FIRST-YEAR WRITING TOOLKIT: A Guide to Key Skills and Essential Steps PDF Free Download
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FIRST-YEAR WRITING TOOLKIT:
A Guide to Key Skills and Essential
Steps
VERSION 1 2024 Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Introduction and Welcome ......................................................................................................................................... 4
Welcome to your UWG First-Year Writing ToolKit! .............................................................................................. 5
Purpose Statement: Why this handbook? ........................................................................................................... 6
UWG’S Core IMPACT Curriculum ........................................................................................................................ 7
QEP Statement ...................................................................................................................................................... 10
NACE Career Competencies ............................................................................................................................... 11
Glossary of Terms ...................................................................................................................................................... 12
Glossary .................................................................................................................................................................. 13
ACADEMIC WRITING: PRE-WRITING ................................................................................................................... 15
Abstracting Ideas................................................................................................................................................... 16
Hayakawa’s Abstraction Ladder .......................................................................................................................... 17
Annotating The Margins ....................................................................................................................................... 18
Brainstorming ......................................................................................................................................................... 21
Developing Close Reading Skills......................................................................................................................... 23
What is Critical Thinking?..................................................................................................................................... 24
Listing & Looking For Patterns ............................................................................................................................ 25
Outlining ................................................................................................................................................................. 26
How To Outline...By Outlining ............................................................................................................................. 26
Preliminary Thesis Claims .................................................................................................................................... 27
Questions, Questions, and More Questions ...................................................................................................... 29
Information Literacy .............................................................................................................................................. 30
Information Literacy and Core Competencies .................................................................................................. 33
Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education .............................................................................. 33
ACADEMIC WRITING: THE PROCESS ................................................................................................................. 34
What is Rhetoric / Argument?.............................................................................................................................. 35
Analysis and Summary ......................................................................................................................................... 37
Introductions .......................................................................................................................................................... 38
Conclusions ............................................................................................................................................................ 40
Paragraph Development....................................................................................................................................... 41
Integrating Quotations .......................................................................................................................................... 46
Topic Sentences .................................................................................................................................................... 48
Transitions .............................................................................................................................................................. 49
Essay Checklist ...................................................................................................................................................... 50
Metacognitive Processes ..................................................................................................................................... 51
TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 4: Metacognitive Processes .............................................................................. 51
Recursive Revision Versus Editing/Proofreading .............................................................................................. 53
ACADEMIC WRITING: ORGANIZATION & STYLE .............................................................................................. 54
Audience Awareness: Tone and Voice ............................................................................................................... 55
Rhetorical Questions, Informal Language, Colloquialisms .............................................................................. 57
Wordiness/Redundancy........................................................................................................................................ 58
Sentence Variety ................................................................................................................................................... 61
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Sentence Openers ................................................................................................................................................ 64
Formatting Your Paper (MLA, APA) .................................................................................................................... 65
Grammar & Mechanics ............................................................................................................................................. 67
Grammar and Mechanics ..................................................................................................................................... 68
Run-on sentences ................................................................................................................................................. 69
Sentence Fragments ............................................................................................................................................. 70
Subject-verb agreement....................................................................................................................................... 70
Commas.................................................................................................................................................................. 70
Semicolons ............................................................................................................................................................. 72
How to Use Colons ................................................................................................................................................ 72
Verb Tense and Tense Shifts ............................................................................................................................... 73
Parallel Structure ................................................................................................................................................... 74
Modiers ................................................................................................................................................................. 75
Understanding Passive and Active Voice .......................................................................................................... 76
FUN Passive Voice Test: ....................................................................................................................................... 77
Awesome Action Verbs ........................................................................................................................................ 78
Italics ....................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Quotation Marks .................................................................................................................................................... 79
Dashes .................................................................................................................................................................... 79
Parentheses ........................................................................................................................................................... 80
Apostrophes ........................................................................................................................................................... 80
Brackets .................................................................................................................................................................. 80
APPENDIX ................................................................................................................................................................... 82
AAC&U Value Rubrics .......................................................................................................................................... 83
UWG FYW Assessment Tool ............................................................................................................................... 84
Favorite Assignments............................................................................................................................................ 87
Growth Mindset ..................................................................................................................................................... 96
Pre and Post Diagnostics ..................................................................................................................................... 96
Plagiarism, Academic Dishonesty & Excessive Collaboration ...................................................................... 101
Helpful Links ......................................................................................................................................................... 103
Acknowledgements ................................................................................................................................................. 104
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Introduction and Welcome
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Welcome to your UWG First-Year Writing ToolKit!
We have designed it to support you not just in ENGL 1101 and 1102, but throughout your academic
journey (and maybe even beyond). Inside you will nd a bounty of resources that will help you become a
better writer and critical thinker, and they will take you through all of the stages of writing an essay: from
the planning stage (brainstorming, outlining, developing your thesis) to the initial drafting phase (gathering
evidence, evaluating claims, revising) to the nal stage (editing and proofreading).
If this sounds like a lot of stages to you, that’s because it is! Writing an essay involves so much more than
just drafting a few pages, reading over them, and then hitting the “submit” button. With your First-Year
Writing courses and this ToolKit, you’ll learn to become a better writer and thinker through recursive
revision – cultivating an idea, fleshing it out, polishing it according to feedback, and editing carefully until
the nal product bears out your thinking and ideas.
The process is, in fact, a lot like the progression of the Wole illustration you see below. Our artist, Rayne,
started with a rough sketch based on our description of what we were looking for (much like your
professors will give you a list of assignment requirements and guidelines). When she presented it to us, we
offered feedback and suggestions to make the image even more specic to our needs. From there, Rayne
went back to the literal and gurative drawing board, making changes – adding strokes, shifting colors –
before arriving at the nished product you see on the rst “page” of this ToolKit.
We encourage you to approach your writing in
much the same way. Remember that writing is
a process: It may begin with even the roughest
of outlines, and it will necessitate careful
consideration of the feedback you receive; it
will also require you to engage with that
feedback and revise, then revise again…and
maybe again! Perhaps most signicantly, each
time you engage in the writing process –
regardless of the class or the context – you will
continue to see that improvement. There really
is no limit!
If you take the time to go through those steps,
however, not only will your nished product be
a tremendous improvement from those early
stages, but you yourself will be a better writer
and critical thinker. And that’s the goal!
Welcome!
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Purpose Statement: Why this handbook?
The University of West Georgia’s First-Year Writing program has long been committed to maintaining low-
to no-textbook costs; part of this motivation stemmed from the ever-rising costs of published style guides
and handbooks. One of the ways that we made this work was through sharing resources that we’ve
created with one another on your behalf. From this stemmed the impetus to gather those resources
together, organize them in a student-friendly format, and embed them in every First-Year Writing student’s
CourseDen.
Why these courses?
UWG’s First-Year Writing courses (ENGL 0999, 1101, and 1102) provide students with the fundamental
communication skills they need to successfully navigate not just other core courses, but major and upper-
division classes as well.
In fact, the skills are so important that every student in the University System of Georgia engages in a
General Education curriculum – Core IMPACTS – that provides a solid foundation for life, learning, and
careers, and helps you build momentum to fulll your academic, personal, and professional aspirations.
See the next page for more information about core IMPACTS
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UWG’S Core IMPACT Curriculum
Core IMPACTS introduces the different ways we have of knowing the world and connects them to the big
questions that will drive our future and the essential skills you need to succeed!
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The list below denes the ORIENTING
QUESTION, the LEARNING OUTCOMES,
and the CAREER READY COMPETENCIES
for each of the seven core impact areas.
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
Institutional Priority (Institution):
Orienting Question: How does my institution help me to
navigate the world?
Learning Outcome(s): Students will demonstrate the ability to
think critically and solve problems related to academic
priorities at their institution.
Career-Ready Competencies: Critical Thinking, Teamwork,
Time Management
Mathematics & Quantitative Skills (Mathematics):
Orienting Question: How do I measure the world?
Learning Outcome(s): Students will apply mathematical and computational knowledge to interpret,
evaluate, and communicate quantitative information using verbal, numerical, graphical, or symbolic forms.
Career-Ready Competencies: Information Literacy, Inquiry and Analysis, Problem-Solving, Teamwork
Political Science & U.S. History (Citizenship):
Orienting Question: How do I prepare for my responsibilities as an engaged citizen?
Learning Outcome(s): Students will demonstrate knowledge of the history of the United States, the
history of Georgia, and the provisions and principles of the United States Constitution and the Constitution
of Georgia.
Career-Ready Competencies: Critical Thinking, Intercultural Competence, Persuasion
Arts, Humanities, & Ethics (Humanities):
Orienting Question: How do I interpret the human experience through creative, linguistic, and
philosophical works?
Learning Outcome(s): Students will effectively analyze and interpret the meaning, cultural signicance,
and ethical implications of literary/philosophical texts or of works in the visual/performing arts.
Career-Ready Competencies: Ethical Reasoning, Information Literacy, Intercultural Competence
Communicating in Writing (Writing):
Orienting Question: How do I write effectively in different contexts?
Learning Outcome(s):
• Communicate effectively in writing, demonstrating clear organization and structure, using
appropriate grammar and writing conventions.
• Appropriately acknowledge the use of materials from original sources.
• Adapt written communications to purpose and audience.
• Analyze and draw informed inferences from written texts
Career-Ready Competencies: Critical Thinking, Information Literacy, Persuasion
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Technology and Mathematics (STEM):
Orienting Question: How do I ask scientic questions or use data, mathematics, or technology to
understand the universe?
Learning Outcome(s): Students will use the scientic method and laboratory procedures or mathematical
and computational methods to analyze data, solve problems, and explain natural phenomena.
Career-Ready Competencies: Inquiry and Analysis, Problem-Solving, Teamwork, Information Literacy
(for Mathematics)
Social Sciences (Social Sciences):
Orienting Question: How do I understand human experiences and connections?
Learning Outcome(s): Students will effectively analyze the complexity of human behavior and how
historical, economic, political, social, or geographic relationships develop, persist, or change.
Career-Ready Competencies: Intercultural Competence, Perspective-Taking, Persuasion
The Core IMPACTS Your Future
Core IMPACTS courses focus on developing skills and competencies crucial to your post-college
success.
Each Core IMPACTS course you take will include embedded Career-Ready Competencies – things like
critical thinking, inquiry and analysis, persuasion, teamwork and problem solving – that help you build
essential skills that are highly valued in the workforce and in central to being prepared to lead in a
complex, interconnected and changing world.
And So Does UWG’s
Quality Enhancement Plan!
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QEP Statement
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NACE Career Competencies
Established in 1956, the National Association of Colleges and Employers (NACE) is a professional association that connects
nearly 17,000 college career services professionals, university relations and recruiting professionals, and the business solution
providers that serve this community.
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Glossary of Terms
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Glossary
Active Reading
Reading is in many ways better than conversation, because, like writing, it is recursive: you can revisit a
text over and over, whereas the spoken word, unless recorded, disappears into the past, often along with
part—or all—of the message the speaker was attempting to convey. When you read, you can move
forward and backward in time, making sure you’ve captured every nuance. You should read the text more
than once, rst for a general understanding, and then for a detailed analysis; your rst read-through may
raise questions only a second reading can reveal the answers to.1
Annotation
To jot down questions of the text within the margins, to underline, highlight, or summarize–all with a view
toward responding to and engaging with the text.
Argument/Persuasion
Although some instructors might think of terms like “persuasion” and “argument” as very similar, others
might differentiate between these two terms. Although both persuasion and argument both ask the
student to create an essay that will change the opinion of one who feels diametrically opposed to the
student writer on a topic, argument often relies solely on reasons and evidence. Persuasive writing tends
to also incorporate emotional or value-driven reasoning.2
Claim
A proposition or assertion which you must prove with evidence and analysis. Think of it this way: Claims in
your thesis sentences need to be effective in order for your readers to read. Effective claims have three
qualities: They address important, relevant problems. Readers will think that the claim might help them
address a problem they care about. They are contestable. That is, readers will wonder whether the claim
is true.They are debatable. That is, readers will think that the claim can be proved or disproved.
A signicant claim answers a question that readers care about.3
Cogency
Clear and effective presentation of your ideas.
Coherency
Logical consistency in your reasoning and in your writing.
1 Active Reading. Authored by: Brogan Sullivan. Provided by: Writing Commons. License: CC BY-NC-ND: Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives
2 Venus, Wesley and King, Mark, "The Gordon State College Writing Handbook" (2016).English Open Textbooks. 7.
https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/7
3 Understanding Claims. Revision and adaptation of the page Introduction to Supporting Claims at
https://courses.lumenlearning.com/wm-englishcomposition1/chapter/outcome-supporting-claims-1-6/ which is a revision and
adaptation of the page Signicant Claims at http://www.groundsforargument.org/drupal/claims/signicant/basic-principle. Authored
by: Susan Oaks. Provided by: Empire State College, SUNY OER Services. Project: College Writing. License: CC BY-NC-SA:
Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike
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Context
The circumstances or surroundings in which something exists or happens that helps to clarify meaning.
Critical Thinking
Critical thinking is the process of objective analysis and evaluation of data to form a rational judgment. In
this way, “critical thinking” differs from hunches, instinct, and one’s “gut” reaction. In fact, hunches can be
looked at as opposites to critical thinking.4
Diction
Your writing voice or tone.
Logic
The reasoning behind your ideas.
Metacognition
Thinking about your thinking, such as how you study, learn, and adapt your habits to new ways of
understanding.
Patchwriting
When you copy words, phrases, sentences, paragraphs, etc. from another source and change only a
word or a few words, replace words with synonyms, remove some of the words or change the order of
words, phrases and such and pass it off as your own invention.
Plagiarism
Using the words or ideas of someone or something else as your own. In other words, you are attempting
to pass off another’s intellectual property as your own (link to module).
Textual Analysis
Taking apart the words, phrases, connotations, etc. of the text to examine not necessarily “what” the
author says but “how” it was said or what it means, its “significance” to larger concepts.
Thesis
Your central claim, assertion, interpretation for which you will launch an argument to persuade your
reader.
Topic Sentence
The first sentence of each paragraph that sets forth the controlling idea or concept of the paragraph.
Syntax
Word choice and order in your sentences
4 Venus, Wesley and King, Mark, "The Gordon State College Writing Handbook" (2016).English Open Textbooks. 7.
https://oer.galileo.usg.edu/english-textbooks/7
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ACADEMIC WRITING:
PRE-WRITING
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Abstracting Ideas
As you engage with a text and learn to read critically to discern the big ideas behind the surface level of
the article, book, story, lm, or advertisement, etc., you will instinctively formulate your own interpretation
of the concepts. Remember, though, you must rst do the difcult work of close reading, annotating,
listing, posing questions, etc.
To demonstrate how you extend your thinking outward, that is taking those bits and pieces of information
you have gathered to widen the scope of the idea and apply it to the world at large, which is what you will
be asked to do in analytical writing, you will employ the abstraction model.
In the discussion below, you will see how the concept of abstraction works on both the word level
(symbolic representation) and on the concept level (theoretical perception).
Level of Abstraction
The ladder of abstraction is a model used to illustrate how language can range from concrete to abstract.
As we follow a concept up the ladder of abstraction, more and more of the “essence” of the original object
is lost or left out, which leaves more room for interpretation, which can lead to misunderstanding.
This process of abstracting, of leaving things out, allows us to communicate more effectively because it
serves as a shorthand that keeps us from having a completely unmanageable language lled with millions
of words—each referring to one specic thing (Hayakawa & Hayakawa, 1990).
But it requires us to use context and often other words to generate shared meaning. Some words are
more directly related to a concept or idea than others. If I asked you to go take a picture of a book, you
could do that. If I asked you to go and take a picture of “work,” you couldn’t because work is an abstract
word that was developed to refer to any number of possibilities from the act of writing a book, to repairing
an air conditioner, to fertilizing an organic garden.
You could take a picture of any of those things, but you can’t take a picture of “work.”
See below for a discussion that moves from the tangible object to the idea it represents.
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Hayakawa’s Abstraction Ladder5
(Revised)
In the following list, you will nd increasingly abstract ideas. Starting at the bottom, is the most concrete
idea and the paragraph at the top is the most abstract.
Imagine a ladder with several rungs, each representing a level of abstraction.
Top Rung (Most Abstract): If you move further up the abstraction ladder, you will see that we can
no longer experience the Turkey in a sensory manner; we are not tracing the ideas behind the emblem
itself to consider how Thanksgiving turkey can represent community and family. It can also begin to take
on a more gurative meaning as a symbol for a national holiday that is replete with historical
associations—both good and bad.
Just Below the Top Rung: Begin to move away from the
tangible sensory experience of the Turkey itself to all the ideas,
memories, reflections associated with it, and you will see how it
becomes an identier of a specic holiday, a celebration:
Thanksgiving Dinner. Which is a time when most people come
together to express gratitude and thanks.
Next Rung Up: We could say that turkey is poultry, a
source of food and nourishment and the centerpiece of a big
dinner, usually. It is also, however, a symbolic representation of
something else, something you cannot touch or smell.
One Rung Up: Think of that turkey as a symbol that allows
us to communicate many ideas associated with it, whether we are
in its presence or not.
Bottom Rung (Most Concrete): The tangible thing that
you can experience with your senses. For example, think of a
Turkey. You can eat, smell, touch, or otherwise encounter this bird
with your senses.
You can see the semanticist S. I. Hayakawa’s classic example of the abstraction ladder with the turkey
example above. At the lowest level, we have something that is very concrete. At this level we are actually
in the moment of experiencing the stimuli that is coming in through our senses.
5 Adapted from S. I. Hayakawa and Alan R. Hayakawa, Language in Thought and Action, 5th ed. (San Diego, CA: Harcourt Brace, 1990), 85.
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We perceive the actual “thing,” which is the “turkey” in front of us (either in person or as an image). This is
concrete, because it is unmediated, meaning it is actually the moment of experience. As we move up a
level, we give the experience a name—we are looking at a “Thanksgiving turkey.”
So now, instead of the direct experience with the “thing” in front of us, we have given the thing a name,
which takes us one step away from the direct experience to the use of a more abstract symbol. Now we
can talk and think about the turkey even when we aren’t directly experiencing her. At the next level, the
word turkey now lumps itself in with other poultry that share similar characteristics. As we go on up the
ladder, turkey becomes poultry, poultry becomes a symbol, and then a symbol becomes a celebration.
Note that it becomes increasingly difcult to dene the meaning of the symbol as we go up the ladder and
how with each step we lose more of the characteristics of the original concrete experience.
However, this process of abstraction—that is, the act of moving away from the obvious, tangible
representations to ferreting out the idea behind the representations—can aid us in formulating a response
to a writing prompt. If you have conducted a close reading, created lists, answered the reporter’s
questions, established some theoretical implications and real-world applications of your discovery, you are
now demonstrating your understanding of the signicance of your selected concept as you enact those
increasingly complex levels of learning.
Annotating The Margins
As you progress throughout college and into your professional life, it’s going to become increasingly
important to remember what you read. You might say, “Well, it was important for me to remember what I
read in high school, because I was tested on the material and even had pop quizzes.” But that’s a different
type of reading—you were reading to take a test or quiz, so you remembered the material temporarily. Do
you still remember things you read in high school? How can you change the way you read now, in college,
so that going forth you will be able to retain the things you learn from others’ writings? By annotating the
margins of what you read, you can become a more active reader.
Now, you may be saying, “Annotation—that reminds me of the annotated bibliography I’ve done before,
where I’ve written two-paragraph annotations for each source I’ve found for a paper.” Actually, annotations
for a bibliography and annotations for the margins are similar: either way, you’re summarizing key points
so that you’ll remember them later.
So how do annotations work as a reader’s tool? They serve as memory devices. When you return to a text
you’ve already read—say, to locate evidence for a research paper—and that text contains your
annotations, you’ll be able to quickly identify (1) key points that the author made and (2) bits of information
that, when reading the piece for the rst time, you considered particularly useful.
As a student and as a professional, you want to learn how to read texts and take notes that are not just
denitions of key terms (though key terms might be phrases you include in annotations); rather, you want
to learn how to take notes that help jog your memory about larger concepts. Sometimes, you may have to
read the piece twice before you grasp the larger concepts. Re-reading material is not a sign of stupidity;
even your professors have to re-read texts!
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Only annotate when you’ve determined larger concepts or key terms—or, if you want to take notes while
reading, do so in pencil. You may also want to connect annotations with underlined or highlighted material.
For example, if you nd a sentence that points to the author’s tone, you may want to highlight or underline
that sentence (or select words from the sentence) and then connect the sentence to a key word like
“sarcastic.”
Now let’s turn to the process of writing annotations. It’s helpful to use two different annotations: after
reading a page, on the top of that page write a key term or phrase that captures the material or most of the
material on the page; after reading a paragraph, do the same thing for that paragraph—and write the
phrase or term on the side margin. Take a look at the following paragraph and determine where you might
place your annotation—and, more importantly, what would your annotation say?
Imagine that you enter a parlor. You come late. When you arrive, others have long preceded you, and they
are engaged in a heated discussion, a discussion too heated for them to pause and tell you exactly what it
is about. In fact, the discussion had already begun long before any of them got there, so that no one
present is qualied to retrace for you all the steps that had gone before. You listen for a while, until you
decide that you have caught the tenor of the argument; then you put in your oar. Someone answers; you
answer him; another comes to your defense; another aligns himself against you, to either the
embarrassment or gratication of your opponent, depending upon the quality of your ally’s assistance.
However, the discussion is interminable. The hour grows late, you must depart. And you do depart, with
the discussion still vigorously in progress.6
So, we have here a paragraph (which has one main idea), though that main idea could be interpreted in
different ways. The gist of it is, though, that doing research is like entering into a conversation: you want to
know what’s been said before you so that you don’t sound silly by saying something that’s already been
said. So, after reading this paragraph, I might write “research as conversation” on one of the side margins.
That way, when I return to this paragraph, I will know the gist of it (and perhaps even remember details)
without having to re-read the entire paragraph.
For two terric examples of annotation, keep reading!
Suggestions for Types of Information to Emphasize through
Annotation:
• Thesis
• Purpose
• Tone
• Main points and/or sub-points
• References to other sources that keep appearing
• Key terms/concepts
• Other information that you nd particularly important
6Burke, Kenneth. “Burke’s ‘Unending Conversation’ Metaphor.” Texas Tech University. Texas Tech U, 18 May 2011. Web. 22 May 2011.
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Examples of How to Annotate a Text
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Brainstorming
Brainstorming is a great way to allow your brain to jump from idea to idea and make connections
between those ideas. We are all associative thinkers which means that when we consider one idea or
memory, our brain automatically then wanders and associates that one concept with another, seemingly
randomly. You experience that type of thinking daily. For example, if you were to right now begin to think
about your best experience in high school or at a family event or with a beloved pet, your mind will begin
to pop in various aspects of that experience, and soon you will begin to realize that your thinking has taken
an entirely different path. In other words, our thinking is not a linear process. That is brainstorming!
Brainstorming Strategies
• As you embark upon these strategies, make sure to return several times to assess your ideas,
to associate what you have noted down with other ideas you may have discussed in your
other classes.
• You can also connect by way of opposites or similarities.
• Think of it like this: The opposite of this idea is...think of an example from culture (music, lm,
Tik Tok or social media, fashion, a discussion from another class)
• Another idea just like this...think of an example from culture (music, personal experience,
observation, etc)
• Someone who disagreed with this idea might say...
That is brainstorming!
You can use this way of free thinking to generate ideas for your writing projects. Later, you will learn about
outlining, but for now, consider two ways to brainstorm: freewriting and clustering.
Freewriting
Freewriting means simply that: write without constraint, discipline, or a plan. After reading your writing
prompt aloud to yourself, open a blank Word.docx, turn off your screen, and then type whatever comes to
mind. Do not attempt to make sense of what you are writing; just write down your ideas in whatever
fashion they appear. If it does not make sense, that is fine for now.
Do this for five minutes, and then turn on your screen to read what you’ve recorded down. Are there any
big concepts or impressions or responses you see? These are the larger ideas your mind is generating. If
you do not find a topic idea you would like to pursue, stop and try again later.
On your second (or third, for that matter) pass, however, take a different approach: write down all the
reasons you did or did not like the text (ad, film, article, story, etc.). Be specific about your responses to
that text and jot down examples. Soon, you will see patterns begin to emerge that you can pursue for
further inquiry.
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Clustering
Clustering is another strategy to generate good ideas for your writing assignment. Now, you are going to
jot down your thinking, but you will do so in graphic or mapping format, like this:
Main
Idea
Questions?
Another
idea: This
makes me
think of . . .
Examples:TV
shows, music,
movies, computer
games
Significance?
Why should
we care?
Where else
does this
idea appear
in the text?
On the
other hand .
. . think in
terms of
opposites
What is the
point of this
text? What
is the author
trying to
convey?
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Developing Close Reading Skills
How to Interrogate a Text
What Does “Close Reading” Mean?
When instructors ask students to perform a close reading of a text, they usually assert that “everything”
students see is a “text.”
For example, you have all seen artwork that from afar appears to be a series of lovely brush strokes, but
when you look at it close up, you discover that the art is actually made up of tiny pieces of paper or sand
or even other materials. (To see this for yourself, just Google the artist Vik Muniz and look at some of his
artwork. You will be extremely surprised at his “sugar” paintings or pictures he created from bits and
pieces torn from magazines or even discarded, landll refuse!)
To take this concept to the composition classroom, recall that you will write about your interpretation of
texts selected for you by your professor. Before you can formulate a response to a text, however, you must
rst understand the text under scrutiny. Therefore, your instructor will guide you as you look at passages
of a text (or lm or visual/graphic) to discern the intricate parts that make up the whole so you can then
derive a more substantive comprehension of the artifact itself.
In other words, when instructors ask students to perform a “close reading,” they are asking students to put
on a special pair of glasses, to look through a magnifying lens at the elements within a text in order to
arrive at a deeper meaning.
As you read a passage, ask yourself the following questions:
• What is the tone, the attitude of this text?
• What type of words (slang, formal, colloquial, scientic, musical, etc.) does the author use?
• How do these words make you feel?
• What about page breaks or visuals?
• What are the connotations of the words the author uses (do the words call to mind nature or
connement, for example?)?
• How long are the sentences, the phrases, the paragraphs? Are they too dense or short and
choppy?
• Can you identify a problem, a solution, a lesson?
• Do you see any repetitions (words, colors, images, etc.)?
• How does this passage or vignette connect to other ideas, concepts, or passages in the same
text?
Once you begin to answer these and other questions, you will be performing a close reading and will be
able to explicate a segment of the text. When you then combine your close reading exercises of a specic
article, book, novel, lm, advertisement, you will soon discover you have acquired a meaningful, holistic,
and text-based interpretation of the piece.
24
What is Critical Thinking?
Critical thinking is a way of reflecting on what you are reading, hearing, or experiencing. It means that you
are engaging with the ideas, the author, the text, the context, etc., in a way that:
• Causes you to identify potential meanings
• Causes you to pose questions
• Causes you to associate with other texts or experiences
• Causes you to create patterns of understanding between ideas and concepts
• Causes you to draw conclusions
• Causes you to consider the signicance of the idea or concept
• Causes you to extend the idea to other contexts, cultures, people, etc.
• Causes you to trace the implications of the idea or concept
Critical thinking is a way that you intellectually explore the world around you and make decisions based
upon those.
If someone were to tell you that the moon is made of green cheese, you might laugh at rst, but then you
would offer a response that the moon has been proven not to be made of green cheese because (and
here is where your critical thinking skills come into play):
• United States astronauts have walked on the moon
• NASA and other countries have sent ships to land on the moon and documented the landings
• NASA possesses rocks and other specimens that prove the moon is actually made up of other
elements
• Data visualization demonstrates the phases, rotation, and gravitational forces of the moon
Why is Critical Thinking Important in This Class?
When you think about ideas critically, you can then begin to:
• Absorb ideas and information effectively
• Create an informed and reasoned response to another’s ideas or argument
• Express yourself logically and clearly
• Provide an unbiased argument
Ultimately, learning how to establish yourself as an engaged and informed reader and thinker will
demonstrate your abilities to judge ethically and substantively in any circumstance in life or in any career
you may choose.
25
Listing & Looking For Patterns
You have read about how to read closely, annotate a text, and
consider all manner of questions as you critically engage with the
readings and viewings assigned in your course.
Here is another strategy to help you derive meaning from a text:
observing the details and then creating a comprehensive list as a
brainstorming tool.
When you read, make sure to jot down the ideas that you come
across in grocery list fashion, like this list that describes the little
graphic above:
• The wolf is a costume
• He is wearing a t-shirt
• His head is blue, and he’s looking straight at the camera
• He is standing aggressively, with his chest pushed out
• He seems like he wants to bite the red pom-pom
• He’s also drooling
• He appears to be in a stadium, surrounded by people
Now that you have a list, you could formulate an idea about the wolf, such as this:
This wolf is in an aggressive stance because he is obviously under stress and wants to protect himself
from too many overbearing fans.
Or you could interpret like this:
This wolf is a funny mascot, determined to ham it up for the audience by pretending to eat a
pom-pom to ensure everyone will have a good time at the football game.
Now you know how to create a list that records facts and impressions—simply one more way to engage
with the text and formulate a response—you can extrapolate the possible meanings behind your
observations.
As you think about this mascot, you might even extend your thinking outward to consider how mascots in
our culture generate a sense of community and fellowship, how they become a symbol for uniting in a
common purpose and how those mascots can create a sense of belonging that translates across all
manner of demographics and ideologies.
26
Outlining
How To Outline...By Outlining 7
Everyone tells you to outline before you begin your paper. But what exactly is an outline and why do you
need one? An outline is a method of brainstorming or pre-writing that helps you organize your thoughts
and plot out your paper. The structure of an outline forces you to begin to group your ideas and allows you
to physically see the development of your arguments. Hopefully, the process of outlining will become
clearer after this example outlines...an outline!
1. Introduction
A. Intro paragraphs introduce your topic and set up your argument, or thesis.
B. Introductions are often described as an inverted triangle (start broad, then narrow down
to thesis).
C. Include your thesis, or what you think might be your thesis, here. Typically outlining
occurs in the prewriting stages of a paper, so you don't have to have your argument
completely fleshed out already. A thesis develops (and often changes!) during the writing
process.
2. Body Paragraph 1 (rst topic sentence goes here)
A. The rst body paragraph should be about your rst argument or the rst part of your
thesis.
i. Again, outlining is a form of prewriting, so if you don't have your topic sentences
written out yet, simply having the subject of your rst argument is ne, too.
B. Include examples of textual evidence that you'll use to support your argument.
i. Sometimes just listing passages or important quotes relevant to your rst
argument or topic can help spur brainstorming and later provide material for your
paper.
a. Include any analysis of the above passages/quotes.
C. List other ideas or interesting points that might strengthen, deepen, or complicate your
rst argument.
i. You don't have to integrate all these ideas into your nal paper. Jotting them down
now might prove useful later on when you're writing.
3. Subsequent Body Paragraphs
A. You can outline the rest of your body paragraphs in the same way as the format listed
above for Body Paragraph 1.
i. Each following paragraph should include its own topic sentence.
a. Your body paragraphs should all be connected; the arguments presented
in your body paragraphs should all build off of one another.
B. While you're outlining the order of your body paragraphs and arguments, they are no way
set in stone. An outline is simply a method of organizing your thoughts. Don't let the
structure of the outline constrain your creativity and ideas!
7 Authored by Caroline Lam. Provided by Student Learning Center, University of California, Berkeley. ©2007 UC Regents. This work is licensed under a Creative
Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivs 3.0 Unported License. https://slc.berkeley.edu/writing-worksheets-and-other-writing-resources/how-outline
27
4. Conclusion
A. Just as a thesis includes the signicance of your argument, conclusions present why your
paper is signicant and why it is worth reading.
i. However, it can be difcult to project what you will include in your conclusion
when you're still prewriting.
B. You can use the conclusion to talk about larger issues or other ideas that are present in
your argument, but that you didn't have time to discuss within your paper.
Remember, this is just an example of how you might outline your paper. Outlines are a way of
brainstorming and prewriting and there is no one, correct way of writing one. Oftentimes, writers use
different prewriting methods, such as creating flow charts or simply free writing. An outline can be a useful
tool in terms of organizing your ideas; however, don't feel pressured to t all of your ideas in the structure
of one.
Preliminary Thesis Claims
Prewriting – Laying the Foundation for Successful Writing8
Prewriting refers to all of the work you do before beginning to write. This article explores the dispositions
and prewriting strategies writers employ to write more efciently and with greater clarity and impact.
Case studies, interviews, and observations of writers at work have found that prewriting involves balancing
both intuitive, creative activities with critical, analytical strategies. For instance, during prewriting you are
wise to listen your 'felt sense' - your embodied awareness of what you want to say. And, during prewriting,
you are also wise to engage in more straightforward, cognitive processes such as engaging in outlining,
drafting a document planner, or engaging in rhetorical analysis.
Prewriting challenges writers to balance intuitive, creative processes with analytical, cognitive processes.
What is Prewriting?
Prewriting refers to
• All of the work a writer engages in before beginning to write
• The rst stage of the writing process
• A liminal space — the space between thinking about working on a project and actually
beginning to write
Writers have many ways of engaging in prewriting, based on their individual preferences and the
discourse conventions of their audience. Interviews and case studies of writers at work have found that
during prewriting writers engage in a variety of dispositions and strategies:
8 Prewriting—Laying the Foundation for Successful writing. Provided by Writing Commons. Copyright © 2024 Writing Commons LLC. All Rights Reserved.
https://writingcommons.org/section/planning/prewriting/
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Dispositions
During prewriting, writers embrace intellectual openness. They interview stakeholders, consider
counterarguments and review the peer-reviewed literature on the topic.
During prewriting, writers adopt a growth mindset. They privilege the believing game over the doubting
game.
Writers report they make composing decisions based on their “intuition,” “inner voice,” or “subconscious”
Some writers believe the subconscious is a source of ideas, creativity and inspiration. Some believe
dreams are a window into the subconscious.
According to Sondra Perl (1980), a professor of English and theorist in writing studies writers begin
composing when they have a felt sense of what they want to say:
When writers are given a topic, the topic itself evokes a felt sense in them. This topic calls forth
images, words, ideas, and vague fuzzy feelings that are anchored in the writer’s body. What is
elicited, then, is not solely the product of a mind but of a mind alive in a living, sensing
body…..When writers pause, when they go back and repeat key words, what they seem to be
doing is waiting, paying attention to what is still vague and unclear. They are looking to their felt
experience, and waiting for an image, a word, a phrase to emerge that captures the sense they
embody….Usually, when they make the decision to write, it is after they have a dawning
awareness that something has clicked, that they have enough of a sense that if they begin with a
few words heading in a certain direction, words will continue to come which will allow them to
flesh out the sense they have. (Perl 1980, p. 365)
Synonyms
The terms planning, prewriting, and invention are sometimes used interchangeably, yet they each carry
distinct meanings:
• Prewriting is a subset of planning, focusing more on the initial stages of idea generation,
brainstorming, and exploration of thoughts before formal writing begins.
• Planning typically refers to the overall process of organizing ideas and structuring a writing
piece, encompassing the selection of topics, determination of purpose, and arrangement of
content.
• Invention is often associated specically with the creative aspect of prewriting, where writers
devise innovative ideas, concepts, and arguments.
29
Questions, Questions, and More Questions
You may have heard the phrase, “The Reporter’s Questions,” but what are those, and of what use are they
in the composition classroom?
When you perform a close reading or seek to analyze a text as you formulate your response, you will need
to provide background in your own mind to assist with contextualizing the concept or idea. Therefore, as
you read, view, annotate, and take notes, think about answering the following questions in detailed fashion:
Who?
• Who are the individuals involved?
• What are the connections between them? Between us?
• Who else might be affected?
When?
• When did the events occur? Are they still occurring?
• What are the other time factors (timeline, causes, effects, etc.)?
• When might the issue/problem be resolved?
• When might someone nd out about this issue?
Where?
• Where are all the locations and places mentioned?
• How are those locations and places important, impacted, involved?
• Might there be other considerations or outcomes based on locale?
The big
idea
Who?
When?
Where?
How?
Why?
What?
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How?
• How did this idea come to light?
• How did the occurrences take place?
• How might there be a relationship or connection between this question and the others?
Why?
• Why does this concept/occurrence/event/idea concern us?
• Why does the concept recur?
• Why did it happen?
• Why might the idea be present in this text?
What?
• What might be the conclusion or resolution?
• What might be the effect of this idea or concept?
• What might be the reason, cause, or motivation behind the idea or event?
• What might others think or say in response?
Once you think you have exhausted your answers to these reporter’s questions, look for ways to draw
inferences and connections between your answers and the larger, more theoretical ideas that govern
human existence, such as:
• What are the predominant ideologies at work in this text?
• How does the emerging concept deal with the complexity of human existence?
• Why do these answers indicate that the author entertains a nihilistic (or humanistic or
hedonistic, etc.) worldview?
• How does the text expose established power structures, dominant mindsets, eternal truths,
prevailing biases? To what end?
• What are the perceived wisdoms or traditions that might underly motivations?
Now that you have some “big ideas” with which to grapple, you can begin to draw your own conclusions
about the text’s message and meaning, as pertaining to your perception of the work and the world.
Information Literacy
Discerning Quality Information from Noise9
Information Literacy refers to the competencies with locating, evaluating, using, and archiving information.
In order to thrive, much less survive in a global information economy -- an economy where information
functions as a capital good such as money or social influence — you need to be strategic about how you
consume and use information.
As folks enter a new space, perhaps a new country, they engage in acts of information literacy.
9 Authored by Joseph M. Moxley. Information Literacy—Discerning Quality Information from Noise. Provided by Writing Commons. Copyright © 2024 Writing
Commons LLC. All Rights Reserved. https://writingcommons.org/section/information-literacy/
31
What is Information Literacy?
Information Literacy may refer to
• the ability to recognize “when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate
and use the needed information” (American Library Association, 1989)
• “a cluster of interconnected core activities, frameworks” that constitute information
ecosystems (ACRL 2015)
• a subject of study
• Consuming, evaluating, producing, managing, using, and archiving information–these are
topics of ongoing scholarship in information studies, writing studies, and related disciplines.
What is Information?
Information is everything your senses perceive, including visual, auditory, or kinesthetic data.
What is Literacy?
Literacy is the ability to identify, interpret signs, and communicate with signs, using whatever medium or
semiotic system the audience(s) expects you to use.
Synonymous Terms
Information Literacy may also be called
• Data Information Literacy
• Science Communication
• STEM Literacy for Learning.
Why Does Information Literacy Matter?
In his 2009 Presidential Proclamation on Information Literacy, President Barack Obama explained the
necessity for information literacy:
Over the past decade, we have seen a crisis of authenticity emerge. We now live in a world
where anyone can publish an opinion or perspective, whether true or not, and have that opinion
or perspective, whether true or not, and have that opinion amplied within the information
marketplace. At the same time, Americans have unprecedented access to the diverse and
independent sources of information, as well as institutions such as libraries and universities, that
can help separate truth from ction and signal from noise.
In order to thrive, much less survive in a global information economy — an economy where information
functions as a capital good such as money or social influence — you need to be strategic about how you
consume and use information. If you accept what people tell you without engaging in critical literary
practices, such as evaluating the authority, accuracy, and relevance of information, you may
• receive poor grades in school and a loss of clients at work
• be spammed, tricked, or fooled by bad actors
• be uninformed about the best, most relevant information on a topic on a
• make decisions based on emotions rather than reason
• confuse fake news for real news
• make poor decisions, contrary to the decisions you would make if you had engaged in
strategic searching
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By using critical perspectives when consuming, evaluating, or producing information, people develop
competencies that have been conceptualized as “a basic human right in a digital world” (Alexandria
Proclamation 2005).
What Competencies are Associated with Information Literacy?
Information Literacy refers to a cluster of competencies, including the ability
• to recognize when you need information
• to understand the type of information you need
• to know how to search for information
• to know how to interpret information and distinguish fact from opinion, textual debate over
empirical observation
• to know how to engage in the research methods sanctioned by your target audience
• to know how to use and cite information
• to know how to remediate texts in new media.
How can you be sure you’re meeting the core competencies?
• Be conscious of when you need information.
• Learn to adeptly research information to inform and solve problems, entertain, or persuade
• Evaluate information critically (e.g., distinguish fake news from real news).
• Be aware of ethical and unethical uses of information, including plagiarism.
• Weave sources strategically into your text without undermining your purpose or losing your
intended voice or tone.
• Establish the credibility of your sources for your audience. Avoid patchwriting.
• Use the required or expected citation style.
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Information Literacy and Core Competencies
Framework for Information Literacy for Higher Education10
10 Authored by Joseph M. Moxley. Information Literacy—Discerning Quality Information from Noise. Provided by Writing Commons. Copyright © 2024 Writing
Commons LLC. All Rights Reserved. https://writingcommons.org/section/information-literacy/
34
ACADEMIC WRITING:
THE PROCESS
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
35
What is Rhetoric / Argument?
Persuasive Language
Adapted from Lumen Learning on Rhetorical Analysis11
The concept of rhetoric dates back to Ancient Greece. Aristotle argued that rhetoric was a key pillar in the
foundation of education in that it helped facilitate productive discussion and debate.
Rhetoric is simply persuasive language, and all language is persuasive, while argument means a position
you have taken on a subject or question; it is a reasoned and logical stance.
11 Stallman, Richard, and Andrew Davis. “Rhetorical Analysis | English Composition 1.” Courses.lumenlearning.com.
36
RHETORICAL CONCEPTS12
Many people have heard of the rhetorical concepts of logos, ethos, and pathos even if they do not
necessarily know what they fully mean. These three terms, along with kairos and telos, were used by
Aristotle to help explain how rhetoric functions. In ancient Greece, these terms corresponded with basic
components that all rhetorical situations have.
Logos
Logos is frequently translated as some variation of “logic or reasoning,” but it originally referred to the
actual content of a speech and how it was organized. Today, many people may discuss the logos qualities
of a text to refer to how strong the logic or reasoning of the text is. But logos more closely refers to the
structure and content of the text itself. In this resource, logos means “text.”
Ethos
Ethos is frequently translated as some variation of “credibility or trustworthiness,” but it originally referred
to the elements of a speech that reflected on the particular character of the speaker or the speech’s
author. Today, many people may discuss ethos qualities of a text to refer to how well authors portray
themselves. But ethos more closely refers to an author’s perspective more generally. In this resource,
ethos means “author.”
Pathos
Pathos is frequently translated as some variation of “emotional appeal,” but it originally referred to the
elements of a speech that appealed to any of an audience’s sensibilities. Today, many people may discuss
the pathos qualities of a text to refer to how well an author appeals to an audience’s emotions. Pathos as
“emotion” is often contrasted with logos as “reason.” But this is a limited understanding of both pathos
and logos; pathos more closely refers to an audience’s perspective more generally. In this resource,
pathos means “audience.”
Telos
Telos is a term Aristotle used to explain the particular purpose or attitude of a speech. Not many people
use this term today in reference to rhetorical situations; nonetheless, it is instructive to know that early
rhetorical thinkers like Aristotle actually placed much emphasis on speakers having a clear telos. But
audiences can also have purposes of their own that differ from a speaker’s purpose. In this resource, telos
means “purpose.”
12 Classical Argument—A (Very) Brief History of Rhetoric. Provided by Purdue University Online Writing Lab.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/historical_perspectives_on_argumentation/classical_argument.html and
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/general_writing/academic_writing/rhetorical_situation/aristotles_rhetorical_situation.html
37
Kairos
Kairos is a term that refers to the elements of a speech that acknowledge and draw support from the
particular setting, time, and place that a speech occurs. Though not as commonly known as logos, ethos,
and pathos, the term kairos has been receiving wider renewed attention among teachers of composition
since the mid-1980s. Although kairos may be well known among writing instructors, the term “setting”
more succinctly and clearly identies this concept for contemporary readers. In this resource, kairos
means “setting.”
Current Elements of Rhetorical Situations
All of these terms (text, author, audience, purpose, and setting) are fairly loose in their denitions and all of
them affect each other. Also, all of these terms have specic qualities that affect the ways that they interact
with the other terms. Below, you’ll nd basic denitions of each term, a brief discussion of the qualities of
each term, and then nally, a series of examples illustrating various rhetorical situations.
Analysis and Summary
How to recognize the difference and apply them in your writing
Both summary and analysis play a role in academic writing, but you must learn to use them in the right
places and in the right proportion. Analysis should be your primary concern, while summary should only
be used to the extent necessary to support your analysis and provide context.
Summary
Non-theoretical claims that retell the plot or share factual information are summaries. If it can be veried
as true, then it is probably summary. If it’s a fact, it’s not a theoretical claim. For example, if a student
explains what happens in a story, they are summarizing the text. Describing the plot, the dialogue, or
another writer’s response to a text is summary. A little summary is necessary to introduce a text and
anchor your reader, but you must quickly move on to the business of making connections, creating
arguments, and analyzing.
Here’s the Dictionary.com denition of summary: a comprehensive and usually brief abstract,
recapitulation, or compendium of previously stated facts or statements.
TAKE AWAY: A summary generally explains WHAT happens. Summary involves details that can be known
and agreed upon.
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Analysis
If someone could disagree with you and engage in a debate, then you’re likely writing analysis. To analyze
something, break it down and look at the component parts. Keep in mind that you don’t have to be right,
you just have to engage in a debatable idea with evidence and support. Once you let go of being right, it’s
easier to play with ideas that generate interesting and debatable discussions.
On the sentence level, this can be as simple as examining and discussing an author’s word choice, or
sentence structure. If you get stuck, look at the verbs an author has used and write about why the author
made the choices she made.
You can also think about the unique audience of a text and look at how the author made specic choices
to appeal to that audience. This will require you to do some critical thinking and possibly some research
about the original audience, as opposed to a secondary or more general audience. For example, it’s one
thing to read the Gettysburg Address in a contemporary textbook, but quite another to have witnessed
Lincoln address the crowd on the recently blood-soaked battleeld in November 1863.
For a movie, you could think about and discuss costume choices and how a character’s wardrobe
contributes to the audience’s perception of the character. Simply describing the wardrobe is not enough,
you need to make debatable claims about what the wardrobe might signify and how it might influence the
meaning of the text or the response of the audience. You could also think about specic gestures that an
actor makes, or how a director cuts from scene to scene, or the lighting, or the music. All these choices
influence audience perception and a text's meaning.
Here is the Merriam-Webster dictionary denition of analysis: a detailed examination of anything complex
in order to understand its nature or to determine its essential features: a thorough study doing a careful
analysis of the problem.
TAKE AWAY: Analysis examines the HOW and WHY of component parts of a complex text in order to
make theoretical claims about how that text influences the audience. It looks at WHY creators make
specic decisions and HOW they enact those decisions to persuade the audience.
Introductions
Introducing Your Reader to Your Idea and its Context
Introductions provide an opportunity to contextualize the conversation and invite your reader into a
meaningful discourse. This is the place to establish what’s going on and to equip your reader to proceed.
Have you ever attended a party where you didn’t know anyone? If you have, you know how confusing,
alienating, and unproductive that can be! In a perfect world, the host will help you get to know some new
friends.
The introduction to an essay is your chance to host your reader. It’s the place to explain what’s going on,
what’s important to understand, and how to proceed.
39
Spend some time thinking about what your reader needs to know. This depends on what type of paper
you are writing. If you are writing a scene analysis, you must explain important details about the lm
explored. For example, what is the name of the lm, who is the director, when was it released, what is the
plot (in brief), and who are the relevant characters? If you are examining a text through a particular
theoretical perspective or lens, you will need to dene the expectations and approach. No matter what you
examine, you need to provide fundamental information to prepare your reader.
To this end, consider the elements of the RHETORICAL SITUATION of both the text that you will discuss
AND the text that you are creating. Who is your reader, your audience? What do they need from you?
What is your source text, and how can you explain it? You can begin with the ‘“reporter's questions” that
have factual answers such as WHO, WHAT, WHEN, WHERE, and WHY. You can also look at the Rhetorical
Situation VENN Diagram 13 below and identify each of the components. This is an excellent way to come
to terms with a text and its context.
13 Open English @ SLCC Copyright © 2016 by Justin Jory is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International License, except
where otherwise noted.
40
After you do the work of introducing your reader to the topic and context of your discussion, you need to
make a claim that you can support in the body paragraphs. This claim is called a THESIS STATEMENT.
You can also think of it as a THEORY or a DEBATABLE CLAIM. It’s generally best to end your introduction
with the THESIS CLAIM. However, you should defer to what your teacher instructed you to do in the
prompt.
An important note about tone: A thesis statement should not be presented as a question except in the
drafting and prewriting stages. By the time you submit your nished paper, you should have developed a
claim that you are ready to support with evidence and explanation from the text(s) you’ve examined. It
may be helpful for you to think about your introduction as akin to a lawyer’s opening remarks to the jury:
Like a lawyer, you will be arguing a case (your thesis) to a jury (your audience) with condence because
you have the evidence (from texts) to support that argument.
Conclusions
Seeing Connections and Making It Matter
A well-written conclusion gives you one last chance to show why your ideas matter. Don’t waste it by
repeating yourself; enlighten, illuminate, and shine your ideas on the world.
You may have been taught to simply restate your intro and thesis in your conclusion. While this may have
worked in high school, your conclusion serves an important and distinct purpose. It is not the same as the
intro, and you should not develop it the same way. Returning to the metaphor of a lawyer in a courtroom,
while your introduction is synonymous with the opening remarks, your conclusion serves as the closing
remarks – a lawyer’s last chance to assert her case and convince the jury.
The conclusion allows you to show why your research and your arguments matter, and to articulate how
they influence and impact your ideas and your perception of the broader culture. Conclusions also allow
you to make connections and draw inferences that might not have been possible without the investment
you made in understanding and analyzing the source texts and ideas.
If you have been disciplined in your analysis and discussions in your body paragraphs, then you have set
the stage for transformative thinking that can and often does change your perspective. The conclusion
provides an opportunity to address this and to make a call to action or to leave your reader with some nal
thoughts condently stated.
The conclusion is a place for your thoughts and your voice. It’s a place to synthesize the many voices that
you consulted in your research and to explain why they matter and how they create change. Finally, and
perhaps most importantly, your conclusion makes your work relevant to your life and your reader’s life.
You may even nd that you write a stronger and more dynamic thesis statement when you understand
why your inferences matter. If that happens, you may want to plug that into your intro instead of your draft
thesis.
41
When we analyze ideas and words carefully, it is like taking a flashlight to something hidden in darkness.
As we think about the words of other scholars and the world around us, we begin to illuminate a web of
connections. We deepen our understanding and improve our experience of the world.
Your analysis in the body paragraphs requires a focused and disciplined use of the flashlight that is your
mind. In these parts of your essay, you must look closely at the evidence and not get distracted.
But when you begin to draw the threads of light together and look toward the world and your perspective
of it, you raise that light up and illuminate everything in your view for yourself and for others.
Your conclusion matters because it allows you to shine the light of your ideas on the world around you and
into the minds of everyone you encounter through your writing. Make it matter. Make it shine.
Paragraph Development
Freewriting, brainstorming, and drafting are great places to let your mind wander and develop new ideas,
but when you begin to construct your body paragraphs, there is a pattern you can follow.
Much of the writing process is messy, disorganized, confusing, and occasionally annoying, but once you
get a bead on what you want to say, there’s a method to help you organize and present your ideas without
reinventing the writerly wheel.
Body Paragraph Composition
Topic Sentence: claim/assertion related to the larger thesis
Evidence: materials from the text/source (A quotation, paraphrase, or description)
Explanation/analysis:
Content: What does the evidence mean?
Context: Why is it important to the topic?
Judgment: How does it help prove or support the thesis?
Why is it signicant?
How does it connect to your thesis?
Synonymous terms: You may also hear your teachers discuss “The MEAL Plan,” “PIE,” “The Five-Step
Paragraph Development Model,” or the “Three “I”’ed Monster.”
These are approaches to paragraph organization that model similar strategies. You can use any of them to
help you stay focused and on track in your writing.
Please see the Meal Plan Video link in the Appendix.
42
PIE
Point, Illustration, Explanation14
How does the structure of a body paragraph support a thesis?
Many authors use the PIE format to structure their essays.
PIE = point, illustration, explanation
The point furthers a thesis or claim, the illustration provides support for the point, and the explanation tells
the audience why the evidence provided furthers the point and/or the thesis.
For example, let’s consider an essay written by a college student, Tareq Hajj. He argues that his university
should not use a plus/minus grading scale because the proposed scale does not include a higher weight
for A+ scores.
In his argument he makes the point that “Without the A+, students with high grades in the class would be
less motivated to work even harder in order to increase their grades.”
He illustrates with a quote from a professor who argues, “‘(Students) have less incentive to try’” (Fesheraki
2013).
Hajj then explains that “not providing [the most motivated students] with additional motivation of a higher
grade … is inequitable.”
Through his explanation, Hajj links back to his claim that, “A plus-minus grading scale … should not be
used…” because it is “inequitable.” The PIE structure of his paragraph has served to help him support his
thesis.
The Five-Step Paragraph Development Model
• Topic Sentence
• Context Sentence
• Quotation
• Explanation
• Conclusion
Topic Sentence
In the topic sentence, you should present some portion of your thesis to be proven in the paragraph. Each
new paragraph should either develop a new portion or expand a point made in a previous paragraph.
Context Sentence
The narrow down sentence should point the reader’s attention to a specic passage that supports your
topic sentence. You should name the source of the passage (who is speaking here?), name the location of
the passage (is it toward the beginning of the work? Toward the end? In what paragraph? In what
context?), or describe the content of the passage (who’s doing what? What is the speaker saying?).
14 Point, Illustration, Explanation: How Does the Structure of a Paragraph Support a Thesis? Provided by Lumen Learning. License:
https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/. https://courses.lumenlearning.com/suny-introtocollegecomp/chapter/text-point-illustration-explanation/
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Quotation
Here you will use a quote from your text pertinent to the sup-point of the thesis—that is, the topic of this
paragraph. Make sure to introduce your quotation in one of the different ways you learned about in the
“Integrating Quotations” section.
Explanation
In these sentences you need to explain the meaning of the passage you’ve just quoted, and/or explain
how that passage supports your topic sentence. Refer to specic words in the passage that carry special
meaning or extra importance and how those words give rise to your interpretation. This is your analysis.
You should indicate why this idea/concept is signicant; why should an audience care? What are the
implications?
Conclusion
To conclude the body paragraph, you need to nish your explanation of the passage and provide a
transition to the next paragraph.
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The Three I’ed Monster
Another way15 to build bulk and substance around each of your assertions, we now turn to a trusted
friend—the Three-“I”ed Monster:
Note that our helpful beast possesses three “I”s, which stand for:
I dea : Our theoretical claim about meaning that we intend to substantiate.
I llustration : Our catalog of hard evidence in support of the idea about meaning.
(This section offers concrete examples and factual data that conrm the link we have forged between the
visible, above-the-waterline sign and the invisible, below-the-waterline concept, motivator, or theme.)
I nterpretation : Our in-depth, persuasive reasoning as to why we think our idea and illustration make
sense. (In this part, we unpack our idea about meaning in the light of our evidentiary support. We make
our full-blown case, in other words, for the theoretical assertion that we have proposed.)
As you can see from the drawing, the monster’s nal “I” is several times larger than the “I” of idea or
illustration. That is because we want to spend the most time and effort providing interpretation designed to
convince readers that our idea deserves attention and carries import.
To watch the monster in action, consider the following interpretive response, which attempts to unpack
one particular meaning attributable to the enduring appeal of ofcial university apparel such as
sweatshirts, t-shirts, and hats. No doubt you have seen such clothing items, available in a vast array of
colors and styles: the classic, the retro, the one featuring the school mascot, and so on.
15 Fraser, G., Davidson, C. (2012). Analyze Anything: a guide to critical reading and writing/. Continuum International Pub. Group.
45
As the argument below unfolds, see if you can identify the three “I”s of the monster: look for the direct
declaration of the “Idea” (or claim about the sign’s meaning), the “Illustration” (or specic pieces of
evidence that support the claim), and the “Interpretation” (or complex argument that conrms the
persuasiveness of the claim).
The purchase and display of university gear, it might be argued, helps to placate
fears of isolation in a culture that has traditionally gloried—and perhaps overemphasized—
the self and its independence. An ofcial school sweatshirt or ballcap, in
other words, may alleviate the threat of feeling cut off or outcast, allowing its wearer
to signal membership in an exclusive club. At the team game, a sea of sameness
washes over the stands, with energized fans sporting their team colors—an enormous
collective bonded around a single cause: to show the power and unity of their
winning institution. And of course, university attire does not appear strictly in athletic
and campus settings: people don this often pricey apparel while traveling, going out
on the town, and so on. No matter the social situation, school paraphernalia broadcasts
the idea of belonging, of possessing membership in an admirable group.
What looks simply like cheerful rallying around the good ol’ alma mater,
though, may also signal the wearer’s ght to stave off solitude—especially given
The Monster Has Teeth
The monster in our drawing clearly possesses three “I”s, but notice that it also bears teeth. These sharp
incisors remind you to sink into the political and social realities of the time period and culture in which
your chosen sign appears. All signs, whether part of literature or popular culture, participate in the
turbulent debates of their day. They suggest specic ideas and ideals; they champion various mores and
expectations; they reject certain biases and assumptions. As a savvy interpreter, you want to discuss the
facets of public
consciousness and social experience that inform and lend signicance to your sign—even when these
details are troubling. This ensures that your arguments carry import. Ultimately, semiotics asks you to
explore the unspoken tensions, histories, and power struggles that underlie such critical categories as
follows:
• social class and distributions of wealth
• race and ethnicity
• gender and sexuality
• mental and physical health and disability
• nature and the environment
• education
• crime, punishment, and law
• national identity and globalization
• capitalism and consumerism
• labor and unemployment
• housing, land development, and homelessness
Put simply, the “bite” of the Three-“I”ed Monster helps writers avoid “toothless” essays—analyses that
amount to mere academic exercises without real world importance and social value.
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Integrating Quotations
How to cite your sources and build your credibility
Scholarly writing builds upon the ideas and published work of other thinkers. When you enter the
academic conversation, citing others builds your credibility and expands the conversation.
If you’ve ever been tempted to borrow an idea and not cite the source, please think again. Engaging the
ideas of others is one way that young scholars can build their academic repertoire and elevate
conversations. It’s not just about avoiding plagiarism; it’s about illustrating your engagement, research,
curiosity, and capacity for growth. As scholars, it’s your responsibility to point to the origins and sources
for the ideas that inspire and inform your work. None of us operates in a vacuum of pure original thought,
nor are we expected to. One mark of a scholar is an eagerness to nd, cite, and engage others as our
ideas and positions on complicated topics expand and shift.
Once you internalize this philosophy of scholarly engagement, you need to learn HOW to do it. Each
academic style (MLA, APA, Chicago are the main three) has a different approach to formatting citations.
You will need to identify which style your professor prefers and look up a current style guide for in-text
and works cited citations.
However, when it comes to integrating quotations into the body of your paper, some fundamental rules
always work regardless of disciplinary style. Learning to do this is part of learning how to write. Here are
some examples of what to do and what not to do. As with any discipline, it may feel awkward at rst, but as
you develop mastery, you will experience the transformative power of quote integration.
NEVER drop a quotation into a paragraph without context or explanation. Your reader needs to
understand the rhetorical situation of the original quotation. When you drop a quotation without context,
you lose credibility. Readers also need to understand why you have included the quotation. You must
explain the connection between your topic claim and the evidence you’ve presented via the quotation.
Now let’s look at what good writers do to integrate quotations. There are basically FOUR ways to build
quotations into the body of a paragraph. Once you learn how to apply each method, strive to alternate
these approaches to achieve mastery. Developing this skill will help you make As and impress your
readers!
1: Use a signal verb or phrase followed by a comma. See the list of signal verbs on the
next page.
STUDENT SAMPLE:
In his essay “Tech Prophecy and the Underappreciated Causal Power of Ideas,” cognitive
psychologist Stephen Pinker explains, “ideas–and not just weather, resources, geography, or
weaponry–can shape history.”
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2: Build the quotation into your own sentence without punctuation. This often happens
using the word “that.”
STUDENT SAMPLE:
Computer Scientist Stephen Wolfram, largely responsible for the interface powering Apple’s Siri,
explains that “inventing goals is not something that has a path to automation. Someone or
something has to dene what a machine’s purpose should be–what it’s trying to execute.”
3: Introduce the quotation with a complete sentence (independent clause) followed by a
colon.
STUDENT SAMPLE:
Wayne Marshall Harrett writes: Having a growth mindset has numerous benets. First and
foremost, it encourages us to actively work towards reaching our true potential despite the
circumstances.”
4: Break the quotation up into smaller fragments that you connect with your own writing
STUDENT SAMPLE:
Jaan Tallinn, founding member of the Cambridge Centre for the Study of Existential Risk, raises
the alarm regarding how “AI can precipitate a change of cosmic proportions” which Tallin argues
may create “a runaway progress that will likely kill everyone” unless we “put a lot of extra effort to
avoid that outcome.”
Some Signal Verbs (Google “Signal Verbs” to nd more)
Acknowledges
Asks
Compares
Concludes
Contends
Declares
Denes
Directs
Disagrees
Discusses
Emphasizes
Explains
Finds
Grants
Identies
Illustrates
Insists
Maintains
Observes
Offers
Opposes
Presents
Promotes
Proposes
Questions
Reasons
Replies
Reports
Responds
Stresses
Suggests
Warns
Wonders
Writes
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Topic Sentences
Organize your paragraphs with claims that guide your reader
Academic essays are organized into paragraphs that begin with claims in direct support of the thesis. By
carefully preparing your topic sentences, you make your job, and your readers’ experience, more
rewarding and easier to navigate.
A claim is an idea that can be supported by facts, evidence, and arguments but is not itself a fact or a
piece of evidence. If you’re confused about the difference, ask yourself if the sentence you’ve written is a
FACT. If it is a fact, think about what the implications of that fact are in relation to the thesis statement you
are trying to support. Ask yourself WHY the fact matters to your larger claim and develop that idea into a
sentence. Your topic sentence should address HOW or WHY not WHAT. For example, consider how a
writer expresses an idea as opposed to what idea the writer explores or WHY the director of a movie
designs a scene in the way she does instead of what color dominates the setting.
Topic sentences are the supporting legs of the larger idea represented by the thesis. If the topic
sentences don’t provide support for your central claim, your body paragraphs will be weak and probably
driven by summary or description instead of by ideas that lead to discussion.
Here are a few examples to help you see the difference between facts or observations and claims.
Theoretical claims should be debatable and require support and evidence. Facts are obvious and easy to
agree upon.
Fact/Observation:
The short lm Bao features a cute, chubby dumpling that comes alive.
Claim:
While the short animation Bao appears charming and inconsequential, it succeeds in introducing
audiences to Chinese Folklore through characters that also reflect family dynamics shared by
many cultures.
Fact/Observation
Wordsworth’s poem “The Daffodils” describes a vision of daffodils on a hillside.
Claim
Through the speaker’s recollection of a eld of daffodils, Wordsworth invites readers to
recognize the role of memory in the experience of a well-lived life.
Fact/Observation
Jeff Koons’ art is often criticized as overtly kitschy and focused on consumer culture.
Claim
Jeff Koons’ massive industrial productions reflect a consumer culture obsessed with materialistic
and often disposable products that rarely satisfy but have monumental environmental costs.
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Transitions
End your body paragraphs with sentences that connect ideas and
remind your reader how you have supported your thesis.
The transition sentence at the end of the paragraph links the ideas of the current paragraph to the
theoretical claims of the coming paragraph while reinforcing the thesis statement.
Ask yourself how you can help your reader navigate from one idea to the next in a sentence that points
the way and makes connections. Instead of abruptly shifting from one topic to another, transitions let your
reader know what’s coming. While you don’t want to narrate your essay writing with phrases like “in my
next paragraph,” you do want to make sure that the last sentence of each paragraph connects to the rst
sentence of the paragraph to come.
Pay attention to the articles and essays you read in your coursework and look for examples of how authors
transition from one paragraph to the next. Sometimes they use transition words and phrases and
sometimes they introduce a new concept in more sophisticated and subtle ways.
Here are some transition words and phrases to try out in your essays. Be careful not to overuse them. You
will start to sound like an AI!
• accordingly
• as a result
• consequently
• for that reason
• following
• in the meantime
• so far
• subsequently
• whenever
• additionally
• as a result
• even more
• furthermore
• although
• at the same time
• despite
• nonetheless
• on the contrary
• on the other hand
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Essay Checklist
Check and Recheck Before You Submit Your Work
Dos and Don’ts for Your Final Essay
Even the most practiced writers double-check their work before sharing it. You should too. Use this list to
systematically review your work before you turn it in.
DO
• Do organize your essay using an outline. Use a reverse outline to double-check a completed
essay.
• Do proofread. Try reading your essay backwards from the bottom up or having a friend read
your essay out loud to you.
• Do use the paragraph organization strategies described on page XX.
• Do use third-person pronouns (he, she, they) or specic proper nouns (names of characters
or authors).
• Do remember your audience—in this case, your instructor.
• Do nd meaningful evidence to interpret. Evidence should come from the assigned text or a
supporting document you researched independently. Integrate it appropriately and do not
drop your quotations.
• Do analyze your evidence to support your argument.
• Do use proper quote integration that introduces the quoted material and provides specic
context in one grammatical unit.
• Do write complete sentences using active voice and strong verbs whenever possible. Use the
list of verbs provided in the section on Active Voice.
• Do vary your sentence lengths and structure to maintain interest and engagement.
• Do double-check your formatting and make sure that you are citing your sources
appropriately in the style your instructor requires.
• Do include a Works Cited page.
• Do review the prompt one last time before you submit your assignment. Have you met the
criteria for length, style, and content?
DO NOT
• Do Not use rhetorical questions. Instead, turn that question into an answer, a claim.
• Do Not use rst or second-person pronouns (I, you, we, us).
• Do Not summarize or describe the action or plot beyond what is required for analysis—
context only, not extensive plot summary.
• Do Not summarize your evidence and assume your instructor will know why you’ve used it.
You must explain how the evidence supports your claim.
• Do Not use colloquial language, slang, or casual patterns of speech.
• Do Not plagiarize, purchase a paper, collaborate on a paper, or generate your content using
AI. If you stay engaged and follow the process, you will not need to plagiarize. If you feel
compelled to plagiarize or use AI, please schedule an appointment with your professor and let
them guide you to better approaches that will help you grow as a writer and a thinker.
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Metacognitive Processes
TEAL Center Fact Sheet No. 4: Metacognitive Processes
Metacognition16 is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a learning task,
take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as
needed. It helps learners choose the right cognitive tool for the task and plays a critical role in successful
learning.
What Is Metacognition?
Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does and doesn’t know—and one’s
ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s cognitive processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes
knowing when and where to use particular strategies for learning and problem solving as well as how and
why to use specic strategies. Metacognition is the ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for
approaching a learning task, take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and
modify one’s approach as needed.
Flavell (1976), who rst used the term, offers the following example: I am engaging in Metacognition if I
notice that I am having more trouble learning A than B; if it strikes me that I should double check C before
accepting it as fact (p. 232).
Cognitive strategies are the basic mental abilities we use to think, study, and learn (e.g., recalling
information from memory, analyzing sounds and images, making associations between or
comparing/contrasting different pieces of information, and making inferences or interpreting text). They
help an individual achieve a particular goal, such as comprehending text or solving a math problem, and
they can be individually identied and measured.
In contrast, metacognitive strategies are used to ensure that an overarching learning goal is being or has
been reached. Examples of metacognitive activities include planning how to approach a learning task,
using appropriate skills and strategies to solve a problem, monitoring one’s own comprehension of text,
self-assessing and self-correcting in response to the self-assessment, evaluating progress toward the
completion of a task, and becoming aware of distracting stimuli.
16 Teal Center Fact Sheet No. 4: Metacognitive Processes. Provided by Access Resources for State Adult Education Staff.
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Elements of Metacognition
Researchers distinguish between metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive regulation (Flavell, 1979,
1987; Schraw & Dennison, 1994). Metacognitive knowledge refers to what individuals know about
themselves as cognitive processors, about different approaches that can be used for learning and
problem solving, and about the demands of a particular learning task. Metacognitive regulation refers to
adjustments individuals make to their processes to help control their learning, such as planning,
information management strategies, comprehension monitoring, de-bugging strategies, and evaluation of
progress and goals. Flavell (1979) further divides metacognitive knowledge into three categories:
• Person variables: What one recognizes about his or her strengths and weaknesses in learning
and processing information.]
• Task variables: What one knows or can gure out about the nature of a task and the
processing demands required to complete the task—for example, knowledge that it will take
more time to read, comprehend, and remember a technical article than it will a similar-length
passage from a novel.
• Strategy variables: The strategies a person has “at the ready” to apply in a flexible way to
successfully accomplish a task; for example, knowing how to activate prior knowledge before
reading a technical article, using a glossary to look up unfamiliar words, or recognizing that
sometimes one has to reread a paragraph several times before it makes sense.
Livingston (1997) provides an example of all three variables:
“I know that I (person variable) have difculty with word problems (task variable), so I will answer
the computational problems rst and save the word problems for last (strategy variable).”
Why Teach Metacognitive Skills?
Research shows that metacognitive skills can be taught to students to improve their learning (Nietfeld &
Shraw, 2002; Thiede, Anderson, & Therriault, 2003).
Constructing understanding requires both cognitive and metacognitive elements. Learners “construct
knowledge” using cognitive strategies, and they guide, regulate, and evaluate their learning using
metacognitive strategies. It is through this “thinking about thinking,” this use of metacognitive strategies,
that real learning occurs. As students become more skilled at using metacognitive strategies, they gain
condence and become more independent as learners.
Individuals with well-developed metacognitive skills can think through a problem or approach a learning
task, select appropriate strategies, and make decisions about a course of action to resolve the problem or
successfully perform the task. They often think about their own thinking processes, taking time to think
about and learn from mistakes or inaccuracies (North Central Regional Educational Laboratory, 1995).
Some instructional programs encourage students to engage in “metacognitive conversations” with
themselves so that they can “talk” with themselves about their learning, the challenges they encounter,
and the ways in which they can self-correct and continue learning.
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Moreover, individuals who demonstrate a wide variety of metacognitive skills perform better on exams and
complete work more efciently—they use the right tool for the job, and they modify learning strategies as
needed, identifying blocks to learning and changing tools or strategies to ensure goal attainment. Because
Metacognition plays a critical role in successful learning, it is imperative that instructors help learners
develop metacognitively.
About the TEAL Center: The Teaching Excellence in Adult Literacy (TEAL) Center is a project of the U.S. Department of Education,
Ofce of Career, Technical, and Adult Education (OCTAE), designed to improve the quality of teaching in adult education in the
content areas.
Recursive Revision Versus Editing/Proofreading
Oftentimes students think of revision and proofreading as essentially the same thing, but the two are quite
different (and serve different purposes). Proofreading and editing are generally the nal steps in the
writing process: When you proofread, you are looking for errors; in the editing process, you correct those
errors and “polish” the essay.
A common misconception about revision is that it entails changing a few words or correcting grammatical
errors that the teacher has marked. In reality, revision – when done correctly – is a much more intensive
process. UWG’s First-Year Writing program emphasizes process work or scaffolded assignments, which
means that instead of sitting down to write your essay in one fell swoop, you instead will draft smaller
portions and submit those individually. At each stage in the process your instructor will give you feedback:
notes in the margin, maybe circled grammatical errors, questions peppered throughout, and a nal
summative note at the end. It’s tempting to disregard that feedback and move on to the next section of
your essay, but revising according to specic feedback is crucial to improving your writing, regardless of
what specic issues you struggle with.
Recursive revision refers to this process of submitting a piece of work, receiving feedback about what
worked and what didn’t – perhaps a paragraph was underdeveloped and needed more textual evidence,
or one of your topic sentences leaned more toward observation than claim – and then revising portions to
address those specic issues. The benets are twofold: First, if you work to address problems that your
instructor has pointed out in a draft, chances are good that your grade will be higher than it would be if
you simply dismiss those comments. Second, when you go through the process of revising to address
specic errors, you are less likely to make them in the future.
This process may sound tedious to you (and sometimes it is!) but recursive revision is key to improving
your writing.
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ACADEMIC WRITING:
ORGANIZATION & STYLE
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Audience Awareness: Tone and Voice
Writing Audience into Your Text
By Kate Mele17
When we begin to write, one of our most pressing questions is who is my audience? Why? Because we
are not writing a person-less paper to no one. If we think about our actual readers, we often can identify
them as members of our discourse community or stakeholders in other discourse communities who will
be affected by the ideas we offer about the problem at hand. But how do we take these people into
account when we produce a report, an argument, a brochure, a PSA, a manual, or a proposal—and the
list goes on. How do we develop audience awareness for the various types of documents we might create
in academic, professional, and public settings?
We know that talking out a problem with others requires us to interact—to listen, respond, and reflect, to
give and to take. How often in a conversation or class discussion have you said, “I can relate” before
giving your opinion? This same conversational give-and-take can be applied to situations where you dig
into a pressing workplace or community problem. On the page, when we “relate”—when we approximate
a lively conversation between ourselves and our stakeholders—we can write more effectively and be
taken more seriously.
Stakeholders: a synonym for audience. Stakeholders are other people with the same question as I have
about the problem, the people causing the problem, the people impacted by the problem, or the people
who think they have a better answer than I do. They may be like-minded, hostile, of two minds, or
noncommittal. However, we may not know where they stand unless we actually talk to them. While this
may be possible, it’s not likely that in all situations we can have a one-on-one with people who might care
about what we have to say.
So, how can we write texts that include our audience in the buzz going on in our heads? Read what others
have to say relevant to our problem. Our research provides a foundation for our inquiry. We can draw on
others to establish the background on the problem, to discover what like-minded writers have said that
can support our arguments, and to recognize what hostile writers have argued so we can respond
intelligently. Entering this course, you probably already have had experience writing a research paper in
this way.
As well as being an important factor in our research process, our audience is also integral to our writing
process. In the early phase of generating ideas, we can imagine our audience into being when we use our
sources as a sounding board. The person who shares our view, the person who vehemently disagrees,
and the one who is on the fence—we can write directly to them, and then as our drafts unfold, we can
weave that conversation into our lines of reasoning.
Often when we put together an essay or a research report we are so focused on getting the information
on the page, we don’t think about how the information may be received by our audience. Usually after we
have done research, we summarize our sources and restate what they mean in our own words.
17 Writing Audience into Your Text – Writing in Genres (calstate.edu)
56
Or we put two sources together and note the similarities and differences between them. However, in the
inquiry stage of unpacking a problem, we could go one more step: instead of simply adding on our
opinion, what if we also talked back to these sources—as if they actually were sitting next to us? I agree
because. . .I take your point, but. . .From there we could imagine how they might talk back to us, what we
might say in return. This practice of imagining our audience’s responses could lead us to nd additional
credible evidence, rene our reasoning, and or include visuals to illustrate the point.
I’m borrowing from Gerald Graff and Kathy Birkenstein’s They Say/I Say (2018)18 in making this suggestion
to “talk back” to our sources. Graff and Birkenstein suggest that we identify stakeholders who are going to
say wait a minute as they read our text. Reviewing our early drafts, we should locate where someone
would want to counter us. We can “plant” a naysayer in our text by stating their objection and then
responding to them (78-9). Doing so builds our trustworthiness (our ethos) because, by acknowledging
other points of view, we are being fair-minded. But I want to take this idea further and not only focus on
those skeptical about our ideas.
It’s just as important to get the conversation going among all of those involved in the problem we’re
exploring. Those asking the same question as I am. Those affected by the problem. Those who have a
better solution in mind. In other words, with each passage we produce, we could pause and ask
ourselves what would each different stakeholder say about what I just wrote? If we apply ourselves to this
type of sophisticated writing process, we develop a well-conceived tapestry animated by a living-breathing
writer, rather than a bunch of sources strung together by no one in particular.
That’s what we’re hoping for, isn’t it? To make progress with our writing. But imagine a naysayer, not
thinking we are on the same page, interrupting right here. Wait a minute! She raises her hand. This
process sounds useful for putting together a more complex research paper than I’ve written before, but
I’m supposed to create a PSA for a non-prot organization, not do a research paper.
If I were in class, I would say to that student, clearly a stakeholder like me who wants to solve the problem
of connecting with her audience: Good point. I have just given you some ideas for building audience
awareness that you can use to write a strong academic essay—one in which you are effectively interacting
with your sources and your stakeholders. However, let’s think about how we can apply writing our
audience into other types of texts. What does that lively conversation look like?
I would start with a series of questions: What are the aims of the non-prot I’m creating this text for? Who
are my stakeholders? Who am I interacting with? Why do they need this public service
announcement? What is this problem really all about? I’d start answering these questions by reading what
others have said about the problem. And there I am, just as I would be if I were assigned a research
paper—engaged in inquiry, doing research, talking back to my sources, and thus developing a message
more responsive to a diverse community’s needs. In this situation, I would extend my research, though, to
include inquiry into the genre because I’m not familiar with what an effective PSA looks like. After
analyzing a variety of PSA samples, I’d test out visuals and formatting, imagining at each stage what a
range of stakeholders would say and then adjust my draft accordingly.
18 Birkenstein, Cathy and Gerald Graff. They Say/I Say: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing 4th ed. New York: W.W. Norton & Co., 2018
57
When it comes down to it, whatever kind of document we are producing, we want our audience to take us
seriously. Two basic questions can guide us: What is the problem really about? Who cares about the
problem? From there, we can begin writing the conversation into our unfolding drafts. If our readers can
locate themselves in our texts and feel as if we are co-collaborators in problem-solving, we go a long way
in creating an ethos they trust.
Rhetorical Questions, Informal Language,
Colloquialisms
Five Things Not to Do in Your Essay19
From the University of Otago
An essay uses a different style of language from that of a casual conversation. For an essay, you are being
tested on your use of formal communication. There are certain things that are common in speech that
should be avoided in an essay.
Rhetorical questions
Responding to an essay question with more questions is annoying. So, try to avoid posing direct rhetorical
questions to the reader in an essay. These are usually tiresome to read because they shift the burden of
answering the question to the reader when the reader just wants to sit back and let you do that. Rhetorical
questions are useful for the person writing the essay (i.e. they help you come to grips with the topic), but it
is best to rephrase them as statements or as indirect questions. Question: Why did Zeus chose to punish
man for Prometheus’ sins? Statement: Zeus chose to punish man for Prometheus’ sins because… Direct:
Why did slaves not run away from their masters more often? Indirect: The question arises as to why slaves
did not run away from their masters more often. You can then go on to answer the indirect question
without the reader feeling like you have tried to pull them into your discussion. So, one maxim of essay
writing is: don’t ask: tell.
1st Person Singular
Some say not to use the word I in an essay. Others say it is ne. If you do use it, it is best to use I only in
an introduction (and to a lesser extent, the conclusion), rather than in the body of the essay. But use it
sparingly; otherwise, you can come across as too self-important.
1st Person Plural
Avoid using we or us in an essay. Saying ‘Let us now turn to the issue of manumission’ sounds
pretentious. If you must guide the reader through your argument, use: ‘Turning (now) to the issue of
manumission.’ It still sounds phony. ‘With this evidence, we are shown the unsavory side of Roman
society.’ This sentence is not so bad, but again it tries to include the reader in the essay.
19 Rhetorical Questions, Informal Language, Colloquialisms: Five Things Not to Do in Your Essay. Provided by University of Otago.
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This is ne for books, but for an essay it is articial and a breach of expected roles. The reader (your
marker) should remain a separate and impersonal individual. You wouldn’t try to hold hands with someone
interviewing you for a job, would you? Thus, the sentence with we can be rephrased to maintain distance
from the reader: ‘This evidence illustrates the unsavory side of Roman society.’
2nd Person
Don’t use you in an essay. In spoken English, this is used for generalization: ‘You would expect that…’ or
‘You don’t win by giving up’. The word you, however, tends to pull the reader into your argument and
distracts from what you are saying. ‘You must not disrespect the gods.’ Me specically? Who told you I
disrespected them? Oh, wait. I see now. Carry on. This sort of 1Pittman (1998) 203. [Note the lack of pg.
or p or pp for the page number] confusion can be avoided by using the indenite one: ‘One must not
disrespect the gods.’ It may sound strange, but that’s just because it’s more formal, which is what an essay
should be.
Elision
Elision is what happens to words when we speak them (casually). In written form, it is marked with an
apostrophe, representing a missing letter or letters. But because spoken English is not formal enough for
an essay, don’t write don’t. Instead, write do not. This goes for many other elided forms: e.g. would have
for would’ve, it is for it’s, she would for she’d.
Colloquialisms
Colloquialisms are phrases and words which are commonly used in conversation but have a non-literal
meaning (e.g. ‘bucketing down’). Use of colloquialisms implies a level of familiarity with the reader that is
unsuitable for an essay.
Moreover, they weaken an argument by obscuring meaning; e.g. ‘He was wasted’. By a wasting disease?
Or does this mean ‘inebriated’? Avoiding the above list of common pitfalls for your essays should ensure
you receive better marks.
Wordiness/Redundancy
Strategies for effective proofreading:
Be straightforward and concise:
What you’re doing is essentially making an argument and in so doing, attempting to persuade your
audience that your analysis is a viable one. Thus it’s crucial that you make your points via direct,
straightforward language:
Example:
Chopin uses the setting in an important way that relates to Mrs. Mallard.
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Notice that the above statement is vague and doesn’t clarify the point the student is attempting to
illustrate. How does Chopin describe or characterize the setting? What’s unusual about it, given the
context (i.e. the news Mrs. Mallard has just received)? And how, specically, does the setting relate to Mrs.
Mallard? How/why is the link between the setting and Mrs. Mallard signicant?
Eliminate unnecessary words/phrases:
It sounds counterintuitive to consider going through your rough draft and cutting out words, but the most
effective arguments are those that get straight to the point. Unnecessary words and/or phrases clutter
your sentences and potentially distract the reader from the points you seek to make. Two things to keep in
mind as you proofread:
If you can say it in fteen words and you can say it in ve, always say it in ve.
Pretend you have to pay $5 for every word that you use, and edit accordingly. (Who would pay for
unnecessary words?)
Example:
If one looks closely at Chopin’s language describing the weather outside Mrs. Mallard’s window, one will
see that the weather foreshadows her own emotional rebirth.
(Total words: 24)
Correction:
Chopin’s description of the weather foreshadows Mrs. Mallard’s emotional rebirth.
(Total words: 9)
Make your sentences count:
Be sure that every single sentence of your essay serves a purpose: asserts a point, explicates a quotation,
claries how textual evidence relates to the claim you’re making, transitions to another point or paragraph,
etc. There are some strategies you can employ to ensure that all of your sentences work for you:
Don’t state the obvious (and/or nothing at all):
Develop claims that have substance and give you the opportunity to illustrate your critical and creative
thinking.
Example: Chopin uses language and other literary devices to make her points.
It’s understood that all authors utilize language and literary devices to illustrate their points; it’s your job to
narrow it down and clarify what type of literary device the author incorporates, as well as to specify to
what effect they do so.
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Avoid generalizations:
Generalizations are often stereotypical and cannot be denitively substantiated (i.e. proven); thus, they not
only don’t serve a purpose in an academic essay, but they can also undermine your credibility.
Example: In the spring, people are always happier.
You can’t prove this statement; there are certainly many people who aren’t happier in the spring. This is so
general as to be meaningless.
Be assertive (not hesitant) when stating your claims:
Again, your goal in writing an analytical essay is to convince your audience that your reading of the text is
insightful and credible – in other words, that you know what you’re talking about. Prefacing your claims
with qualifying words or phrases only weakens the points you’re attempting to make.
Example: The weather outside can perhaps be read as reflecting Mrs. Mallard’s rebirth.
Better: The weather outside reflects Mrs. Mallard’s rebirth.
Example: When Chopin describes the vibrant weather, she might be trying to show that Mrs.
Mallard will experience a rebirth of her own.
Better: The vibrant weather indicates that Mrs. Mallard will experience a rebirth of her own.
Proofread your paper out loud, starting with the last sentence rst (and then reading the second to last,
third to last, etc., until you get to the beginning):
Reading the paper aloud will help you catch errors that are easy to miss when you read silently –
everything from subject-verb disagreement (i.e. Chopin write; Louise Mallard go) to wordy, awkward
constructions. The point of reading the essay out loud backward is to force yourself to evaluate every
sentence at the sentence level: Some weak constructions may go unrecognized because they “rest” on
the sentences that come before and after them. (This might be acceptable for a blog, but not for a formal
essay.) Likewise, you can catch sentence fragments by reading the essay out loud and out of order;
oftentimes fragments occur as the result of a dependent word (“because,” “though,” etc.).
Bonus Tip: Take 48 hours away from your essay prior to submitting it; when you return to it with fresh
eyes, you’ll be ready to spot areas in need of attention.
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Sentence Variety
Sentence Variety and Rhythm
Written by Kristina Tran20
As writers, we have the ability to lead readers through our writing by controlling our text. One of the
primary methods of directing the reader is through rhythm, which is created by sentence variety.
Rhythm
Rhythm is how writing sounds and how sentences and ideas are connected. Monotonous writing is the
absence of rhythm, as shown in the example below.
This sentence has 5 words. Here are ve more words. Five-word sentences are ne, but several
together become monotonous. Listen to what is happening. The writing is getting boring. The
sound of it drones. It's like a stuck record. The ear demands some variety. (Provost).
Rhythm is what engages the reader and encourages them to keep reading. Rhythm paces the reader,
emphasizes points and ideas, and creates mood. Most importantly, it makes writing easier to access and
understand. By becoming aware of rhythm and its impact on the reader, writers can control their writing to
become more readable and best emphasize the points they want to make. In the example below, see how
the same author as above adds rhythm to his writing.
Now listen. I vary the sentence length, and I create music. The writing sings. It has a pleasant
rhythm, a lilt, a harmony. I use short sentences. And I use sentences of medium length. And
sometimes when I am certain the reader is rested, I will engage them with a sentence of
considerable length, a sentence that burns with energy and builds with all the impetus of a
crescendo, the role of the drums, the crash of the symbols—sounds that say listen to this, it is
important” (Provost).
Sentence Variety
Sentence variety creates rhythm. Having the same length and/or type of sentences repeatedly creates
monotony and makes the writing difcult for the reader to get through. Conversely, variety engages the
reader. It captures the eye and makes text easier to read. Variety can be created by sentence length,
sentence complexity, and intentional punctuation choices.
20 Sentence Variety and Rhythm. Authored by Kristina Tran. Provided by San Jose State University Writing Center.
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Length
Longer sentences offer more information, letting the reader digest and meander through the thought
process. Short sentences build excitement. Sentences are snappier. They sound more direct. Information
is concise and clear. Short sentences and long sentences can both be effective and are used in different
contexts. Longer sentences may be preferable in novels, when you are giving vivid descriptions, or in the
introduction of a paper, when you are thoroughly investigating a fact or idea. Shorter sentences may be
preferable at the end of a long paragraph to succinctly summarize the main idea. Additionally, consider the
genre of your writing. A reader will not want to “meander through the thought process” in a technical
document, so clear and concise sentences containing only salient information will be preferable. However,
using too many short sentences may imply that you lack the ability to craft lengthier sentences. It is best
to keep a good balance that ts the genre of what you are writing and matches the purpose of why you
are writing it. There is no set standard beyond aiming for variety.
Complexity
The English language consists of four sentence types. Use combinations of simple, compound, complex,
and compound-complex sentences to add variety and make text clearer and easier to read. A simple
sentence contains only one independent clause. A compound sentence contains two or more
independent clauses. A complex sentence has at least one independent and one dependent clause.
Lastly, a compound-complex sentence consists of at least one dependent clause and at least two
independent clauses. Refer to the box below for examples.
Simple:
She loves cooking.
Compound:
Her roommates don't know how to cook, so she cooks for them.
Complex:
Since they cannot cook for themselves, they love to eat the delicious food she makes for them.
Compound-complex:
When her roommates are nished eating, they clean all the dishes, and she can nally take a
break.
Additionally, transitional words and phrases can be used to vary the complexity of your writing. Transitional
words may also be called linking or connecting words, and they help the reader progress from one idea to
the next. Moreover, transitions create connections between sentences, usually by appearing at the start of
sentences or clauses to express how they relate to the previous thought. In the model below, the
transitional words/phrases are italicized.
The rst experiment was successful. However, it was found to have many errors, so another
experiment was performed. Our budget was depleted as a result.
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Appositives, which are nouns that immediately follow and rename another noun to clarify or classify it,
add extra information to a sentence and can reduce wordiness. In cases where the appositive is key to
understanding the meaning of the sentence, commas are not needed.
Otherwise, when a sentence can be understood without the appositive, surround the appositive with
commas. The models below show how appositives can be used.
The pop star Doja Cat became famous in 2018.
Yayoi Kusama, one of the best sell artists female artists in the world, is known for her use of
polka dot patterns.
Punctuation
Intentional punctuation choices also add variety (and complexity) to writing. There are several ways you
can punctuate or combine sentences: a comma and a coordinating conjunction, a semicolon, a colon, or a
period. Each one has its own purpose. Making careful punctuation choices will enhance the meaning of
your writing as well as increase readability.
Using a comma and coordinating conjunction shows how two independent clauses are related. A
semicolon can also be used in this way, but it indicates that the two independent clauses/ideas are more
closely related. In the following examples, two clauses are joined: one with a comma and coordinating
conjunction and the other with a semicolon.
Food deserts are areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food, and they are more
abundant in minority communities.
Food deserts are area access limited access to affordable and nutritious food; they are more
abundant in minority communities.
In this type of situation, the choice is yours, and it is completely dependent on what kind of meaning you
would like to come across. Each option has subtle differences in meaning.
If the clause “Food deserts are areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food” acts as a
conclusion to a prior thought, and “they are more abundant in minority communities” is a new thought, the
semicolon would be preferable because it shows a stronger separation between the two related ideas.
Alternatively, if both clauses are acting as an introduction to a new idea you will be talking about, the
comma and coordinating conjunction would be preferable because it connects the two clauses and
emphasizes how they serve one purpose together.
A colon is used to introduce something—like a quote or a list of items—or to emphasize a word or phrase
at the end of a sentence. Colons can also be used between independent clauses, but only when the
second clause expands on or explains/denes the rst clause.
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Food deserts are areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food: they have few
supermarkets, an excess of unhealthy food chains, and limited access to fresh foods.
Finally, in any case where you have joined two independent clauses and question whether the sentence is
too long or if the ideas are closely related to each other, consider simply using a period. The period
creates a full stop between your ideas.
Food deserts are areas with limited access to affordable and nutritious food. Though
development of food deserts has long been attributed to poverty levels in an area, new research
suggests that racial composition is also a key factor.
Sentence Openers
Once you familiarize yourself with the various types of sentences that will make your writing crisp and
interesting, double-check yourself to see if you are using only one type of sentence or if you could open
your sentence in one of the following ways:
Sentence Introductions
Begin your sentence with a subject.
You can begin with nouns, pronouns or the articles a, an, and the. These types of sentences are the most
common.
• Noun: Narratives are stories that account for action or events.
• Pronoun: She/He/They never neglected to phone home, even though she/he/they had left
home years ago.
• The: The best way to slice that tomato is with a sharp knife.
• A/an: A thoughtful gesture, like flowers or a hand-written card, always makes me smile.
Begin your sentence with prepositional words.
Any preposition can be used to begin your sentence
• Near the barnyard
• Inside Starbuck’s
• With her parents
• In the drive-through
• After the rain
• On the top of the dresser
• Among these authors
• At once
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Begin your sentence with an adverb.
• Angrily, the students sat down in protest.
• Lovingly, the father reached down to lift up his young son.
• Fearfully, she peeked out of the front door.
• Eventually, the United States reached the moon.
Begin your sentence with a participle phrase (“ing” / “ed” / “en” words).
This type of sentence always requires a comma. The subject, which begins with a noun/pronoun/article,
comes directly after the comma. Make sure that the phrase describes the explicit subject of the sentence,
or you will end up with a dangling modier (example: Shining over the horizon, I watched the sun rise
above the clouds. Who or what is shining over the horizon?).
• Appearing over the horizon, the sun appeared as a bastion of glory.
• Seated for a moment, he sought to rest.
• Driven by greed, realtors sold houses to unsuspecting buyers in numbers well beyond their
nancial means.
Begin your sentence with an adverbial clausal.
Note again that a comma is always necessary.
• When my dog ran away, I thought I would never see him again.
• While he wined, dined, and caroused, his money slipped away.
Begin your sentence with a very short sentence.
Use ve words or less to begin your sentence, but make sure you are not writing not a sentence fragment.
The little sentences grab the reader’s attention and offer a break between longer, more complex
sentences.
• My parents left me with over $10,000 in their will. I invested it.
• The cat lay quietly sleeping on the back porch. Abraham shouted out.
• Love is everlasting.
Formatting Your Paper (MLA, APA)
MLA/Formatting Review:
• Your entire document should be double spaced (including the Works Cited page) using 12-pt.
Times New Roman font.
• In lieu of a title page, you should have a heading with the following information:
Your Name
Professor _______
Course Name
Date
• Include a title, centered on your rst page. It should reflect what you’ll discuss in your essay.
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• Using the “Insert Header” function, include a header at the top of each page with your last
name and the page number.
• Don’t forget to introduce all quotes with a signal phrase or lead in, and be sure to cite the
page number in parentheses, as follows:
• Chopin writes, “akdsjfksdjfdskfj” (2).
• Your Works Cited page should be a separate page and is included in your page count. Include
Works Cited at the top of the page, centered. If you have more than one source, they should
be alphabetized by last name.
For Detailed Instructions on MLA Style Visit Purdue Owl
APA Formatting Review
• Page Margins: Set to 1 inch on all sides.
• Font: Use an accessible font like Times New Roman (12pt), Arial (11pt), or Georgia (11pt).
• Line Spacing: Double-space all text, including headings and references.
• Indentation: Indent the rst line of every paragraph by 0.5 inches.
• Title Page: Include the title of your paper, your name, and your institution, centered and
double-spaced.
• Page Numbers: Include a page number on every page, usually in the top right corner.
• Headings: Use up to ve levels of headings to organize your paper.
• In-Text Citations: Cite sources within the text using the author-date format (e.g., Smith, 2020).
• Reference List: At the end of your paper, include a reference list with full citations for all
sources used, formatted with a hanging indent.
For Detailed Instructions on APA Style Visit Purdue Owl
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Grammar & Mechanics
Image © Rayne Kolsrud
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Grammar and Mechanics
This section includes some common grammar and punctuation issues that students confront. It is not a
comprehensive list. To learn more, you can ask your instructor to recommend their favorite style guide.
You can also practice many of these skills on various internet resources such as Khan Academy.
If you have noticed that your teachers often comment on the same errors repeatedly, it is an excellent idea
to be proactive and start training yourself to recognize and correct your mistakes before you turn in your
work. Even spending thirty minutes on a skill can transform your understanding.
USE THIS SPACE TO NOTE SOME OF THE AREAS YOU WOULD LIKE TO IMPROVE:
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Run-on sentences
When two or more independent clauses are connected without proper punctuation or conjunctions, that is
called a run-on sentence. To avoid run-on sentences, you need to understand how to use commas,
conjunctions, semicolons, colons, and periods. Here are some of the fundamental rules that can help you
avoid run-on sentences.
1. Never connect two sentences using only a comma.
The mountain rose above the valley, the valley sank into the river. (NEVER!)
2. You can also connect the two sentences using BOTH a comma and a conjunction (FANBOYS – for,
and, nor, but, or, yet, so).
The mountain rose above the valley, and the valley sank into the river.
3. If you want to keep the pacing fast between two sentences, you can use a semicolon.
The mountain rose above the valley; the valley sank into the river.
4. Sometimes, we start sentences with adverbial conjunctions, also known as conjunctive adverbs,
like “however,” “moreover,” or “nonetheless.” Since these words can also begin sentences, we use
a semicolon before the adverbial conjunction and a comma after it.
The mountain rose above the valley; however, the valley sank into the river.
5. If you don’t mind the complete pause indicated by a period, you can use a period and create two
sentences.
The mountain rose above the valley. The valley sank into the river.
If your teachers often comment on run-on sentences in your writing, it’s worth your time to pay
extra attention to this skill. Memorize the patterns and make sure that you apply them
intentionally.
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Sentence Fragments
Sentences are complete thoughts that include essential components. A sentence must have someone or
something performing the action (subject) and an action (verb). There may also be an object, something
acted upon. To avoid sentence fragments, make sure that you have the essential parts of a sentence in
place: Subject Verb Object.
The girl (subject) sat (verb) on the chair (object) .
Sometimes students write dependent clauses that they mistake for complete sentences. These are
phrases that begin with words like that, which, until, while, when, if, unless, since, or because.
If you have written a dependent clause, make sure that it is connected to an independent clause.
Error: I didn’t sleep last night. Because I drank too much coffee. (The second part is a sentence
fragment.)
Correction: I did not sleep last night because I drank too much coffee.
Subject-verb agreement
The verb in a sentence must match the number in the subject. Many native English speakers do this
intuitively, but it can be confusing.
In the present tense, typically if there is a single subject, there will be a verb with an s at the end to match
the tense.
For example, “She dances like a mad meerkat in the rain.”
But when there is a plural subject, the verb will not have an s, as in “We dance like graceful lemurs in the
setting sun.”
Commas
Commas can be confusing for even the most competent writers. Many teachers like to tell students that
commas represent a pause in speech and to just listen for that pause. While this can be a helpful clue,
there is a logic to comma use that you can learn.
If you can learn the following four rules, you will use commas correctly almost all the time without having
to become a phd-level grammarian!
Anybody can learn four rules, even a dancing lemur.
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• Use commas to separate items in a list of three or more, even when there is a conjunction
(FANBOYS). This is also known as the “Oxford Comma.”
The dancing lemurs twirled, pirouetted, and spun.
• Use commas to separate independent clause when they are connected by conjunctions
(FANBOYS).
The dancing lemurs twirled in the setting sun, and they slept in the forest canopy until dawn.
• Use commas to separate independent clauses from the words or phrases that introduce
them.
Bathed in golden light, the dancing lemurs twirled and pirouetted.
• Use commas to surround phrases that are not essential to the meaning of the sentence that
they interrupt.
The dancing lemurs, bathed in golden light, twirled and pirouetted.
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Semicolons
Semicolons are another useful form of punctuation that can help you clarify meaning or change the pacing
of a sentence.
A semicolon has three basic functions:
• You can use a semicolon to connect two independent clauses that you want the reader to
understand as closely related to each other.
Having lunch with leopards sounds fun; being eaten by leopards for lunch does not sound fun
• Remember that conjunctive adverbs like however, moreover, and nonetheless can start a
sentence. When you use them to connect two independent clauses, you will use a semicolon
before the conjunctive adverb and a comma after it.
Having lunch with leopards sounds fun; however, being a leopard’s lunch
does not sound fun.
• When you write a more complex list that includes commas, you will use a semicolon to
separate the items in the list to avoid confusion.
The leopards served a thematic world-tour luncheon that included foods from Paris,
France; Catalonia, Spain; Kathmandu, Nepal; and Nairobi, Kenya.
How to Use Colons
Like semicolons, colons can also be used to clarify and change pacing; however, they serve other
functions as well. Here are the ve rules for colon use you are most likely to need:
• Use a colon to connect two independent clauses when the second sentence provides an
example or explanation of the rst.
Having lunch in a leopard’s den proved more delightful than we imagined: The leopards
prepared tiramisu and served mimosas in crystal glasses.
• Use a colon to introduce a list or a quotation after an independent clause.
Lunch was a delectable survey of international goodies: croissants, lasagna, feijoada, and
pineapple upside-down cake.
The menu described the dessert: “a cascade of chocolate gelato over a creamy mocha sponge
cake.”
• Use a colon between the hour and minute when telling time.
Lunch was served at 12:25.
• Use a colon between the title and the subtitle of a book.
The Leopard Luncheon: My Story of an Interspecies Encounter
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• Use a colon in the salutation of a business letter.
Dear Leopard Chef:
Verb Tense and Tense Shifts
Verb tense refers to the way verbs indicate a relationship to time. Verbs can tell readers if the action is
happening now, in the past, or will happen in the future. As a writer, you must be conscientious and
consistent with your verb tense.
There are three verb tenses: PAST, PRESENT, and FUTURE.
Here are some examples of how to apply them.
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Past tense:
The sloth languished in the noon-day sun at the tropical resort.
Present tense:
The sloth languishes by the pool at the tropical resort.
Future tense:
The sloth will soon languish under a striped umbrella.
Parallel Structure
Parallel structure, also called Parallelism, means that phrases grouped in a sentence have the same
grammatical form to show that they are equally important and matched. This also helps your writing sound
more coherent.
Not Parallel
The grasshopper enjoyed surng, to go scuba diving, and parasailing.
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Parallel
The grasshopper enjoyed surng, scuba diving, and parasailing.
Modiers
Modiers are words or phrases that add information about other parts of a sentence. They can modify nouns,
pronouns, verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.
For example, in the sentence "The fragrant, green plant grew larger everyday," the words "fragrant," "green,"
and "larger" are all modiers. "Fragrant" and "green" modify the noun "plant," telling us more about the plant.
"Larger" tells us how it grew.
A misplaced modier is a word, phrase, or clause that is separated from the word it modies or describes.
This can cause confusion.
Misplaced:
The bear cooked oatmeal in his pajamas.
The bear is wearing the pajamas; the oatmeal is surely in a pot.
Correct Placement:
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The bear in pajamas cooked oatmeal.
As you review your writing, be on the lookout for modiers and make sure they are in the best position for
clarity. Any word or phrase that serves as a modier should be next to, or as close as possible to, whatever it
modies.
Understanding Passive and Active Voice
A lot of students are confused about passive and active voice, but it’s easier to recognize than you may
realize.
English sentences typically begin with the subject (the person or thing performing the action). The verb
(the action) follows the subject. Finally, the object (the thing the action is conducted upon) concludes the
sentence.
Sometimes writers reverse the order and start the sentence with the object. Sometimes they leave the
subject out altogether. This is called passive voice because it is as though no one and nothing performed
the action.
One way to double-check is to ask yourself who or what is performing the action. If you are not sure if you
have written a sentence in passive voice, ask yourself, “Who is driving that car?” (who or what is
performing the action).
Passive Voice:
The car was driven down the road.
In this example, we don’t know who is performing the action.
Active Voice:
An angry antelope drove the convertible down the road.
In this case, we have a driver! The sentence is in active voice.
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FUN Passive Voice Test:
If you can conclude a sentence with the phrase “by zombie chickens,” it is in passive voice.
Example:
The tepee was erected by zombie chickens.
To avoid passive voice, nd a great verb and put it after the subject. Watch out for weak verbs like is, was,
has, were, and are. See the list of verbs on the next page.
By the way, passive voice is not always inappropriate. Professional writing in the sciences often uses
passive voice to emphasize the action over the actor; the lab assistant doesn’t matter as much as the
outcome of an experiment. For English Composition, however, strive to use active voice whenever you
can. Active voice empowers your writing!
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Awesome Action Verbs
In every sentence, employ language that conveys the depth of your argument—especially theoretical
claims, thesis statements, topic sentences, and analysis. This list of verbs will strengthen your writing, but
only if you select words that you know will t your meaning and syntax.
Example: The text emphasizes its unlikely representations of injustice to explore how the characters
contend with oppression.
Conjecture
Illuminate
Expose
Render
Interpret
Contradict
Challenge
Conflict
Analyze
Examine
Study
Signal
Investigate
Scrutinize
Conrm
Verify
Create
Generate
Fashion
Form
Construct
Deconstruct
Reconstruct
Build
Produce
Invent
Condemn
Claim
Hint
Obstruct
Veil
Dispute
Criticize
Historicize
Expand
Perceive
Manipulate
Congure
Isolate
Respond
Characterize
Probe
Question
Evaluate
Highlight
Emphasize
Underscore
Focus
Feature
Accentuate
Attest
Initiate
Shape
Transform
Frame
Support
Sustain
Suggest
Propose
Imply
Insinuate
Indicate
Signify
Denote
Connote
Critique
Assume
Denounce
Renounce
Link
Gesture
(to/at)
Censure
Contend
Descend
Reinforce
Bolster
Detach
Broaden
Distinguish
Amplify
Intensify
Recongure
Deride
Shroud
Authorize
Dramatize
Illustrate
Present
Represent
Explain
Prove
Demonstrate
Exhibit
Express
Reveal
Establish
Consider
Access
Justify
Account
Address
Problematize
Position
Inform
Maintain
Conceal
Instigate
Expound (on)
Recall
Echo
Dismiss
Alter
Elevate
Conflate
Negate
Disclose
Enforce
Conceive
Augment
Identify
Witness
Attribute
Arrange
Evoke
Advance
Dismantle
Argue
Enable
Explore
Negotiate
Mediate
Review
Announce
Nod
(toward/at)
Diagnose
Detect
Guide
Persuade
Pronounce
Coach
Adapt
Clarify
Craft
Attain
Discuss
Posit
Obscure
Disguise
Trigger
Rationalize
Treat
Carry
Validate
Engage
Elaborate
(on)
Condense
Connect
Defy
Divulge
Warp
Misconceive
Grasp
Prompt
Recognize
Ascribe
Assign
Radicalize
Navigate
Counteract
Traverse
Lampoon
Historicize
Situate
Assert
Complicate
Associate
Insist
Elucidate
Epitomize
Embody
Explicate
Instruct
Exemplify
Chronicle
Heighten
Contextualize
Work (to)
Prioritize
Simulate
Organize
Offer
Exist
Portray
Describe
Interrogate
79
Italics
Here are four cases that benet from italics.
• When writing Modern Language Association papers, you should indicate the titles of books,
movies, epic poems, vessels, art works, and legal cases using italics.
• If you need to emphasize a specic word or phrase, you may use italics; however, this should
be used sparingly.
• Italicize words from a foreign language if they are not commonly used in English.
• Italicize words when you are discussing the nature of the word itself.
Example:
The word gargantuan originated from a 16th-century French satire featuring a giant named
Gargantua.
Quotation Marks
Use quotation marks anytime you include a quotation from another source in your writing. Remember that
the period goes inside the quotation marks unless there is an in-text citation. In MLA papers, if there is an
in-text citation, the period will follow the citation.
In MLA papers, chapter titles, poem titles (except epic poems), song titles, article titles, essay titles, and
scene titles are indicated with quotation marks.
If you are using another academic style, please refer to the appropriate style guide for guidance.
As discussed in the section on quote integration, always stage the context and explain the origin of any
quotations you use.
Dashes
Dashes are another punctuation mark that can help you clarify meaning and change the pacing of your
writing. Some writers, however, will overuse dashes as a result of comma anxiety. What’s comma anxiety?
Comma anxiety is a pressing fear resulting from uncertainty over comma rules, so the writer uses a dash
instead. Problem is—dashes have rules too!
There are four types of dashes and each of them has a special function. Before you use a dash (instead of
a comma) again, read over these guidelines.
80
• Em dash: Use an Em dash to replace commas or other punctuation when the phrase set off
by the dashes needs extra emphasis or contains punctuation that might make commas more
confusing than dashes.
• En dash: An En dash is used to show a span between a range of numbers.
EXAMPLE: Instead of saying “from twelve to two we will listen to lo hip hop,” you could write
“from 12-2.”
• Double Hyphen: If you want to indicate a sudden break in thought or flow, you can use a
double hyphen for extra emphasis. This might be more useful in creative writing than in
academic papers.
• Hyphens: Use hyphens for clarity when writing compound numbers, some compound
nouns, compound adjectives, and when you join words to describe another word.
EXAMPLE: The pajama-clad elephant ran a half-marathon in twenty-ve minutes.
Parentheses
Parentheses are another way to shape your writing for clarity. Here are some of the ways you will be likely
to use them:
• To set off nonessential information or quick shifts in thought
• To add extra information or examples or to clarify
• To explain an abbreviation or acronym
• To add a brief personal commentary
• To indicate an in-text citation
Apostrophes
Please don’t forget your apostrophes! Use apostrophes in contractions and to indicate possessive nouns.
To show possession: if the noun is singular, you put the ’s at the end of the word.
The car’s exhaust was green.
If, however, the noun is plural AND ends in s, then you simply put the apostrophe after the nal s.
All the cars’ horns blared at the same time.
Finally, if the plural noun does not end in an s, you add the apostrophe and an s.
The oxen’s yoke broke when the cars’ horns howled.
Brackets
You can use brackets to indicate a change in a letter or word in your writing. For example, if you are
quoting another writer and they have used a pronoun that might be confusing to your reader, you can put
the specic noun or proper noun in brackets instead of the confusing pronoun. Similarly, you can change
the tense of a verb to help a quotation blend with your writing.
81
“[Wole] gathered his pack and ran around the stadium.”
Nelson Mandela reminded his audience that things “[seem] impossible until [they are]
done.”
82
APPENDIX
All Images © Rayne Kolsr
83
AAC&U Value Rubrics
From AAC&U’s website21
(adapted and revised)
Value Assessment of Learning in Undergraduate Education
The links below lead rubrics created by a host of experts from the American Association of Colleges and
Universities, a global membership organization of educators that works to improve quality and equity in
undergraduate education and advance liberal education.
As you view these rubrics, which will encompass many disciples you will encounter throughout your
undergraduate education, know that teams of faculty experts representing colleges and universities
across the United States worked together to develop these 16 VALUE rubrics for you.
These rubrics articulate fundamental criteria for the related learning outcomes and include performance
descriptors demonstrating progressively more sophisticated levels of attainment you will experience in
your journey here at UWG. Although not all professors will incorporate these specic rubrics into their
courses, the concepts and assessments you nd here are those which will guide you through the learning
process in your courses. You will learn to apply these fundamental capacities across all disciplines, and
ultimately in work, citizenship, and life!
• Civic Engagement—Local and Global
• Foundations for Skills and Lifelong Learning
• Integrative Learning
• Quantitative Literacy
• Creative Thinking
• Global Learning
• Intercultural Knowledge and Competence
• Reading
• Critical Thinking
• Information Literacy
• Oral Communication
• Teamwork
• Ethical Reasoning
• Inquiry and Analysis
• Problem Solving
• Written Communication
21 AAC&U Value Rubrics. Provided by AAC&U.
84
UWG FYW Assessment Tool
LO 2 Student Improvement Plan
Rationale:
In order to address consistent shortcomings in the student score of LO 2 (synthesize and logically arrange
written presentation and organization of ideas) in English 1101 and English 1102, students need practice
with skills associated with the development of effective body paragraphs. This tool seeks to address
student cognizance and execution of effective body paragraph composition and reinforce the basic
components of development.
Assessment Tool:
Standard components and denitions are as follows:
Body Paragraph Composition
• Topic Sentence: claim/assertion related to the larger thesis
• Evidence: materials from the text/source
• Explanation/analysis:
• Content: What does the evidence mean?
• Context: Why is it important to the topic?
• Judgment: How does it help prove or support the thesis?
Suggestions for Implementation:
* This tool should be implemented during the course
(early in the semester) and evaluated with the provided rubric on a nished product (whether as a
separate assigned paragraph or in a nal draft of an essay.)
*Instructors may adapt/modify how they approach the tool granted all of the components of the tool are
included in this order.
85
General Education Assessment
Core Area Program A.1: ENGL
Communicating in Writing
1. Students will adapt their written communications to purpose and audience using appropriate grammar
and writing conventions. (Grammar/mechanics/spelling/etc.)
2. Students will communicate effectively in writing utilizing clear organization and structure.( Overall essay
and paragraph development)
3. Students will appropriately integrate textual evidence from original sources using appropriate form and
purpose. (Integrating textual evidence from source(s): a- (function)to support the thesis b-(form) MLA
format)
4. Students will analyze and draw informed inferences from written texts.(Critical thinking and analysis)
SCORE
4 =
Exemplary
(Exceeds
Expectations)
3 =
Proficient
(Meets
Expectations)
2 =
Developing
(Does Not Meet
Expectations)
1 =
Unsatisfactory
(Failing)
Learning
Characteristics
Criteria
Criteria
Criteria
Criteria
Students will adapt
their written
communications to
purpose and
audience using
appropriate grammar
and writing
conventions.
Target: clarity and
comprehensibility
of
language
No pervasive
sentence-
level errors are
present that
interfere with the
comprehension
and clarity of the
response.
Some
sentence-level
errors interfere
with the
comprehension
and clarity of
the response.
Significant
sentence-
level errors
frequently
interfere with
the
comprehension
and clarity of
the response.
Pervasive
sentence-level
errors render the
response
incomprehensible.
4
3
2
1
Students will
communicate
effectively in writing,
demonstrating clear
organization and
structure.
Target:
organization
of ideas
The response
demonstrates an
effective
organizational
structure that
includes an
effective
introduction,
well-developed
body
paragraphs,
each including a
The response
demonstrates a
somewhat
effective
organizational
structure with an
effective
introduction,
well-developed
body
paragraphs,
though some
The response
demonstrates a
limited
understanding of
organizational
structure and
consists of a
recognizable
introduction, but
body paragraphs
are lacking in
form and/or
The response
demonstrates
minimal
understanding of
organizational
structure with
limited
development of
body
paragraphs
86
strong topic
sentence,
evidence and
analysis, and
sufficient
conclusion.
may be lacking
in form, and a
sufficient
conclusion.
development,
conclusion may
be present but
insufficient.
4
3
2
1
Students will
appropriately
integrate textual
evidence from
original sources using
appropriate form and
purpose.
Target:
integration of
textual
evidence
The response
demonstrates
full
comprehension
of integrating
textual
evidence from
original
sources to
support thesis
claim(s) in a
meaningful and
sophisticated
manner and
also adheres to
MLA
formatting.
The response
demonstrates
moderate
comprehension
of integration
textual evidence
from original
sources to
support thesis
claims in a
meaningful way
but may require
some revision in
MLA formatting.
The response
demonstrates
adequate
comprehension
of integration of
textual
evidence from
original
sources to
support thesis
claims but may
be lacking in
purpose and/or
MLA
formatting.
The response
demonstrates
minimal
comprehension
of integrating
textual
evidence in
either
purpose or
MLA formatting
OR response
does not
include textual
evidence.
4
3
2
1
IV: Students will
analyze and draw
informed inferences
from written texts.
Target: critical
thinking
The response
offers a thorough
evaluation and
engagement with
the source text
and provides
compelling
analysis related
to the topic.
The response
offers a moderate
evaluation and
engagement with
the source text and
provides analysis
that extends
beyond a surface
level reading but
requires further
development.
The response offers
adequate evaluation
and engagement
with the source text
and provides limited
analysis that
primarily rests upon
summary.
The response offers
little or no evaluation
or engagement with
the source text that
extends beyond a
surface level
reading.
87
Favorite Assignments
Favorite Assignment 1
Metacognitive Reflections
(https://lincs.ed.gov/state-resources/federal-initiatives/teal/guide/metacognitive)
Metacognition is one’s ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for approaching a learning task,
take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and modify one’s approach as
needed. It helps learners choose the right cognitive tool for the task and plays a critical role in successful
learning.
Why Metacognition in Essay Revision?
Metacognition refers to awareness of one’s own knowledge—what one does and doesn’t know—and one’s
ability to understand, control, and manipulate one’s cognitive processes (Meichenbaum, 1985). It includes
knowing when and where to use particular strategies for learning and problem solving as well as how and
why to use specic strategies. Metacognition is the ability to use prior knowledge to plan a strategy for
approaching a learning task, take necessary steps to problem solve, reflect on and evaluate results, and
modify one’s approach as needed.
Essay Revision Assignment:
After receiving your graded Essay I or Essay II, complete the following exercise in a Word document and
submit your responses with your revised essay.
There are quite a few steps here, so please pay close attention to the instructions, number each response,
and provide thoughtful answers to each question.
• Re-read the essay writing prompt. After receiving your grade, what aspects of the prompt do
you believe you need to address better? Be specic.
• Read all my in-text comments. What in-text comment (or comments if the same comment was
repeated several times) seemed the most signicant to you? What makes it signicant?
• Read my summary comments. Based on your instructor’s comments, what two aspects of
your writing do they think need the most improvement? Why do you think they selected those
two?
• After completing the rst four steps, read over this essay checklist to orient yourself to the
entire revision process:
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Revision Checklist
In summary, the revision checklist found below will help you focus on some key issues as you revise
your paper.
• Have I conveyed the signicance of my ideas to my readers? Is my purpose clear?
• Does my essay meet the requirements of my assignment?
• Is my focus too broad? Have I narrowed my topic well?
• Is my organization plan effective?
• Is there a way to make the concept I am discussing clearer and more focused?
• Is the voice or style I am using appropriate for my audience?
• Have I clearly dened any terms used?
• Have I considered any possible objections to my position, if I take a position in this research
essay?
• Do I provide clear transitions between my ideas? Are there any gaps between my points? Are
there any points that need further explanation or detail?
• Are there any points that need to be cut because they are not related to my focus?
• Are my sources credible? Have I addressed this credibility in my writing?
• Have I integrated my source material smoothly and effectively by providing signal phrases and
or context for this information?
• Have I put some source material in my own words as much as possible, and used quotes only
when necessary?
• Have I properly acknowledged all of my source material, including paraphrases and
summaries?
After carefully evaluating your answers to the revision questions:
• Completely revise your essay, according your professor’s instructions. Bear in mind that to
receive a new, improved grade for this assignment, you must re-envision all aspects of the
paper, with the above list and your instructor’s feedback foremost in your mind.
• After you have revised your essay, highlight every change/correction in your paper and
complete the following correction chart for every error in your essay.
• Submit your reflections, your correction chart, and your revised essay. Separate les are ne.
Make a grid chart with the following headers and list your errors and proposed corrections:
• Error #
• What is the error?
• Type out the error—just as you wrote it on your paper (condense as necessary)
• Now type out the corrected word/phrase/sentence here
89
Favorite Assignment II
In Class: Literacy Narrative Brainstorm
At the end of Educated, Tara Westover says, “You could call this new selfhood many
things. Transformation. Metamorphosis. Falsity. Betrayal. I call it an education” (329).
To some degree, Westover’s memoir functions as a literacy narrative in its description of
her coming to differ realizations about her family, religion, science, history, women’s
rights, and the way the world works more generally.
Purpose: For your second Skills Assignment, I’m asking you to compose a literacy narrative. This in-class
exercise is a way to prepare some ideas for that work.
Task Part 1: In the spaces below, jot down a few sentences about three different memories that were
pivotal to your experiences in educational or learning environments. [Note: Westover shares a lot of
traumatic memories in her memoir. Please do not feel obligated or encouraged to share anything you
might nd sensitive about your own life.]
Task Part 2:
Review the list of topics from the Essay 3 prompt.
In groups of three, each person will take the role of both speaker and listeners. As a speaker, you will
choose one of the memories you wrote about above and in 1-2 minutes, you’ll relate that memory to the
group. (SET A TIMER to make sure that you don’t go over 1-2 minutes!)
As a listener, you’ll be responsible for two things: 1) mention a trope that you think connects to the
speaker’s memory and 2) identify a detail along with its specic page number where Westover addresses
the same trope (Note: Try to nd a different a scene from Westover that we have not yet discussed in
class, if possible).
Below, make note of the feedback you were given when you took your turn as “speaker.”
Listener 1’s Recommendations:
Topic:
Detail:
Listener 2’s Recommendations: Topic:
Detail:
90
Skills Assignment: Literacy Narrative Prompt
Purpose:
There will be many times in your life when you will be asked to write about yourself: in applications to
programs or for scholarships, in cover letters when applying for jobs, or in any other situation where you
are trying to help a group of people get to know you better. In some ways, if you use social media, you are
already writing about your life for an audience every day.
Writing about ourselves isn’t always for an audience of other people though; writing can be a reflective
process that can help you to understand yourself in relationship to the people and encounters you face in
everyday life. This assignment will prepare you to think about how you might write about yourself for an
audience of others, and also for yourself.
Task:
This assignment asks you to consider who you are in terms of your experience with literacy; in other
words, what are your experiences with learning and in school so far? How do you see yourself as a
reader/writer, not just in “English” class, but in all areas of your work and life?
To reiterate, literacy is usually thought of as it relates to reading and writing, but for this assignment, you
can think about literacy as learning more generally. This is a creative assignment, and you will be
assessed on your effort to take the assignment seriously and to meet the requirement. This means that
you can be as creative as you like in your response, but if you prefer to have some structure, consider the
following advice.
Tips:
• Anchor your narrative with specic memories. You might refer back to the “memory”
worksheet we did in class, where you spoke to a peer about important memories about
learning experiences you encountered.
• If you feel stuck, think about specic encounters with reading and writing: when did you learn
to read? Did you like it? Why or why not? Do you like writing? Why or why not?
• What has your experience been like in college so far? Has it changed the way you think about
your experiences with literacy? How? Or why not?
• Do you identify with Tara Westover in Educated? Be specic: what has been similar or
different in your experience?
• Requirements:
Favorite Assignment III
Skills Assignment: One Drive Portfolio
Purpose: In college, you are going to create many projects, big and small. Often, it’s hard to keep track of
all that you have accomplished, and because of this, it’s sometimes hard to understand how the tasks you
are completing could be connected. In other words, does your chemistry class have anything to do with
your history class?
Not only will this assignment help you keep track of your work, but it will also be a space for you to share
materials with future employers.
91
Task:
Create a One Folder Titled: Undergraduate College Work
• Create a separate folder within the folder that corresponds to the titles of your class this
semester (example: one of your folders will be titled Instructor’s Last Name_English 1101)
• In each folder, upload any work you have written for that particular class. Even if you don’t
have a formal writing assignment, you can include lab notes, study guides, any other written
notes you completed.
• For each class, write a 50-word summary that describes what you feel like you learned in the
class. Note if there was any “overlap” between classes.
• Title this document: Summary of Learning.
• By the due date, share this folder with (instructor’s preference)
Grading Criteria:
This assignment will be graded based on the completion of the tasks. It is worth X% of your nal grade.
Favorite Assignment IV: Creating Arguments Using Graphic Novel
Elements (for use with courses requiring a graphic novel)
Graphic novel authors and illustrators embed implied meaning into their narratives using elements such as
panel designs and captions. For example, in the graphic novel Trinity, Fetter-Vorm presents implied
arguments about topics such as the consequences of progress and the limits of science.
Your Task: In this assignment, you will attempt to make an argument using graphic novel
elements. Design three pages/panels that show your position on one of the following topics (topics will
vary depending upon the assigned graphic novel):
● the consequences of progress on Native American culture,
OR
● the pros or cons of military science
92
Don't worry—Your instructor is not grading you on your artistic ability! The goal here is to gain a better
understanding of and appreciation for the genre and how meaning is created.
Tips for starting:
• Follow Fetter-Vorm's lead (watch "Jonathan Fetter-Vorm: Telling the Stories of Science
through Comics and Graphic Novels") and consider using sources—like archival photographs
or the documents about Native American removal and assimilation as inspiration for your
panels.
• Fetter-Vorm's book is in black and white, but use color if you feel it would better present your
argument.
• Don’t forget to include graphic novel elements like the ones discussed by MoMA. Think about
how you can use them strategically to construct your implied argument.
• If you’d like to see a student sample, see the example below:
When you are nished, take a picture of your work (make sure the image is saved as a .jpg or .jpeg) and
add it to the submissions folder by XXXXX at XX:XX.
93
Favorite Assignment V
End of Semester Reflection
By Mike Kiggins 22
Throughout these past 15 weeks, we have discussed the concept of metacognition, which is thinking
about how you think. As we wrap up the semester, I want you to reflect on your growth as a writer in at
least 250 words.
Feel free to go over this minimum word count and to be creative. The rst-person voice is completely
acceptable here, but you may also nd it a bit freeing to use the second-person voice to talk about your
progress as if from an outside perspective.
Points to Consider:
• First, what went well this semester? Where did you struggle?
• In what concrete ways has your writing improved?
• What areas do you plan to work on improving further?
• And, last, what do you plan to take from this course to use in your future courses?
Next, respond to at least one of your classmates' posts in at least 100 words.
• Do not simply agree or disagree.
• Ask questions based on what they have said, or raise related points they might want to
consider.
• Think about the kind of comments that would be helpful to you and do your best to give those
to your classmate.
22 End of Semester Reflection. Authored by Mike Kiggins. Provided by Creative Commons. License: Creative Commons Attribution Non-Commercial Share Alike
94
Favorite Assignment VI
In Class Writing: Defending a Banned Book
Purpose: In life, you will need to defend things you care about. As a group, you have a specic task at
hand, either in defending the use of the book in school, or in arguing that students should not be allowed
to read it. (Remember, you are not deciding if this book should be banned for all people for all time—just if
you think it should be allowed in public schools).
No matter what you argue, your instructor and your fellow classmates will be providing a counter
argument/disagreeing with you in some way. Be prepared to stick to your defense!
Task:
OPTION 1: As a group, if you think the book should be taught, follow this task:
1) Choose one popular reason for banning book:
• Culture
• Violence
• Race
• Gender
• Language
• Sexuality
• Historical Events
• Education
• Identity
• Religion
2) Find TWO passages that you think are particularly relevant in terms of being good, teachable moments
related to the concern. Make sure to write down the page numbers.
3) Get ready to present your answers to the following questions in the class:
• Who should read this book?
• What grade should this be taught in and why?
• What does this book teach us about your topic that we otherwise may not fully understand?
• Which two passages support this reasoning?
• Read them to us (make it quick!)
OPTION TWO: As a group, if you think the book should not be taught, follow this task:
Choose one popular reason for banning book:
• Culture
• Violence
• Race
• Gender
• Language
• Sexuality
• Historical Events
95
• Education
• Identity
• Religion
• Find two passages that support the misuse of one of the topics listed above. Make sure to
write down the page numbers.
• Get ready to present your answers to the following questions in the class:
• If students should not read this book in middle or high school, when should they read it (if
ever)?
• What are the consequences of the way the text approaches your topic?
• Which two passages support this reasoning?
• Read them to us (make it quick!)
96
Growth Mindset
Understanding the difference between “can’t” and “not yet”
When introduced to the concept of a growth mindset, you'll be able to recognize the science behind
learning and the signicant role that mindset plays in your learning process. You see, neuroplasticity refers
to the brain's ability to change its structure in response to experience or damage. Neuropathways are
connections formed between neurons in our brains. When you learn something, a neural pathway is
formed. If you practice this new skill, this pathway will become stronger. If you stop practicing it, the brain
will eventually disconnect unused pathways. (This is a similar process as getting in shape: It's entirely
possible to build muscle but to see progress, you'll have to be consistent in working out.)
Understanding the difference between a xed mindset (which often leads to frustration and not much
progression) to a growth mindset (wherein you recognize that with practice, you will see tangible evidence
of improvement) will help you stay the course, particularly when you're struggling. Bearing this in mind
may also help you reframe classes that challenge you in light of an awareness of the power of a growth
mindset as part of navigating academics.
To learn more about growth mindset explore the links below:
Carol Dweck Explains Growth Mindset “The Power of Yet”
Developing a Growth Mindset Module
Learning to Learn
Pre and Post Diagnostics
Pre: Easy on the Wallet or Easy on the Earth
A Case about Ethics in Sourcing
By Meghan Skarzynski23
Fashionforward! is an online auction site where those who have more style than money can bid on
designer apparel. The site registers members for $30, who are then allowed to bid on exceptional deals. In
an effort to stand out from the crowded eld of online bargain sites, Fashionforward! reached out to the
local community in search of help marketing their company to college students.
23 Easy on the Wallet or Easy on the Earth: A Case about Ethics in Sourcing. Authored by Meghan Skarzynski. Provided by Santa Clara University Markkula Center for
Applied Ethics.
97
Part of this effort included hiring a student intern, Carly LeBlanc. At that point, Fashionforward! had no
formal marketing strategy for targeting consumers. As someone who grew up in the digital age, LeBlanc
knew she had to kick start the company on the Internet. Her marketing knowledge centered on the
benets of viral technologies, especially Facebook and Twitter.
LeBlanc immediately revamped the Fashionforward! Facebook page to make it more user-friendly--adding
quizzes, polls, discussion boards, and photo albums--as well as setting Twitter blasts to go off repeatedly
throughout the day. During her three-month internship, LeBlanc quadrupled the Fashionforward!
Facebook fan base. Her project helped catapult the company into prominence. In the three months of her
internship, Fashionforward! increased the number of items offered on the site threefold.
The CEO noticed LeBlanc's success in social networking and asked her to launch a guerrilla marketing
campaign on her own campus to create buzz for Fashionforward! among her peers. The CEO challenged
her to register 100 new clients within the week.
A member of a sorority since her freshman year, LeBlanc decided to use her Greek connections. She
appeared at four campus sororities that week. Promising a free Fashionforward! T-shirt with the sorority's
name for every membership purchased, LeBlanc registered 300 new members in one night.
Reporting to work the next day, LeBlanc was excited to share with the team the quick acceptance
Fashionforward! had received on campus. She believed she had developed an easy and effective
marketing strategy that could be replicated at schools all over the country. LeBlanc planned to order
different T-shirt designs for different sororities, highlighting the Fashionforward! logo in bold lettering.
That's when she faced a difcult ethical decision: She could order the shirts from a low-cost company in
China or she could order them from a fair-trade company in San Francisco, which provided safe
conditions and higher wages for the workers who made the clothing. The fair trade shirts were
$28.65,making the grand total for her project $8,595. In contrast, the Chinese T-shirts were $5.50 each,
and the company's Web site promised fast and free delivery for a grand total of $1,100.
LeBlanc remembered from her Venture Capital Finance class that startup companies need to focus on
making the most money during the rst two years. She also knew that the T-shirts from China would be
cheaper so that she could create a more elaborate design with more graphics and color. She realized her
school was a "testing campus" for Fashionforward! and that if her marketing module worked, her
internship work would spread to other college campuses. She thought of how easy it would be for a
factory in China to produce large quantities of shirts to give away for free as a promotion that she could
promote on the Facebook page she had worked so hard on. She also wondered if the higher cost of the T-
shirts would affect the grade the CEO gave her for the internship.
On the other hand, her International Management class had exposed her to the harsh reality of working
conditions in China: low wages, rigorous work schedule, poor safety regulations, and the complete lack of
worker's compensation and benets. When LeBlanc had sailed on the Human Rights and Social Justice
Voyage with University of Virginia's Semester at Sea, she saw rst-hand a Bulgarian clothing factory's
destitute environment. She wasn't sure how the public would react if they knew Fashionforward! had taken
advantage of outsourcing cheaper t-shirts rather than supporting a U.S. company during the global
recession.
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Then LeBlanc weighed her other option of ordering t-shirts from a San Francisco T-shirt company she had
already used once when she worked with a community service student organization. While the shirts were
more expensive, they were fair-trade, organic, and eco-friendly, all attributes she thought would appeal to
students. LeBlanc reasoned students would be more likely to wear a shirt that was fashionable and better
quality than one that was made cheaply.
LeBlanc didn't want to disappoint her boss. She knew she was working on a deadline and didn't have time
to research the prices of T-shirts at other companies. Even though she could have created a bidding war
with local T-shirt companies for the business, she preferred to buy from a company that she could trust. At
the same time, the $7,495 she would save if she bought from the Chinese manufacturer was too good not
to consider. She knew if she made her boss happy, she'd be promoted and enjoy more independence with
her future projects.
LeBlanc wants Fashionforward! to increase its popularity and become a topnotch company among college
trendsetters. What should she do and why?
Paragraph one: Summarize the text
In 5-7 sentences, objectively describe the sides/facets of the ethical dilemma.
Paragraph Two: Present an argument about the text.
In 7-10 sentences, present and defend a solution that to the ethical dilemma
Post: One Fish, Two Fish
A Case about Ethics in Sustainability
“One Fish, Two Fish”24 from the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University25
By Niki Petroff, Alex Sola-guinto, Randy Cornelius, and Courtney Scheidt
College freshmen Josh and David live together in an on-campus dorm. They share a communal bathroom
with two other students. Halfway through the school year, Josh begins to notice that David takes unusually
long showers. With each passing week, David’s showers have increased to 45 minutes each, sometimes
twice a day. Additionally, David allows the tap to run while he brushes his teeth, sometimes for well over
ve minutes at least twice per day.
24 One Fish Two Fish: A Case about Ethics in Sustainability. Authored by Niki Petroff, Alex Sola-guinto, Randy Cornelius, and Courtney Scheidt. Provided by Santa
Clara University Markkula Center for Applied Ethics. One Fish, Two Fish - The Big Q Blog - Markkula Center for Applied Ethics (scu.edu)
25 One Fish Two Fish: A Case about Ethics in Sustainability. Authored by Niki Petroff, Alex Sola-guinto, Randy Cornelius, and Courtney Scheidt. Provided by Santa
Clara University Markkula Center for Applied Ethics. https://www.scu.edu/the-big-q/the-big-q-blog/one-sh-two-sh.html
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Josh knows that running water ultimately goes down the drain and into the sewers. Of course, everyone
just assumes there will be more available the next day, but the local water authority recently declared the
campus municipality under water restrictions, as the entire state continues its fourth year under severe
drought conditions. Josh realizes that David consumes huge amounts of water as well as enormous
amounts of energy, for his utility usage does not end at the shower. David consistently leaves all of his
electronic devices on full active status all day, lights in their shared room remain on whether he is there or
not, and the thermostat locked into the highest allowable range.
Bothered by David’s actions, Josh talks to David and calmly points out that his water and energy
consumption is not good for the environment, as well as being extremely expensive. David, however, does
not see it that way and replies with, “Whatever. I just pay for room and board. I do not pay for the utilities.
That shouldn’t be my problem.”
This is a common problem among college students living in dorms. Since the bills do not go directly to
students, it is easy for them to lose track of how much they are actually using and assume that water and
energy are unlimited resources. If David actually saw how much water he was using and paid the bill
himself, he might think differently and be inclined to reduce his water and energy consumption. But
because he pays only a flat rate for room and board, he feels it is not his concern and that he can use as
much energy as he likes without a second thought.
Paragraph one: Summarize the text
In 5-7 sentences, objectively describe the different sides/facets of the ethical dilemma.
Paragraph Two: Present an argument about the text.
In 7-9 sentences, present and defend a solution to the ethical dilemma.
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ENGL 1101: (P)reflection Assignment
In-class written reflection
Purpose: This in-class reflection requires you to carefully consider what you would like to gain from this
course; thus, you will identify at least one or two concrete goals and elaborate on how you think you might
best achieve them. In addition, you will list at least one issue that concerns you as a potential obstacle
toward your progress in the class. This might be based on feedback you’ve received in previous classes,
or simply your own awareness of areas in which you struggle.
In articulating your goals and reflecting on concerns, you will be able to engage most effectively with the
course content and assignments. You’ll have a much clearer, personalized “map” to success after
completing this response. Likewise, I’ll be better able to help you reach those goals and address whatever
concerns you might have.
At the end of the semester, you will write a reflection that will act “in conversation” with this one.
Grade Weight: This will be your rst process work grade. Your process work average will make up 25% of
your overall grade in the course.
Task: Write a brief response in the format indicated below. Each paragraph should be roughly 3-5
sentences. You will have the duration of class time to complete the assignment.
Paragraph 1 (Introduction): Write a few sentences that generally describe your perspective on this class.
Some things to consider: What expectations do you have? Did you dread having to take the class, or are
you looking forward to it? Why? (It goes without saying that you should be completely honest here; I will
not be offended!)
Paragraph 2 (Goals): What would you like to accomplish over the course of this semester? List one or
two concrete, specic goals. These might range from the ability to construct a solid thesis statement to
mastering a particular concept that you’ve always wanted to learn. Clarify why you have chosen these
goals: What led you to identify them?
Paragraph 3 (Areas of Concern): What is one aspect of the course that concerns you? In other words,
what do you anticipate might be your greatest challenge? Consider your past experiences in other
courses; they may be general (with respect to self-discipline or study habits) or more specic (problems
you’ve had in previous English or writing courses).
Paragraph 4 (Optional Reflection): What past activities have helped you succeed in other classes?
These can be anything from specic assignments to types of texts to individual tasks (peer review, self-
reflection, one-on-one conferences, etc.). Is there a particular teaching moment or classroom experience
that stands out in your memory as having had a signicant impact on you?
NOTE: While you should take this assignment seriously, bear in mind that an in-class writing certainly will
not be perfect, nor do I expect it to be. Likewise, there are no “right” answers; the way to approach this is
through offering honest, specic responses with clear explanation and context.
Grading rubric:
A-level (exceptional) responses 1) address all four paragraph prompts 2) identify 1-2 concrete goals and 1
area of concern 3) provide thorough, thoughtful reflections clarifying goals and issues for concern 4)
adhere to general guidelines (3-5 sentences per paragraph; responses remain on topic)
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B-level responses 1) address the rst three paragraph prompts 2) identify 1-2 concrete goals and 1 area
of concern 3) provide thoughtful reflections 3) meet suggested paragraph guidelines (with each paragraph
containing at least 3-4 sentences)
C-level responses 1) address the rst three paragraph prompts 2) provide at least one general goal and
one issue of concern 3) offer at least some clarication for each goal and concern
D-level responses do not adequately respond to the assignment requirements in that they are either 1) too
general, with no clear answers or 2) do not provide sufcient reflection.
Plagiarism, Academic Dishonesty & Excessive
Collaboration
The University College denes plagiarism as taking personal credit for the
words and ideas of others as they are presented in electronic, print, and verbal
sources. The College expects that students will accurately credit sources in all
assignments. An equally dishonest practice is fabricating sources or facts; it is
another form of misrepresenting the truth.
Plagiarism is grounds for failing the course; thus, any student turning in
plagiarized material—intentionally or otherwise—will receive an F for project
and possibly the course. Please note that your papers will be submitted to
Turnitin.com.
Excessive Collaboration: Students should demonstrate the ability to produce independent
writing (writing without collaborative assistance of peers, writing tutors, friends, family members, or other
professionals in the eld) that shows a level of competency. Although online activities highlight
collaborative learning and collaborative research, excessive collaboration (collaboration that results in the
loss of a student’s voice/style and original claims to course-related work, etc.) is considered another form
of academic dishonesty. Therefore, any assignment constructed in this manner will receive a grade of
“F.”
Further, handing in such material may be grounds for failing the course.
Recycled Papers/Work: Work completed for another class will not be accepted for fullling the
requirements of this course; in other words, turning in these papers written for other professors is not
permitted. These projects will receive an automatic “F.”
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A Few Words about Generative AI (e.g. ChatGPT)
Because AI interferes with the learning process, inhibits creativity, and undermines authenticity, the
following is the AI policy for this class:
• Since writing, analytical, and critical-thinking skills are part of the learning outcomes of this
course, all writing assignments should be created by and original to each student. Developing
strong competencies in this area will prepare you for the competitive workforce. Therefore, AI-
generated submissions (using ChatGPT or any other source) will not be permitted and will be
treated as plagiarism.
• Bear in mind that generative AI makes up facts, including false citations; that code generators
can be inaccurate; and that image generators can copy original works or produce offensive
products. Therefore, you will be responsible for any inaccurate, biased, offensive, or otherwise
unethical content you submit, regardless of whether it originally comes from you or an AI tool.
• Appropriate use of AI when writing essays or discussion board entries
• You are free to use spell check, grammar check, and synonym identication tools (e.g.,
Grammarly's grammar function only, and MS Word)
• Inappropriate use of AI when writing essays or discussion board entries
• You may not use entire sentences or paragraphs suggested by an app.
• You may not include a brief phrase suggested by AI, however, without providing quotation
marks and a citation, just as you would to any other source. Citations should take this form:
OpenAI, chatGPT. Response to prompt: “Explain what is meant by the term ‘Triple Bottom
Line’” (February 15, 2023, https://chat.openai.com/).
• You may not have an app write a draft (either rough or nal) of an assignment for you
Inappropriate AI use will be grounds for submission of an Academic Integrity report. Sanctions will range
from a zero for the assignment to an F for the course. Therefore, let’s spend this semester together
working on competencies that will make you a success in college, in your future career.
Plagiarism & AI Policies
At West Georgia, students are expected to achieve and maintain the highest standards of academic
honesty and excellence. Not only does academic honesty preserve the integrity of both the student and
the institution, but it is also essential in gaining a true education. The West Georgia student, therefore,
pledges not to lie, cheat, plagiarize, or steal in the pursuit of his or her studies and is encouraged to report
those who do. See the UWG Student Handbook, Appendix E, Procedure for Appeals of Grade
Determination and Academic Dishonesty.
WHAT IS PLAGIARISM?
The simplied denition for plagiarism is the copying and borrowing of another's original ideas and/or
words. Plagiarism occurs with the inclusion of material not explicitly cited as well as with collaborative
work from another student willfully or otherwise.
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Penalties for Plagiarism
Each incidence of plagiarism is subject to review and consideration by the instructor, and is subject to a
range of penalties including but not limited to failing the assignment, failing the course, and referral to the
disciplinary review board (which may ultimately result in the expulsion, suspension, or disciplinary removal
of the student from the university).
University College’s Commitment to Student Success
Unique in both its structure and purpose, University College empowers every UWG student to make
meaningful academic choices and equip them to navigate the complexities of life, solve local and global
challenges, and BECOME who they dream of being. Our faculty, staff, and community partners
collaborate with students to help them answer what they want to do and who they want to be.
As part of University College’s commitment to your success, every student has a team of faculty, staff, and
other students who will mentor them on their journey. For example, if a faculty notices that a student has
difculty in the early days of the semester, that professor will reach out to the student and to the student’s
success team with a process called “course alerts.” In addition, the student will receive an email inviting
them to meet with their professor, contact the Department of Student Success for a check-in appointment,
and get in touch with other members of their success team.
In addition to faculty and professional staff, your mentor team will include trained and certied successful
students (your peers) to work with you one-on-one. This service is free! These peers can work with you as
a tutor in a course in which you have difculty or give you the inside track on what it takes to be a
successful student. You can even drop into several face-to-face or virtual tutoring and coaching locations.
To make an appointment, call 678-839-6280 or visit the UWG Writing Center website.
Helpful Links
How to Structure a MEAL paragraph - YouTube
The Owl at Purdue
The Cornell Note-Taking System
Dr. Chew’s Video Series on Metacognition
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Acknowledgements
I would like to thank UWG’s First-Year Writing faculty for offering input and support for this toolkit. Our
hope is that you all will nd this little handbook a ready resource for you, for your students as you continue
the rewarding work of teaching rst-year writing. My thanks also extend to the Ofce of Research and
Sponsored Projects; their advice and guidance have proven a steady source of encouragement. Our team
deserves kudos and immense gratitude for their commitment to this project: Although each team member
worked on every aspect of this toolkit, Melissa Jackson’s artistic and formatting skills, Bonnie Jett’s keen
eye for detail and perceptive lens for appropriate content, and Mandi Campbell’s sound counsel in all
things accessibility and otherwise made the journey of culling, creating, and compiling material a sheer
delight. Thanks also to the folks at Affordable Learning Georgia for catching our vison of this project and
awarding a grant to see it through. And of course, my heartfelt gratitude and affection go out to our
student artist, Rayne Kolsrud, without whom this toolkit would not carry the student voice and charming
aesthetic it does! Rayne’s lovely and whimsical artwork graces not only the cover of this toolkit but also
peppers many of the pages throughout. What a team!
~ Crystal Shelnutt
Thank you to Arthur B. Walden for writing and revising dozens of AI prompts to generate the black-and-
white line drawings featured in the Academic Writing and Grammar sections. Most importantly, thank you
to Crystal Shelnutt for her vision and leadership during this process.
~ Melissa Jackson
I would like to extend my gratitude to the First-Year Writing faculty. You are excellent teachers and
amazing human beings, and it’s an honor to teach alongside you.
~ Bonnie Jett
