by the planet’s surface heats the ground. [12] The planet

will continue to warm until the outgoing infrared energy exactly

balances the incoming energy from the sunlight. This balance is

called “thermal equilibrium”. [13] Satellites measure the amount of

energy arriving at Earth from Sun as sunlight. This amount of

incoming energy from sunlight is called “insolation”. [13] This

specific value of Isc=1370 W/m2 for Earth is called the “solar

constant” and this constant is exactly for the case without any air

and water. In order to calculate the total amount of energy arriving

at Earth is necessary to know how much area is being lit. This area

multiplied by insolation gives the total amount of incoming energy.

The amount of light intercepted (Einterc) is: [14]

)(6371;

int kmRRIE eescerc 



(1)

)(174)(1046.173

)(10.)3171.6(14.3)/(1370

21222

int

pentaWattsWatts

mmWE erc





(2)

Since Earth is not completely black, then some of energy is

reflected by the planet. This reflection is called namely “albedo” -A.

The energy of the Earth absorbed from sunlight is:

)1( escabsorbed RAIE 



(3)

The respective Stefan Boltzman law of emission:

24 eemitted RTE 



(4)

-emissivity of Earth (



0,6÷1) depending on the type of the

ground. The absolute black body has the value



=1 and this value

corresponds to the case of the vacuum (there is no atmosphere on

Earth).

absorbedemitted EE 

(5)

44)1(

;4)1(







 AI

TTAI sc

(6)

For the case when



=1, then T=Teff; Teff - effective

temperature; A=0,3 for the Earth’s albedo:

)(255

106704,54 )3.01(1370

4)1( 48

Tsc

eff 















(7)

The effective temperature Teff of Earth is such temperature when

the Earth’s surface is considered as the black body with the

condition that there is no any atmosphere around Earth. Earth’s

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

actual global average temperature is 15 0C (288 K). Our planet is

warmer than predicted value of Teff =255K by 33 0C. It is explained

by the fact that certain gases in the atmosphere have green house

effect leading to the increasing of the temperature till the value of

15 0C (288 K). The expression of the value of albedo A from (6) is:

14









eff

(8)

The expression of the quantity of heat from Sun that is

necessary for the atmosphere to maintain the value of actual average

global temperature Tatm (Tatm ≈288 K) is [4]:

 

airair

atmeffeffatmairair mc Q

TTTTmcQ .

;.. 

(9)

where mair=5,148.1018 kg is the mass of Earth's atmospheric air;

cair=1006 (J/(kg.K) - specific thermal capacity of atmospheric air.

[4] The substitution of the expression (8) into (9) gives the

following:

 

atmairsc

atm

sc mc Q

A



























 .

..4..4

4/14/1

4/1



(10)

The expression (10) can be generalized and applied to the

various substances with various thermal capacities c and masses.

Such suggestion comes from the fact that the Earth’s components as

the form of various substances are in continuous mutual exchange

of energy. The value of density ρ can be applied for various

substances.

 

Vc Q

atm

sc 

































..4..4

4/14/1

4/1

(11)

The components of Earth are various as soils, rocks, stones,

lakes, seas, oceans, forests, desserts, sands, ices, etc. and all of

them have various values of albedo, thermal capacity, density and

volumes. It is expected that more dense substances have higher

albedo, due to of the fact that the more compacted and dense

structures have more possibility to “reflect” the sunlight. The values

of densities are inverse proportional to the values of specific

thermal capacities. [15]. It means that for more densely substances

is necessary less quantity of energy than of the less densely

substances. The general form of the dependence of specific thermal

capacity as the function of the density of substances has such form

as the Fig. 1. The graphical dependence of

 













 c

fA 1

14/1

has the

general decreasing linear form. (Fig.2) The extrapolation to the

ordinate axis gives the value

atm

I











4/1

..4



with the consequent

calculation of the emission capacity ε of Earth. The intersection

point with the ordinate axis means such case c



. This is the case

of “absolute black body” for c



. [15] The value of albedo A→0

is the case of the absolute black body. Then (1-A)1/41 and de

facto this intersection point is equal to one.

 

4/1

..4

atm

sc T

I





















So, the values c;

A→0; ε→1 corresponds to the case of "absolute black body".[15]

The temperature of the atmosphere for the case of absolute black

body can be calculated:

)(278

1067.54 1370

448

Tsc

atm 











The real value of emission capacity of Earth is ε ≈ 0.9 and the

average temperature of atmosphere is:

)(286

1067.59,04 1370

448

Tsc

atm 











Fig.1. The general form of graphical dependence c=f(



) [16]

Fig. 2. The general form of graphical dependence

 













 c

fA 1

14/1

Results and discussion

So, Earth’s surfaces consist of various components with their

values of densities, specific heat capacities and albedo. The data are

presented on the Table 1.

Table 1. The constituents of Earth’s surface with their

values of densities, albedo and specific heat capacities

Compo

nents

density

;kg/m3

;

J/(

/k)

; K

eff=T-

Q/(cm)

(1-A) 1/4

ΔT;K

lnC

ln(ΔT)

vegetat

ed land

1600

.0012

94.8

72.22

0.94574

22.5832

6.72143

3.11721

wet

sand

(20%

water)

2200

500

.00067

84.72

72.22

0.94574

12.496

7.31322

2.52541

average

rock

2400

.16

000

.0005

84.93

75.56

0.95735

9.37202

7.6009

2.23773

forests

500

.15

500

.0004

83.88

76.37

0.96018

7.49762

7.82405

2.01459

ice

917

100

.00048

21.95

13.02

0.88011

8.92573

7.64969

2.18894

desert

sand

1900

.00102

72.46

53.32

0.88011

19.1266

6.88755

2.95108

savanna

s, wet

700

.00111

93.05

72.220

0.94574

20.8267

6.80239

3.03624

savanna

s, dry

1000

.25

.00111

88.69

67.86

0.9306

20.8267

6.80239

3.03624

grassla

1340

.25

.00125

91.29

67.86

0.9306

23.4301

6.68461

3.15402

sea ice

916

967

.00051

38.44

28.90

0.8979

9.52925

7.58426

2.25437

steppe

soils

1600

.25

.00111

88.69

67.86

0.9306

20.8267

6.80239

3.03624

dark

soil

2000

.00111

01.18

80.35

0.974

20.8267

6.80239

3.03624

Dry

clay

1000

.23

381

.00072

83.2

69.63

0.93675

13.5728

7.23056

2.60807

dry

earth

1400

.22

260

.00079

85.38

70.50

0.93977

14.8762

7.13887

2.69976

dry

sand

4000

.35

.00119

80.76

58.45

0.8979

22.3143

6.7334

3.10523

dry soil

1000

.16

.00125

98.99

75.56

0.95735

23.4301

6.68461

3.15402

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

granite

2700

.22

.00127

94.23

70.50

0.93977

23.7266

6.67203

3.1666

Graphit

(carbon

)

2500

.12

.00139

04.93

78.78

0.96855

26.1423

6.57508

3.26356

grey

soil

1600

.15

.00111

97.2

76.37

0.96018

20.8267

6.80239

3.03624

lava

3100

.19

.00119

95.38

73.06

0.94868

22.3143

6.7334

3.10523

Light

dry soil

1100

.17

.00125

98.17

74.73

0.95449

23.4301

6.68461

3.15402

Limest

one

2750

.25

.0011

88.48

67.86

0.9306

20.6205

6.81235

3.02629

loam

1500

600

.00063

83.94

72.22

0.94574

11.715

7.37776

2.46087

peat

lands

1400

.16

880

.00053

85.53

75.56

0.95735

9.97023

7.53903

2.2996

quartz

sand

1500

.25

.00122

90.72

67.86

0.9306

22.8586

6.7093

3.12933

Redlan

1200

.17

040

.00096

92.76

74.73

0.95449

18.0231

6.94698

2.89166

sand

1700

.25

.00115

89.41

67.86

0.9306

21.5449

6.76849

3.07014

Sand -

dry

1500

.00111

84.11

63.28

0.91469

20.8267

6.80239

3.03624

sand,

clay,

(dry)

1600

.25

.0011

88.48

67.86

0.9306

20.6205

6.81235

3.02629

sand,

clay,

(wetted

)

2100

.25

.00141

94.26

67.86

0.9306

26.4001

6.56526

3.27337

Sandsto

2200

.00141

89.68

63.28

0.91469

26.4001

6.56526

3.27337

sea

water

1030

.06

850

.00026

88.29

83.42

0.974

4.86858

8.25583

1.5828

Silver,

highly

polishe

10500

.00426

72.25

92.48

0.66874

79.7619

5.45959

4.37905

Soil -

dark

wet

2050

.13

480

.00068

90.65

77.98

0.96578

12.6649

7.2998

2.53883

Stainles

s steel

7820

.00204

80.3

42.04

0.8409

38.2531

6.19441

3.64423

stones

2500

.25

000

.001

86.61

67.86

0.9306

18.744

6.90776

2.93088

wet

sand

1922

.25

090

.00048

76.83

67.86

0.9306

8.96844

7.64492

2.19371

wet soil

1500

.11

480

.00068

92.24

79.57

0.97129

12.6649

7.2998

2.53883

water

1000

.06

180

.00024

87.9

83.42

0.974

4.48422

8.33807

1.50056

soil

mineral

2650

.12

.00137

04.46

78.78

0.96855

25.6768

6.59304

3.24559

calcite

2710

.28

.00119

87.46

65.14

0.92116

22.3143

6.7334

3.10523

iron

7900

.00221

83.51

42.04

0.8409

41.4691

6.11368

3.72495

gravely

earth

2050

.17

840

.00054

84.92

74.73

0.95449

10.187

7.51752

2.32111

basalt

rock

2700

.16

.00119

97.88

75.56

0.95449

22.3143

6.7334

3.10523

betone

1800

.00119

85.6

63.28

0.91469

22.3143

6.7334

3.10523

black

earth

(cherno

zem)

1100

.05

800

.00056

94.58

84.17

0.98726

10.4134

7.49554

2.34309

The representation of the graphic of specific heat capacity as the

function of densities of the Earth's components from the Table 1 is

represented on the Fig.3. The shape of this dependence from Fig.3

has the similar dependence as Fig. 1. The values of Earth’s albedo

which are represented on the Table 1 suggest for the dependence of

these albedo values of Earth’s components as the function of the

densities. (Fig. 4)

Fig.3. The dependence of the specific heat capacity as the

function of densities of Earth’s substances

Fig. 4. The dependence of the values of Albedo as the function

of the densities

This situation suggests about the same similar dependence as

Fig. 1 of the decreasing of the albedo values with the increasing of

the values of specific heat capacities. (Fig. 5)

Fig. 5. The dependence of the values of Albedo as the function

of specific heat capacities

The presentation of the dependence of

 













 c

fA 1

14/1

Fig. 6. The dependence of

 













 c

fA 1

14/1

The correlational calculations of the graphic

 













 c

fA 1

14/1

shows that

 

4/1

..4

atm

sc T

I





















;

)(288 KTatm 

;

   

88.0

2881067.54

1370

4









atm





The case when the heat sunlight is absent (Q=0), then:

 

4/1

3.01

..4 











T

Isc



)(2631005.481005.48

1067.588.04 13707.0 488

4KTT 







The special case ε→1 of black body, then T=255 (K).

Another coefficient of the linear dependence shows that the

correlational calculation is:

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

 

)/(04,18744

1067,588,04 1370

199,65

199,65.

..4

484/1

4/1

kgJ





































Namely, this value Q/m is named the specific heat latent of the

unique Earth-atmosphere system. It shows the quantity of Sunlight

energy absorbed by one kilogram of substance of the components of

this unique system. In order to validate this result

)/(04.18744 kgJ

Q

is necessary to use this value for checking of

the known value such as the average temperature of the Earth’s

atmosphere Tatm=288 (K). It means that the application of this value

18744.04 (J/kg) must give the similar value of the temperature of

the order 288 (K). The application of the expression (11) gives:

88.0);/(04.18744;

4)1(

.4











kgJ

Tsc

atm

;

The calculated values of Tatm are represented on the sixth

column of the Table 1. The expression (11):

 

eff

atm

ImcQ

A













































4/14/1

4/1 .4..4



allows representing the

dependence

 

)(1 4/1 eff

TfA 

. (Fig.7) The values of effective

temperatures Teff are calculated if the value

)/(04.18744 kgJ

Q

known and the values of specific heat capacities c are taken from

the Table 1 for various Earth's components. The graphic of the

dependence

 

)(1 4/1 eff

TfA 

is represented as:

Fig. 7. The graphic of the dependence

 

)(1 4/1 eff

TfA 

If the average value of Earth albedo is A=0.33, then

 

)(260904729.01 4/1 KTA eff 

. The proportional coefficient

of the correlational dependence is 0.0035. This value of this

proportional coefficient is

9.0

1067.54 )0035.0(1370

0035.0

.4 8

4/1



























The effective temperature of Earth officially is 255 K [17]. The

obtained result is ≈260 K. The value of 255 (K) is calculated for the

case of absolute "black body" with the value of emmisivity ε=1.

The calculated result is ε=0.9, therefore the effective temperature is

a little bit higher than for the case of ε=1. The analyses of the data

show that as higher is the albedo value then smaller is the effective

temperature. This situation is described in [18] as: "All else being

equal, temperatures will be warmer over a low albedo surface than

over a high albedo surface." The representation of the values of the

temperatures both for the effective values and equilibrium

temperatures T are represented on the same plot of the Fig. 8. It can

be observed that higher albedo values give larger interval between

equilibrium value of the temperature and effective one. It means

that components with higher albedo are cooling more rapidly for the

case of the absence of sunlight. Therefore, the desert sands with

relative higher albedo values have extreme variations of the

temperatures from minimal to maximal values of the order of

differences as 30 0C. [18, 19] This difference can be seen on the

Fig. 8. We can see from Fig. 8 that the difference of temperatures

∆T=T-Teff are bigger for the bigger values of albedo. The values

∆T=T-Teff as the dependence of specific heat capacities is

represented on Fig. 9.

Fig. 8. The values of effective and equilibrium temperatures of

Earth's components as the function of albedo values

Regarding the Figure 9, it can be observed that the differences

of temperatures ∆T are smaller for the higher values of specific heat

capacities and respectively for smaller values of albedo.

Fig. 9. The values ∆T=T-Teff as the function of specific heat

capacities

The expression of heat Q as the function of the temperature

variations ΔT is [4]:

TTmcQ lnlnln.. 















The graphic of the dependence of

)(lnln CfT 

represented on Fig. 10.

Fig.10. The graphic of the dependence

)(lnln CfT 

The graphic of the dependence

)(lnln CfT 

allows finding

the value

. The correlational calculation of this dependence shows

that:



























Q46.187438386.9ln 8386.9

. The validity

can be checked by case of the surface of Earth:

Kkg

Tsc 0

421)(294

1067.59.04 1370)32.01(

543

18744

.4 ).1(

.



































 



In order to obtain the expression of the variation of Albedo as

the dependence of the variation of the temperature of the

atmosphere ∆Ta by the influence of pollutants such as carbon

dioxide and the variation of emissive thermal energy - ΔE, it is

necessary to perform the derivative operation (A/) (differentiation

(dA)) of the expression of Albedo:

1













 cm

































 2

3/ 116 mmQ

AdAAaeff

































 aeff

mmQ

A116 3



The variation of the mass Δm is related to the resultant change

due to of the depletion of oxygen in the atmosphere ∆m(O2) and the

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

accumulation of carbon dioxide ∆m(CO2). [4] The value ΔTa is the

increasing of the temperature of atmospheric air due to of the

presence of the pollutant excess. [4] This value is of the order 

0.025 oC/year. [4] The resultant accumulated heat ΔQ due to of the

main complex processes in the atmosphere as: 1) anthropogenical

burning of fuels; 2) respiration of Land biota together with the

human population; 3) photosynthesis. This value is of the order ΔQ

= 3.1 ∙ 1020 Joule/year[4]. Only 40% of this quantity of heat is

absorbed by the atmosphere, but another 60% is absorbed by

Oceans. [4] Taking into consideration the mass of atmosphere

m=5.13·1018 kg and the value of specific latent

heat

)/(04.18744 kgJ

Q

, then the calculated values of the variation

of albedo are represented on the Fig. 11. The rate of rising of albedo

is 10-5/ 0C. (Fig. 11). The effective temperature Teff of this complex

system atmosphere-Earth respectively is decreasing by module with

the respective increasing of the global average atmospheric

temperature ΔTa. (Fig. 12). The rate of decreasing of the effective

temperature of this complex system atmosphere -Earth is  0.0012 0C

for each 10C rising of the atmospheric temperature.

Fig. 11. The graphic of the dependence ∆A=f(ΔTa)

Fig. 12. The graphic of the dependence |∆Teff|=f(ΔTa)

The outgoing energy of wavelength radiation from atmosphere-

Earth system that is described by the value E[W/m2) shows that are

declining with the increasing of the albedo values of this complex

system. (Fig. 13). The correlational calculations of the Figure 19

show that the proportional coefficient of the linear dependence is

342.5. If the value A which is the independent variable x of this

linear dependence is zero (x=0) then E=342.5 (W/m2) and this case

is exactly the case of "absolute black body". The effective

temperature of this case of "absolute black body" is calculated from

the Stefan-Boltzmann law:

)(78.278

1067.5 5.342

48KTeff 





. The

case when y=0 then albedo A=1 and this is the case of absolute

reflectance of energy. It can be seen from Fig. 13 that if the value of

Albedo is increased by 0.01 then E decreases by 3.42 W/m2. The

same order of the result 3.4 W/m2 is presented by studies [20], [21]

with such statements: "The increasing of albedo by 0.01 leads to the

decreasing of energy by 3.4 W/m2 ".

Fig. 13. The graphic of the dependence E=f(A)

The graphic of the dependence of the values of effective

temperatures as the function of albedo is represented on the Fig. 14.

Fig. 14. The dynamics of the evolution of effective

temperatures with albedo values of Earth-atmosphere complex

system

The analysis of Fig. 14 shows that each increasing of albedo by

0.01, then the temperature decreases by 0,91 oC wich is of the order

1 oC that is presented in the paper [21] as: "It is estimated that the

changing of albedo by 0.01 leads to the change of the temperature

by 1 0C". The similar result of the decreasing of the level of

outgoing longwave radiation is represented on the Fig. 15.

Fig. 15. The evolution of Earth's longwave emission [22]

The decreasing of effective temperatures from Fig. 14 explains

the the cooling of Earth’s upper atmosphere. The cooling of Earth’s

upper atmosphere is also described recently in [23]: „The results

confirmed that rising carbon dioxide levels were the main driving

force cooling the upper atmosphere”. In general, the specific heat

content shows in general what quantity of sun heat is absorbed by

one kilogram of substance for the maintaining of the equilibrium

temperature. For example, when the ground (soil) is the main

component of this unique system, then it is necessary to know what

size of the depth contributes to the absorption of the light. For

example the paper [24] shows that: The penetration into soil,

vegetation, sand and roads or building surface is usually limited to

at most 1 or 2 mm.” In order to know the mass of “dry soil” of

Earth is necessary to know the density of this component. The paper

[25] states that “typical values of the dry or bulk density of most

soil vary within the range of 1.1-1.6 g/cm3”. The radius of Earth is r

= 6371 km and considering that the “dry soil” is only 30% of the

total area of Earth, then:

)/(104,143,0 332 mkgdr 



; d is

the thickness of penetration of sunlight inside of the soil (d=1,5

(mm))

)(10.592,10701400.10.5,1.10.)6371.(14,3.4.3,0

)/(104,143,0

12362

332

mkgdr









This is the mass of “dry soil” of Earth. A lot of Sun energy is

absorbed by Oceans. The paper [46] states that: “The depth of

Ocean of 700 meters has a heat content of about 160·10 21 Joule in

2020”. Considering that 70% of geographical area is occupied by

Oceans, then the mass of Ocean that has such heat content is:

0,7.4.3,14.(6,371)2.1012.1000.700=2498,05.1017=2,5.1020 (kg).

Then the heat content of Ocean is:

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

)/(640

)(10.25,0 )(10.160 21

21 kgJ

Q

. The mass of Earh’s atmosphere

air is 5,148.10 18 (kg). The paper [4] states that 60% of heat from

the atmosphere is absorbed by the Oceans. Then: 0,6.Q=160.10 21

(J) and the value Q is Q=160.10 21 (J)/0,6=266,67.10 21 (J). Only 0,4

remains inside of the atmosphere. It means 106,67.10 21 (J) in the

atmosphere. Then, it is possible to calculate the variation of the

temperature of the atmosphere by calorimetrical expression:

CTTmc air 0

21 5,20

10.148,5.1005 10.67,106

..10.67,106 

. The

average Earth’s latent heat of this unique system Air-Earth ground

can be re-calculated by the above calorimetrical

expression:

)/(67,20720

10.148,5 10.67,106 18

21 kgJ

air















. The obtained

result by graphical method with the application of the notion of

albedo is 18744,04(J/kg). The error is 1976,63 (J/kg). The relative

error is:

%5,9%100.

67,2072063,1976 



that is admissible and

allowing to validate the obtained results of the specific latent heat of

the unique system Earth ground-atmospheric air. The heat content

of “dry soil” is calculated as

)(10.6,642320.10.10.18,321 15312 JQsoil 

. The specific latent heat

of the soil is

)/(20

)(10.18,321 )(10.6,6423 12

15 kgkJ

soil















and is

coincident of the order of the air. The specific latent heat value

could be a criterion for the stability and balance of ecosystems. If

the value fluctuates widely from the average value of 20 (kJ/kg)

then it could be a criterion for the instability of ecosystems with

harmful effects on ecosystem populations. The temperature that

varies due to the anthropogenic green house effect can lead to a

considerable variation of this value of the specific latent heat.

Conclusions

The albedo value of the unique system is a criterion of stability

of ecosystems. Regarding this parameter is important to note that

this term is used for the full atmosphere-Earth system. It is observed

that with the increase of the atmospheric temperature due to of the

green house effect the albedo value of this system increases. The

empirical expression of albedo which is obtained in this study

depends on the temperature of the atmosphere, the Earth's latent

specific heat content, the amounts of the masses of the decline in

oxygen and of the accumulation of carbon dioxide. The respective

wavelengths of ongoing longwave radiation are increasing with the

increasing of albedo values. This is shown by the example of upper

atmosphere when it is cooling by the increasing of greenhouse

pollutants. The practical importance of the suggested method

consists in the application of the quantitative calculation of the

effective temperature for various geographical regions by the

known value of the emitted energy which is measured by technical

means. In its turn, the measured value of the energy by technical

means of the thermal radiation of the Earth (W/m2) allows

calculating the albedo values for the respective geographical place

and then can be compared with the real albedo that can be measured

by technical means. It is clear that the values of effective

temperature, thermal radiation energy and albedo vary from one

geographical location to another. Beside the albedo value, another

important parameter as the specific latent heat of the unique system

Earth-atmosphere was described. This quantitative relation of the

effective temperature can be successfully applied to the process of

measuring the thermal energy (W/m2) emitted by the respective

geographical place.

References

1. XIANXIAN, Y., CHANGHUIZI, N., YIFEI, B., &

SHENGYUAN, Y. (2021). APPLICATION OF ECOLOGICAL

AND ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION CONCEPT IN

URBAN LANDSCAPE PLANNING AND DESIGN. In Journal of

Environmental Protection and Ecology (Vol. 22, Issue 6, pp. 2693–

2700).

2. The importance of the biosphere;

https://www.britannica.com/science/biosphere/The-importance-of-

the-biosphere

3. G.R. North, CLIMATE AND CLIMATE CHANGE |

Greenhouse Effect, in Encyclopedia of Atmospheric Sciences

(Second Edition), 2015

4. PETROV, M. (2021). MAJOR CONTRIBUTION OF

CARBON DIOXIDE EXCESS IN ATMOSPHERE TO THE

GREEN HOUSE EFFECT. In Oxidation Communications (Vol. 44,

Issue 4, pp. 870–907).

5. Measuring the Earth's Albedo,

2019. https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/84499/measuring-

earths-albedo

6. Albedo of the Earth, 2019, http://hyperphysics.phy-

str.gsu.edu/hbase/phyopt/albedo.html

7. Global dimming,

https://www.bbc.co.uk/sn/tvradio/programmes/horizon/dimming_tr

ans.shtml

8. S. Twomey, , The Influence of Pollution on the Shortwave

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0469(1977)034<1149:TIOPOT>2.0.CO;2

9. Han, Qingyuan; Rossow, William B.; Chou, Joyce; Welch,

Ronald M. (1998). "Global Survey of the Relationships of Cloud

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albedo-materials

12. The Sun’s impact on the Earth,

https://public.wmo.int/en/sun%E2%80%99s-impact-earth

13. Climate and climate change, ATM S 211 - Fall 2001

(washington.edu)

14. H.D. Kambezidis Solar Thermal Systems: Components and

Applications, in Comprehensive Renewable Energy, 2012

15. Material Thermal Properties Database Thermal Properties:

Material Thermal Properties Database (ucf.edu)

16. www.quora.com, What is the Relation between density and

specific heat? – Quora

17.ALBEDO AND THE ENERGY BUDGET

(theweatherprediction.com)

18. Harry Baker, "Why do deserts get so cold at night?"

published February 21, 2021, Why do deserts get so cold at night? |

Live Science

19. M. Szurgot, ON THE HEAT CAPACITY OF ASTEROIDS,

SATELLITES AND TERRESTRIAL PLANETS, 43rd Lunar and

Planetary Science Conference (2012)

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and Ronnen Levinson, Radiative forcing and temperature response

to changes in urban albedos and associated CO2 offsets, Lawrence

Berkeley National Laboratory,

https://escholarship.org/uc/item/6kb783gf

21. Nikolai Nikolaevich Zavalishin, "Reasons for Modern

Warming: Hypotheses and Facts ", Journal of Atmospheric Science

Research | Volume 05 | Issue 01 | January 2022

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Sensing, 2018

23. Jeremy Plester, How greenhouse gases are actually cooling

Earth's upper atmosphere, Tue 5 Jan 2021 06.00 GMT, How

greenhouse gases are actually cooling Earth's upper atmosphere |

UK weather | The Guardian

24. Bent Sorensen, “Renewable energy”, Its physics,,

engineering,use, environmental impacts, economy and planning

aspects, III-rd Edition, Elsevier Academic Press.

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“Planning and Evaluation of Irrigation Projects, Methods and

Implementation”, 2017, Elsevier Science.

Technics. Technologies. Education. Safety. 2022. VOL. 1

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